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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
EFFECTS OF LOGGING ON STREAKWATER QUALITY AND SOLUTE INPUT-OUTPUT BUDGETS IN SMALL WATERSHEDS
IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
ZULKIFLI YUSOP
FSAS 1990 5
EFFECTS OF LOGGING ON STREAKWATER QUALITY AND SOLUTE INPUT-OUTPUT BUDGETS IN SMALL WATERSHEDS
IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
By
ZULKIFLI YUSOP
Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
in the Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
December 19 90
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It gives me much pleasure to acknowledge and thank many
individu a l s and i nst itut ions for the ir s ig n i f i c ant
contributions during the entire course of this study .
1 wou ld l ike to express my s incerest thanks t o my
8upervisor , Dr Anhar Suki, for his original ideas , helpful
advice , guidance and stimulating diacussions . I am particularly
happy with and appreciate his approachable manner which made
this exercise a pleasant one . Similar appreciation is extended
to my co-supervisor , Hohd Fauzi Zakaria, for his constructive
comments on water chemistry.
Thanks are due to the Forest Research Institute Malaysia
( FRIM )
course
for giving me the opportunity to undertake
on a part-time baEli.s . The continuous interest
this
and
concern of the Director General of FRIM, Dato ' Dr Salleh Mohd
Nor , ia highly appreciated . Utmost thanks are extended to Dr
Abdul Rahim Hj Nik, my project leader at FRIM, for his
dedication and unstinting help; also for providing runoff and
rainfall data, without which my analyses of solute losses and
solute input-output budgets would not have been possible. I am
indebted to my colleagues, Baharuddin and Zainuddin for their
cooperation . The three-dimensional view and topographic map of
the study area were skillfully prepared by Saifuddin who
deserves my cordial thanks . My heartfelt acknowledgment
ia conveyed to Azman Haasan, a former assistant hydrologist ,
ii
for checking the English in a signif icant portion of the draft
manuscript . My s incerest thank goes to Dr Zelina Zaiton Ibrahim
for proof reading the whole manuscript .
Field and laboratory work were a.sisted by the re.earch
staff and foresters of the Hydrology Section , FRIM . They are
Mohd Sahat , Raj endran, Hashim, Ahmad Sahar, Alisbana , Renj er
Mohd Nor , Ibrahim, Yusaini, Nazri and Asna. Their earnestness
and hardwork were the decisive factors in making this study a
reality .
Many thanks are extended to the Chemistry Department ,
Petal ing Jaya , for the chemical analyses ; the Government of
New Z e a l and , for prov id ing f i nanc i a l a id in the initial
setting-up of the experimental catchment ; and the Forestry
Department for giving support and cooperation . I am also
grateful to lecturers and colleagues at Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia, Dr Na8iman, Dr Mohd Awang , Dr I8mail Yaziz , Dr
Ramdzani , En Mohd Kamil and Azman for their concern and for
sharing nice jokes .
Last but not least , heartfelt appreciation is due to my
dear w i f e , Fadhi l a h , tor her under standing , constant
encouragement and sacrifices ; and to my children, Zulfadli and
Zhafri for being an everlasting source of in.pirat ion . To my
parents , brothers and sisters , I wish them every success in
this world and hereafter under the guidance and in the path of
Allah s .w . t . Wassalam .
