1. Introduction on background

Ethiopia is one of the countries with the lowest sanitation coverage, communities lack of

awareness concerning the linkages between sanitation and health, and the prevalence of

other pressing need, are amongst the main reasons that attributed to low coverage figure.

Sanitation and hygienic practices are the requirements for overall reductions in morbidity

and mortality rates, especially among children 50% of diarrhea reduction can be achieved

with the use of latrine, 15% with the use off clean water, 35% with proper sanitation and

32% with the practices of hand washing under five-child mortality rate in Ethiopia is

reported 117/1000 of which 20% of the death is caused by diarrhea.

The government set and exercise different programs and strategies by appropriate

intervention measures to over come sanitation problems. Among those. MDG and

PASDEP are the main and important issues for the sanitation sector.

At the United Nations millennium summit in September 2000 heads of state of 191

countries adopted the millennium declaration. The declaration was further elaborated and

eight millennium development goals/MDGS/ and 18 target were elected as a set of

quantifiable and time bound goals and target to dramatically improve the human

condition by 2015. Among these goals is the millennium development goal 7 ensure

environmental sustainability with three of its specific targets.

Target 9 integrates the principles of sustainable development policies and

programs reverse lose of environmental resources.

Target 10 cut in half by 2015 the proportions of people with out sustainable

access to safe drinking water

Target 11 achieve significant improvement in the live of at least 100 million slum

dwellers by 2020

Since water and sanitation are inextricably linked to the eradication of poverty and to the

achievement of sustainable development. The millennium target itself as modified lates

during the world summit on sustainable development with the addition of specific

reference to basic sanitation.

With respect to sanitation PASDEP will see a major program to promote and support the

use of latrines including through the health extension coverage from 17.5% to 79.8% and

urban sanitation coverage from 50% to 89.4% of the population.

Inherent to other regions of Ethiopia the environmental sanitation conditions of Dire

Dawa is not satisfactory the over all sanitation coverage is 79% the problems of

environmental sanitation is cholera intestinal parasite, malaria etc--- lack of sanitation

facilities also packed by over crowding increasing population and unemployment. The

increase of slummy areas and street children in the town.

The integrated development plan /IDP/ preparation was launched in 1997 and officially

endorsed in 1998 during the IDP preparation time the sanitation sections plan were

prepared and integrated. However during that time PASDEP was not prepared and can’t

integrate with IDP.

The implementation of IDP elapsed two and a half year now a day the administration

decide to evaluate and review the plan in line with MDGS and PASDEP and finally to

develop the regional PASDEP document. Therefore the main analysis of environmental

issues to meet MDGS goals and PASDEP document under taken here.

2. Objective

The objectives of the analysis are

The broad objective of the analysis is to put the regional IDP on the

MDGs and PASDEP planning path.

To adjust the time frame of IDP in line with national PASDEP /2005/06-

2009/10)

3. Scope of analysis

The scope of analysis

The analysis mainly focus on environmental issues including sanitation

Assessing the regional environmental status current situation and

reviewing of MDGS and PASDEP documents in order to integrate and develop

the regional PASDEP.

4. Strategy of analysis

The strategy adopted include

Expert discussion

Consultation with responsible bodies, staffs key partners and stakeholders

Review of available documents including

- Sanitation and hygiene issue paper

- Millennium development goal for water and sanitation

- Sanitation millennium development goal assessment

- Dire Dawa regional IDP /analysis doucment/

- Dire Dawa EPA study document and reports

- Dire Dawa sanitation and beatification study documents and

reports

- A plan for accelerated and sustained development to end

poverty/PASDEP/ document.

5. Location and Access The Dire Dawa Provisional Administration (DDPA) is located at the eastern part of

Ethiopia approximately between 9027' and 9049' North latitudes and longitudes 41038' and

42019' East, particularly at the margin of the Rift valley. The capital of the

Administration /study area/ is accessible by airplane, train, and cars, and is about 520

kms road distance from Addis Ababa. A network of dry weather roads crosses various

parts of the DDPA, making most parts of it accessible by four-wheel drive vehicles. Most

of the roads are crossing the wide riverbeds and are used only in dry season.

Figure 1. Location Map of Dire Dawa Provisional Administration.

6. Ecology and Natural Resources6.1. Ecology

Ecologically of the region is lying a in desert and semi-desert scrub shrub land ecosystem

bounded by dry ever green mountain forest ecosystem in south and south west, and

Acacia Commiphora Wood Land Ecosystem in the northeast and south part of the region

[NBDSAPP, 2004].

The broad agro-climatic category of the regional ecosystem felt in the "Hot semi arid

zone. Thus, because of the climatic stress farmland accounts for only 9% of the total land

area. Whereas the vast regional ecology is believed to be more important for its various

environmental services and products mainly, fuel wood, charcoal, fodder, edible fruit,

and rangeland. Moreover, it is a habitat and corridor for wild life and eco-tourism.

Table1. Ecosystem category of Dire Dawa and surrounding influence areas

No Region /Zone

Ecosystem Category

Area Covered

(Ha)

Importance Species

1 West Hararghe

Montane dry forest

35 000 Juniparus Procera, Podocarpus falcates, Olea european, Cordia africana and others

2 East Hararghe

Montane dry forest

14000 Juniparus procera, Podocarpus falcates, Olea european, Cordia africana ,Hagenia, Erica belts and others.

3 Dire Dawa Semi desert scrub shrub

36365 Acacia, Eupharbia,Aloe,Caraluma,Opuntia,Dracaena,balanites Prosopis , and Ziziphus.spp.

4 Shinila-Jijiga Acacia commiphra wood land and semi desert scrub

- Cordeauxia edulis, Boswellia , commiphora species and others

Source: National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (-----).

6.2 Climate

The study area has a warm dry climate, which is a characteristic of semi-desert climate.

The altitude in the administration varies from 950 ms to 2260m above mean sea level.

Both temperature and precipitation is the function of altitude. Only two meteorological

stations, Dire Dawa and Hurso, are found in the administration. There is other three

nearby meteorological stations (Alemeya, Dengego, and Kulubi) outside the

Administration boundary. The mean annual temperature of the Administration can be

approximated between 16 0c at Dengego and 27 0c at Hurso. Similarly, the smallest mean

annual rainfall also varies from 479mm at Hurso and 1009.2 mm at Kulubi. The

following mean annual rainfall and temperatures computed at Alemaya, Dengego and

kulubi are (813mm, 160c), (775mm, 160c), and (1009.2mm, 15.70c) respectively. The

mean annual temperature and precipitation is about 25.30c and 640mm respectively in the

capital of the Administration, Dire Dawa.

6.3 Physiographic and Drainage system

6.3.1 Physiographic

According WWDSE (2003) the regional physiographic setting of the study area is

categorized in to three major groups:

The Harar plateau,

The escarpment, and

The Afar Depression.

The southern limit of the studied area is located on the northern limit of the Harar

plateau.

The escarpment is composed of a series of tilted blocks most of which dip to the south

and bounded by step like faults. The topographic descent is steep where the primary

Harar plateau fringes were high (ancient basement swell) including the southern part of

Dire Dawa. Towards north, the blocks disappear beneath the young rift alluvium and

volcanic.

The Afar depression is generally flat, northward gently slopping terrain, characterized by

alluvial flats, lacustrine deposits, basaltic lava flows with numerous cinder cones, which

is a characteristic of the northern part of the DDPA area.

When we come to the study area, three distinct geomorphologies have been identified

earlier studies. These are:

The plateau marginal area, which demarcates the southern limit of the region,

has elevations in the range of 2,100-2,300 masl.

The area of the escarpment, stepped margin of the valley depression, extending

from the plateau to the southern limit of Dire Dawa city has elevations in the

range of 2,100-1,200 masl.

The area of the valley depression situated in the vicinity of the city of Dire Dawa

extending to the north, west and eastern limit of the region. This valley depression

lies at a relatively lower elevations of 1,000-1,200 masl. Most of the settlement of

the DDPA is either nearby the foot of the escarpments or within the escarpment in

valley depression areas, where water and fertile soil are available.

6.3.2 Drainage

The study area, DDPA, is located within the Awash River Basin at the foot of Wabi

Shebelle-Awash Rivers' Basins’ divider escarpment. The whole drainage system in the

DDPA is intermittent streams carrying water only after heavy rain events. They are, thus,

dry wadis with sand beds. These wadis are erosive at the southern and southeastern

escarpment having capacity to erode and carry heavy sediment loads including rock

fragments and tree twigs that are discharged/deposited when they reach the flat plain of

the Dire Dawa graben. The Administration is drained by 10 water sheds as shown in the

Figure…below.

Figure 2. Watersheds draining the Administration

Dechato

Kelead

Aboley

Anchel

Yebelo

NDD catchment.shpAboleyAnchelCherecha-KulfgoshaDechatoDegna JebisGobayileKeleadLege Oda GunufetaYebelo

Rivcatchgeo.shpMain river

Dir e Da wa Ca t chment Ma p

5 0 5 10 Miles

6.4 Natural resources

6.4.1 Vegetation

Vegetation development in the study area is mainly governed by physiographic/altitude,

climate, etc besides other factors. Vegetation in the study area is scanty except along the

intermittent streams. The natural vegetation is largely scanty acacia trees and cactus. On

the patchy rock outcrop areas in the town and its surroundings there is very weak

vegetation development since there is no soil development.