iii
TABLB OF CO�S
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
LIST OF FIGURES · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
LIST or PLATES · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
ABSTRACT · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
ABSTRAK · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Obj ectives · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I I REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5
The Catchment aa a Planning Unit 5
History of Catchment Study in Malaysia 6
Impact of Man ' s Activities in Forested Catchments . 8
Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Sediment Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sediment Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sediment/Pol lutant Sources and Mechanisms of Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Physical Streamwater Quality 19
Chemical Quality and Hydrologic Nutrient Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4
iv
I I I
Page
Non-Hydrologic Nutrient Losses 33
Summary · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Intra8Y8tem Proce8ses Affecting Water Chemistry and Nutrient Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6
Hydrological Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Litterfall • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 42
S UInlDary • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 44
Rainfall Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Rainfall Acidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Sources of Rainfall Constituents 46
Maj or Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 47
Sulphate 48
Nitrogen 49
Phosphorous 50
Summary 5 1
Water Resource Management 5 1
Inst itutions 5 1
Legislation 53
Logging Guidelines 5 5
Summary 58
SITE DESCRIPTION 59
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Geology and Soil 64
Vegetation · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 66
Climate · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
v
IV
V
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Samplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laboratory Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Treatment of the catchments
Source and Treatment of Data
Statistical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Sample Test
Regression on Dummy Variable
EFFECTS ON STREAMWATER QUALITY MATERIAL EXPORTS
AND
Temporal Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific Electrical Conductivity
Colour
Turbidity
Suspended Solids
Dissolved Solids
Alkalinity
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calcium and Magnesium
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Potassium
Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ammoniacal-N and Nitrate-N
vi
Page
69
69
7 1
' 7 2
7 4
79
79
79
80
85
94
94
102
105
109
115
12 1
123
125
127
129
133
137
138
VI
Page
sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Chloride and Fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Comparison with Water Quality Criteria and Standards • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • . • 149
Regression Analysis for Detecting Changes in water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Variation with Discharge 163
Correlation between Parameters 170
Specific Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
S . E . C . and Major Ions 170
S . E . C . and Dissolved Solids 177
Total Hardness 178
Su spended Solids and Turbidity 181
Material Exports 183
Suspended Solids 183
Solutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Prediction of Solute Losses on Monthly Runoffs . . 208
Ionic Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 14
RAINFALL CHEMISTRY 2 17
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 17
Major Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 1
Nitrogen and Phosphorus 2 2 6
Relationships between Solute Concentrations and Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Relationships between Solute Loads and Rainfal l . . 228
vii
VII
VIn
SOLUTB BUDGBTS ANALYSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulphate and Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
SWM\ary
Conclusions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Future Research Considerations
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VITA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
Page
233
233
235
243
244
245
245
252
253
255
306
Table
1
2
3
LIS!r OF !rABLES
Mean of Stream Sediment Concentrations in Und isturbed and Part i a l ly D i sturbed Catchments in Peninsular Malaysia • • • • • • . . . .
Sediment Yields from Forested and Disturbed Catchments in Peninsular Malaysia • . • • • . .
Erosion Rates and Skid-Trails in Indonesia
Runoffs on
4 Effects of Control Timber Harvesting on Stream Turbidities at Fernow Experimental
5
6
7
8
9
Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rat es o f N03- Lo s s e s Re su lt ing from
Clearcutting and other Destruct ive D iaturbance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effects of Forest Conversion on Streamwater Qual ity at the Sungai Tekam Experimental Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Annual Chemical Influxes ( kg/ha ) via Rainf a l l , Through f a l l and Stemf low in Tropical Rainforest Sites
Total Litterfall and Nutrient Returns in Tropical Forest Sites • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .
Water Resources-Related Enactments in Malaysia
Legislations and
10 Phys i ca l Characte r i st ics of the Three Catchments at the Berembun Experimental Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 Chemical contents at A-Horizon of Soil at the Berembun Experimental Watershed
12 Methods and Equipment Used for Laboratory
Page
11
14
17
22
30
32
41
43
S4
64
6S
Analyssa • • • • . . • • • . • • • • • • • . . • • • • • • . • • • • . • . . . . 73
13
14
Logging Prescriptions in the Supervised and Unsupervised Catchments at the BEW • • • • • • • • •
The Overall Mean Monthly Streamwater Quality during Calibration , Transition and Recovery Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ix
78
86
Table
15
16
17
18
The Baseflow Mean Monthly Streamwater Qual ity during Calibration , Transition and Recovery Periods • . • . . . . . . . • . • . . . • . . . . . . . .
The Stormflow Mean Monthly Streamwater Quality during Cal ibrat ion , Transition and Recovery Periods . • • . . . . . • . • . • • • • • • • . . . . . .
Summary of the Two Sampl e Test for Detecting Changes in the Monthly Means of Streamwater Quality Parameters • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Two Sample Test for Detecting Differences between the Ba.ef low Month l y Means and Stormtlow Monthly Means • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
19 Regression Analysis on Dummy Variables for Testing Logging Effects on Streamwater
Page
88
90
92
99
Quality . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 1
2 0 Regression Analysis o f Streamwater Concentrations/Values against Instantaneous
2 1
Discharge ( l/s ) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • . • 165
Corre lat ion P arameters Calibration
Analys i s for in Cat c hment
Streamwater One du ring
Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
22 Correlation Analys i s for Streamwater
2 3
24
2 5
2 6
2 7
Parameters in Catchment Two during Calibration Period • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • 174
Corre lation Analys i s for Streamwater Parameters in Catchment Three during Calibration Period • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . .
Correlation between Suspended Solids (mgtl ) and Turbidity ( NTU) for Prelogging and Post logging Periods • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Annual Exports of Solutes ( kg/ha ) from the Three Catchments • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .
Regression Analysis Using Dummy Variable for Detecting the Effects of Logging on Monthly Solute Loads • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . .
Summaries of Regression Analysis between Solute Loads ( kg/ha/mth ) and Runoffs (mm) during Pre logging and Post logging Periods
x
175
182
202
203
2 10
Table
2 8
29
30
3 1
32
33
34
35
3 6
37
38
39
40
41
42
Ionic Composition of the Streamwater ( maq/ l ) during Calibration , Tran.ition and Recovery Periods • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Rainfal l Chemi stry at t he Berembun Experimental Watershed • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Corre l at ion Analys i s for Ra in f a l l Component s a t t he Berembun Experiment al Water.hed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .
I on i c Compos i t ion of Ra i n f a l l at the Berambun Bxperimental Watershed • • • • • • • • • • •
Regression Analysis of Evently Solute Loads ( kg/ha ) on Rainfall Depths (mm) . . . . . .
Regression Analysis of Monthly Solute Loads ( kg/ha/mth ) against Rainfall Depths ( mm )
Annual Atmospheric Some Tropical Areas
Nutrient ( kg/ha )
Loadings of
Solute Input-Output Budgets ( kg/ha/yr ) at the Berembun Experimental Watershed • • • • • • .
Solutes I nput-Output Budget s for Some Tropical and Temperate Catchments • • • • • . • • . •
An Example of Data Arrangement for Performing Regression on Dummy Variables
Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water
Regression on Dummy Variables for Detecting Changes in N03-N Concentrations ( mg/ l ) in Cl . . • . . . • . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .
Regres.ion on Dummy Variables tor Detecting Change. in ( Log ot) Pe Concentrations (mg/ l ) in Cl . • . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .
Regression on Dummy Variables for Detecting Changes in Potassium Concentrations ( mg/ l ) in Cl . . • • • • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • • . . . . . . .
Regression on Dummy Variables for Detecting Changes in Potassium Concentrations (mg/ l ) i n C3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
xi
Page
2 1 5
2 1 8
222
223
230
231
232
236
237
283
284
285
286
287
288
Table
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
Regress ion Fitting Results for Log ( S . E . C . ) against Ions in Cl . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regress ion Fitting Results for Log ( S . E . C . ) against Ions in C2 • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . .
Regression Fitting Results for Log ( S . E . C . ) against Iona in C3 • . . . • . . • • • • • . . . . . . . . . •
Model Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL ) against Hydro logical Var i ab l e s for Cl during Calibrat ion Period • • • • . • • . • • • • • .
Kodel Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SLI against Hydro logical Var iab l e s for Cl during Transition Period • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . •
Model Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL ) against Hydro logical Vari ab l e s for C l during Recovery Period • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • •
Kodel Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL ) against Hydro logical Variabl e s for C2 during Calibration Period • • • • • • • • • • • • . . •
Model Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL) against Hydro logical Variab l e s for C2 during Transition Period • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Model Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL ) against Hydro logica l Variab l e s for C2 during Recovery Period • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Kodel Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL ) aga inst Hydro log ical Var iab l e s for C3 during Cal ibration Period . • • . • • • • • • • . • • . •
Kodel Fitting Results of s . s . Losses ( SL) against Hydro logical Var i ab le s for C3 during Transition Period • • • • • • . • • . . . •
Kodel Fitting Results of S . S . Losses ( SL ) again st Hydro logical Var iab l e s for C3 during Recovery Period . • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • .
Regres sion on Dummy Variables for Detecting Changes in N03-N Loads from Cl • • • • • • • • • . •
xii
Page
289
289
290
291
291
292
292
293
293
294
294
295
296
Table
56
57
58
Chow Test for Detecting D i f ferences in Regre.sion Lines for Pre logging and Postlogging Periods ; Monthly Potassium Losses vs . Monthly Runoffs in C2 • • . • . • • . . • .
Chow Test Regression P08tlogging Losses vs .
for Detecting D i f ferences in Lines for Pre logging and
Periods ; Monthly Potassium Monthly Runoffs in C3 • • • • • . • • • .