The dominant vegetation covers of the region’s ecosystem consists of deciduous shrubs

mostly Acacia species often interspersed with less frequent evergreen shrubs and

succulents such as Euphorbia, Aloe, Caralluma, Opuntia, and Dracaena spp. on rocky out

crops [WBISPP, 2000`]. The low land and flood plains are dominantly covered by

species of Acacia, Azadirachta, Delonix, Ziziphus and Prosopis juliflora. The grass

species are widely distributed in patchy and Plateau land escapes. High mountain areas in

the southern part are covered by the remnants of dry evergreen montanae forest such as,

Juniperous procera, Cordia africana, Cupressus lusitanica and Olea europea.

6.4.2 Wildlife

Though there is little information available on the status of wildlife resources of the

region, the ecosystem is known to be habitat for various wildlife in relatively dense

shrubs and bushy low land areas of the region that includes many game animals such as

unique Antelopes [Beia, Dibatag and Gazelle], Mongoose, Warthogs, Anubis Baboons,

greater and lesser Kudu and predators like Lion, Cheetah, Fox, and Hyenas.

6.4.3 Mineral resources

As described below under the section environmental geology different mineral resources

have been reported from different areas of the Administration. The study is at its

rudimentary level with out detail exploration study. Lead, rare metals and associated

gemstones, construction and industrial minerals of different types are reported from

different sites. Construction and industrial minerals are found in the vicinity of the Dire

Dawa City in large volume. Limestone, sandstone, sand, travertine, basalt, gneiss, diorite,

etc. are found in and around the City.

6.4.4 Water resources

As described above there is no perennial river in the administration, and the intermittent

streams or wadis, which are not gauged so far. The surface runoff potential in the

Administration has been estimated for the entire watersheds as well as for project sites by

WWDSE (2003). Accordingly, the total surface water potential of all the watersheds is

estimated as 211.2 Mm3 per annum. It is important to note that in some of the

watersheds, particularly those on the eastern part of the Administration; most of the

runoff comes from parts of the watersheds, which lie outside the boundary of the Council

in the south.

The Administration is endowed with groundwater resources abstracted mainly from

upper sandstone and Hamanelei limestone aquifers that act as reservoir of the

groundwater of the Administration (major aquifer). The current utilization of this

resource is by far less than the estimated annual recharge. The abstractions from all type

of water schemes (deep and shallow boreholes including dug well, springs) are 18.85

Mm3/year (597.8 l/sec) while existing annual recharge estimated is 38.8 Mm3/year (1233

l/sec).

Concerning the quality of surface water resources there is no adequate data. The existing

water quality investigation conducted to assess/check the adequacy of the quality of the

surface runoff at the proposed irrigation sites by WWDSE (2003) at three locations

corresponding to the three proposed irrigation sites indicated the following results:

The water of Chirecha and Gerba Kenissa Rivers are "low salinity water" and can

be used for almost all crops and almost all kinds of soils, very little salinity may

develop through time, which may require slight leaching, but it is permissible

under normal irrigation practice except in soils of extremely low permeabilities.

The Jeldessa River water exhibited 265 s/cm, which is "Medium Salinity Water”

and can be used for irrigation, if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Normal

salt tolerant plants can be grown without much salinity control.

Since the SAR values in all the river water samples from the three streams are

less than 10, then it can be used for irrigation on almost all soils and for almost all

crops.

The groundwater quality of the Administration is very hard type of water represented by

Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 with hardness value exceeding 180 mg/l; however, this

water type is modified in and around the Dire Dawa city to Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-HCO3-

SO4 in response to poor waste management practices.

6.4.5 Energy resources

There are no existing potential energy resources in the Administration in relation to

hydroelectric power development. There are also limited resources regarding biomass

fuel. No report has been made so far on the existence of fossil fuels in the

Administration. In spite of the potential to develop solar and wind energy in the area

very few attempts has been made regarding these alternative energy sources.

According to WWDSE (2003) from the total energy consumption in 2002 in Dire Dawa,

it is estimated to be about 2924 tera joules (TJ) of which 58 percent comes from biomass

fuels (50 percent woody biomass, 4 percent charcoal and 4 percent agricultural residue),

37 percent from petroleum fuels, and 5 percent from electricity. WWDSE contend that

energy consumption by sector is as follows: households (72 percent), commercial

services (6 percent), industry (8 percent), and transport (14 percent).

Table 2. Energy balance for the Dire Dawa Provincial Administration, TJ (2002) in

(WWDSE, 2003).