Conversion Factors from Molar Miliequilibrium ( meq/ l ) units
( mg/ l ) to
xiii
Page
297
299
30 1
Figure
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
LIST OF FIGURES
An Ecosystem Model Showing Nutrient Flux and Biogeochemical Processes • • • • • • • • . • • •
Locat ion o f t he Study S it e and its Surrounding Landuse Patterns • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Layout o f Watershed
the Berembu n Experiment al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Three-Dimensional View of the Berembun Experimental Watershed • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • •
Topographic Map of Experimental Watershed
the Berembun
Monthly Rainfall Pattern at the Berembun Experimental Watershed, July 1980 to June 1988 . . . . • . • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . .
Overall Monthly Means Variation of pH in Cl , C2 and C3 . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
Relationships between the Monthly Overall Means of pH , Conductivity and Rainfall in C1 during Cal ibration Period • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Frequency D istr ibut ion Curve s for I nstant aneou s Va lues of pH in C1 , C2 and C3 • • . • • • • • • • . . • • • • . • • . • • . • • • . • . . . • .
Basef low Month ly Means Variat ion of Conductivity in C1, C2 and C3 • • • • • • . . • • • . .
Frequency D i str ibut ion Curve s for I nstant aneous Values of Conduct ivity in el, C2 and C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . .
Overall Monthly Means Variation of Colour in C1 , C2 and C3 . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . . . . .
Frequency D i stribut ion Curves for Instantaneous Values of Colour in C1 I C2 and C3 • . . . • . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . • . . • • . . . . . . . .
Overa l l Monthly Means Turbidity in C1 , C2 and C3
xiv
Var iation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
3 7
6 0
61
62
63
67
96
97
101
103
104
107
108
111
Fiqure
1 5 Relationships between Monthly OVerall Mean o f Suspended Sol ids , Turb idity and Rainfall Depth in C1 during Calibration
Page
Period • • . . • • . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . • . . . . 112
16 Frequency D istribut ion Curve s for Instantaneous Values of Turbidity in C1 , C2
17
18
19
20
2 1
2 2
2 3
and C3 • . • • • • • • . . • . • • . • • • . . . . • • • • . • . . . . . . . . . . 113
Basef low and Stormflow Mont hly Means Variation of Turbidity in C1 • • • • • • • • • • . • . •
Overa l l Mont hly Mean Concentrat ions o f Suspended Solids i n Cl , C2 and C 3 • • • • • • • • •
Frequency D istr ibut ion Curve s for Instantaneous Values of Suspended Solids Concentrations in C1 , C2 and C3 • • • • • • • •
Basef l ow and Stormf low Mont hly Mean Concentrations of Suspended Solids in C1
Overal l Monthly Mean Concentrat ions o f Dissolved Solids in C1 , C2 and C3 • • • • • • . •
Overal l Monthly Mean of Alkalinity Levels in Cl , C2 and C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overall Monthly Mean of Hardness Levels in Cl , C2 and C3 • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . . . • . . . . . . . . .
114
l l7
118
119
122
124
126
24 Relationships between the Overal l Monthly Mean Concentrations of Calcium, Magnesium and Hardnes s in C1 during Cal ibration
2 5
2 6
2 7
28
Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Overall Monthly Mean Concentrations of Iron in Cl , C2 and C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequancy D istribut ion Curve s for Instantaneous Value of Iron Concentrations in Cl , C2 and C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B as a f low and Stormf low Mont hly Mean Concentrations of Iron in C1 • • • • • • • • • • • • . . .
Basef low Monthly Mean Concentrat ions o f Potassium i n Cl , C2 and C 3 • • • • . . • • . • . .
xv
130
131
132
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Figure
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3 0
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Frequency D i .tribut ion Curves f or I n.tant aneou. Value of Pot a s s i um Concentrations in Cl , C2 and C3 • • • • • • • •
Overa l l Month ly Mean Concent rat ions of Nitrate-N i n Cl , C2 and C3 • • • • • • • • • • • . • • . . •
Overa l l Monthly Mean Concent rat ions of Sulphate i n Cl , C2 and C3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
3 2 Inverse Relationship between Sulphate and pH Mont hly Mean Va lues , and Re latively Constant in Iron Concentration to Explain t he Oxi dat ion o f Pyrite during Drought
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Period . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
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3 4
3 5
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Overa l l Monthly Mean Concent rat ions of Silicate i n Cl , C2 and C3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
OVerall Monthly Mean Chloride in Cl , C2 and
Concentrations of C3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Regression Lines of Overall Monthly Mean Concentrations of Nitrate-N ; Cl against C2 • . .
Regression Lines of Overall Monthly Mean Concentrations of Nitrate-N ; C3 against C2 . . .
Regression Lines of Overall Monthly Mean Concentrat ion of Potassium; Cl against C2 . . •
Regress ion Lines of Overall Monthly Mean Concentration of Potassium; C3 against C2 . • .
Regression Lines of Overal l Monthly Mean Concentration of Sil icate ; Cl against C2 • . .
Regression Lines of Overal l Monthly Mean Concentration of Ironl Cl against C2 • . •
Relat ionships between pH , Conductivity and Turbidity Valu •• ) against Di.charge
A l ka l init y , ( Instantaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 Relationships between Sodium, Calcium, Iron and Chloride ( Instantaneous Values) against
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Di8charg8 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 168
43 Correlation between Hardness and Sum of Calcium and Magnes ium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
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Figure
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45
D i f ference. in Mont hly Suspended So l ids Export. between C1 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • •
D i f ference. in Mont hly Suspended So l id . Export. between C3 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • .
46 Differences in Monthly Potassium Exports
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between C1 and C2 • . • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • . • • . • • . . • 191
41 D ifferencea in Monthly Potassium Exports between C3 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • . . • 191
48 D i f ferences in Mont h l y Calc ium Export s between C l and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 192
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59
D i f ferencea in Mont hly Cal c ium Export s between C3 and C2 • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D i f ference. in Mont hly Sod ium Export s between Cl and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • . . • . . . .
D i f ferences in Monthly Sod ium Exports between C3 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • •
Differences in Monthly Magnesium Exports between Cl and C2 . . • . • . • . . . . • • . . • • . • • . . • . . .
Differences in Monthly Magnesium Exports between C3 and C2 • • • . . • • • • . • • • • • • . • • • . . • . . •
D i f ferences in Month l y S i l icat e Exports between Cl and C2 . . • • . . . • • . . . . . . • . • • . . . . . .
D i f ferences in Mont hly S i l ic ate Exports between C3 and C2 . . . • . . . . . . . . . • • • • . . . . . . . .
Differences in Monthly Iron Exports between Cl and C2 • . . . • • . • . . . • • • . • • • . • • . • • • . • • . . .
Differences in Monthly Iron Exports between C3 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • • . • .
D i f ferencea in Mont h l y Chlor ide Expor t s between C 1 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • •
D i f ferences in Mont h l y Chlor ide Export s between C3 and C2 • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • .
xvii
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Figure
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6 1
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Differences in Monthly Nitrate-N Exports between Cl and C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . . . . • • . . . .
Differences in Monthly Nitrate-N Exports between C3 and C2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • . •
Dif ferences in Monthly Ammoniacal-N Exports between C1 and C2 • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • . . .
Dif ferences in Monthly Ammoniacal-N Exports between C3 and C2 . • • • • • • • . • • • • . • . • • . . • . • • . .
Dif ferences in Monthly Phosphate Exports between Cl and C2 . • • • . . • • . . • • • • • • • • • • . . • • . .
Dif ferences in Monthly Phosphate Exports between C3 and C2 . . . . . . . . . • • . • • • . . • • • . . • . . .
Regression Lines of Monthly Nitrate-N Exports ; C1 against C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regression Lines of Monthly Nitrate-N Exports ; C3 against C2 · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regr ••• ion Lin •• of Monthly Potaaaium Export. ; C1 against C2 · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regression Lin •• of Monthly Potassium Exports ; C3 against C2 · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regre s s ion Lines o f Month l y Pot as s ium Exports against Monthly Runoffs in C2 for Prelogging and Post logging Periods • • • • • • . •
Regre s s ion L i ne s of Mont h ly Pot a s s ium Exports against Monthly Runoffs in C3 for Pre logging and Post logging Periods • • • • • • • •
Monthly Mean Concentrations of Sulphate, Calcium and Magnesium in Rainwater • • • • • • • •
Monthly Me an Concentrations o f Sod ium , Chloride and Potassium in Rainwater • • • • • • . •
Monthly Mean Concentrations of AmmoniacalN, Nitrate-N and Total-N in Rainwater • • • • •
Monthly Mean Concentrat ions of Phosphate in Rainwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Figure
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Normal Probability Plot of ( Log of ) S . E . C . Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Residual Plot of ( Log of ) S . E . C . on the Predicted ValuBs • . . • • . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . .
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Page
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Plate
1
LIST OF PLATES
Page
V-Notch We ir and Steven-F Water Level Recorder for Measuring Streamflow Volume • • . • 70
2 Cross-drain Instal led at 450 - 600 along L099 inq Road • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7 5
3 Hollow Log Installed in Stream to Minimise
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Damage • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 76
Extraction of Log Using Crawler Tractor on Skid-trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Winch Lorry or "San Tai Wong" Used to Carry Logs to a Log-yard • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Typical Regeneration of Pioneer Species on Skid-trai l , One and a Half Years after L099 ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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LIST or ABBREVIATIONS
pH in pH unit.
S . E . C . - spec i f ic e lectrical condu c t ivity ; u S / cm (micro-Siemen per centimeter at 2 SoC )
Turb . Turbidity; N . T . U . ( nephelometric turbidity units )
Colour - True colour, Hazen
S . S . Suspended solids , mg/ l
D . S . Dissolved solids , mg/ l
Alka . Total alkalinity ; mg/ l as caco3
Hard. Total hardness ; mg/ l as Caco3
ca2+ Calcium; mg/ l
Mg2+ Magnesium; mg/ l
Fe Iron; mg/ l
K+ Potassium; mg/ l
NH3-N Ammoniacal-nitrogen ; mg/ l
N03-N Nitrate-nitrogen; mg/ l
S042 - Sulphate ; mg/ l
po42- Phosphate; mg/ l
S i02 Silicate ; mg/ l
Cl- Chloride ; mg/l
F- Flouride ; mg/ l
m. a . s . l . meter above sea level
r Coefficient of correlation
r2 coefficient of determination
R2 Coef ficient of mu lt iple determination
R2adj Adj usted coefficient of mu ltiple determination
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S . D . Standard deviation
S . E . Standard error o f estimate
D . W . Durbin Watson statistic
N No of sample or correlation
SSR Sum of square due to regression
MSE Mean square error
Sg . Sungai , a Malay word meaning river
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Abetract of the theeie eubalitted to the Senate of Universiti Pertanian Malayeia in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Kaeter of Science .
racultJ'
BmCTa or LOGGING ON STREAMWADR QUALIft AIID SOLUTB INPUT-OUTPUT BUDGETS
III IKALL WADllSBBDS III PBIIIHSUL&R MALAYSIA
by
IULJtIrLI YUSOP
July 1990
, Dr. Anhar Suki
, Science and Environmental Studies
The ef fecte of eelective logging on streamwater quality
and eo lute budget s were invest igated u s i ng t hree sma l l
catchmente : Cl , C2 and C3 . After a three-year cal ibration
per iod , C l and C3 were logged us ing " un supervi s ed " and
" supervised " logging methods respectively, whereas C2 was left
as control . Several control measures were imposed in the
supervieed C3 but none in the uneupervised Cl .
During the cal ibration period the levels for most of the
streamwater qua l ity paramet ers measured were within t he
standards for potable water . The exceptions were colour,
turbidity and iron. Significant increases in pH , specific
e lectrical conductivity , hardne s s , su spended sol ids ,
alkalinity, turbidity, diBsolved solids, silicate , calcium,
iron, and eodium were recorded in the unsupervised Cl . The
levels for colour and nitrate were also elevated initially but
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recovered to background values within a year . In contrast , in
the supervised e3 , signif icant changes were detected only for
hardness , magnes ium and iron. The impact of logging was
enhanced during the wet months especially for suspended solids ,
turbidity and iron .
Export of suspended solids during the cal ibration period
ranged from 0 . 08 to 0 . 24 mt/ha/yr . These levels increased
twenty-fold for Cl and two- fold for C3 during the first year
after logging . The monthly losses of most solutes also
increased significantly for both Cl and C3 but the magnitude
of loss was much greater for the former . The losses of calcium ,
potassium and magnesium showed a tendency to increase over time
whereas the increases in nitrate losses were short-l ived .
Rainfall samples contained low levels of anthropogenic
pol lutants and were affected more by terrestrial sources . The
inputs of nutrients from rainfall constituted , on the average :
64\ , 5 5 \ , 40\ and 2 5 \ of the outputs of potassium, calcium ,
sodium and magnesium respectively. However , the inputs o f
calc ium and magnes ium were calculated based o n data of a
previous study conducted at a nearby site , Pasoh .
The results of the study show that proper control measures
substantially reduce the effects of logging on streamwater
quality and solutes losses . Further detail studies may provide
better indications on the effectiveness of specific control
measure .
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