SectorWoody

biomassCrop

residueDung Charcoal Kerosene LPG Gasoline Diesel

FuelOil

Electricity Total

Households 1,334.1 111.8 - 115.9 453.0 36.7 51.3 2,102.7Urban 766.6 104.5 - 115.9 453.0 3.8 51.3 1,495.1Rural 567.5 7.2 - - - 32.9 - 607.6

Commercial services 118.8 13.7 4.6 36.1 173.1Industry 14.0 155.4 57.6 227.0

Medium scale 155.4 48.4 203.8Small scale 2.7 9.2 11.8Construction 11.3 0.1 11.4

Transport 244.4 175.8 420.3Passenger 244.4 - 244.4Freight 175.8 175.8

Rural social services & government 0.3 0.9 1.2Water supply 0.3 0.3Health 0.0 0.0Education 0.0 0.0

Government 0.9 0.9

All sectors 1,452.9 111.8 - 129.6 457.5 36.7 244.4 190.1 155.4 145.9 2,924.3

6.4.5.1 Renewable energy sources

I) Solar and wind energy

According WWDSE (2004) solar and wind energy resource potential exist for future

development. This study contends that annual mean solar energy is about 5.4kWh/m2-day

while annual mean wind speed is 5.5m/s (at 10 meter above ground). Potential solar

energy application areas in DDPAs’ include solar water heating in the City and solar

electricity for home systems and for rural social services (water supply, health centers

and schools). Wind energy may be employed for rural water supply projects (both for

pumping potable water for humans and livestock) and for small wind generators.

Table 3. Solar energy in Dire Dawa (Latitude 9.36N; Longitude 41.52E; Elevation 1210 masl)

 Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Sunshine hours 8.6 8.1 7.9 7.6 8.3 7.7 7.1 7.6 7.4 8.0 9.0 9.3 8.0

% 75 69 66 62 67 61 57 62 61 68 78 81 67

Average daily radiation on horizontal surface (kWh/m2)

Total 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.3 5.1 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.3 1,965

Direct 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.1 2.9 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.5 1,202

Diffuse 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 763

Source: ENEC-CESEN, Technical Report 3, Solar energy resources, 1986.

Table 4. Wind speed in Dire DawaMonths Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean

2 masl 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.5 4.9 4.4 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.0 3.6

10 masl 4.0 4.1 4.6 5.0 5.8 6.8 7.4 6.7 5.8 5.5 5.0 4.6 5.5

Mean monthly wind speeds (m/s) measured at approximately 2 m above ground derived from meteorological data (1968-1973). Wind speed at 2 masl is converted to speed at 10 masl using the formula V10=V2 (h10/h2) b

Source: Wolde-Ghirogis, W. 1992, On a Tandom Small-scale wind and Micro Hydro-power Energy Conversation Model, Sinet, Ethiop. J. Scil, Vol 15 (1), PP. 1-21.

Figure 3. Solar energy in Dire Dawa

-

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Jan

Mar

May Ju

l

Sep

No

v

Ra

dia

tio

n -

kW

h/m

2-d

ay

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Su

nsh

ine

ho

urs

- d

ail

y

TotalDirectSunshine hours

Source: WWDSE (2004) Figure 4. Wind speed in Dire Dawa (m/s at 10 magl)

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

Jan

Fe

b

Ma

r

Ap

r

Ma

y

Jun

Jul

Au

g

Se

p

Oct

No

v

De

c

Source: WWDSE (2004)

6.4.5.2 Energy Demand Projection

I) Total Energy Demand

Energy demand in DDPA is projected by WWDSE (2004) to grow at a rate of 4 percent

per year and is expected to reach 7.5 PJ (three times that of 2002 values). Sector wise

growth rates are as follows: households, 3.8 percent; commercial services, 4.1 percent;

industry, 7.6 percent; transport, 2.9 percent, and rural social services, 4.1 percent.

Due to a much faster growth rate for the industry sector the relative share of energy

consumption by sector will change where the household sectors’ share falls slightly from

72 percent to 69 percent while that for the industry sector rises from 5 percent to 12

percent.

Fuel shares will also change slightly where the contribution from biomass falls from 70

percent to 66 percent and that for electricity increases from 8 percent to 11 percent.

Petroleum fuel shares are expected to stay at the present 22 percent.

Table 5.-Dire Dawa Provisional Administration Energy Demand projections:

2000-2030, TJ

2000 2002 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 AAGR

Households 1,684.2 1,825.2 2,038.2 2,452.3 2,954.0 3,562.4 4,300.6 5,196.9 3.8%

Commercial services 154.1 168.5 190.1 232.5 284.4 347.8 425.4 520.3 4.1%

Industry 99.7 115.0 142.6 204.7 294.8 425.7 616.2 893.3 7.6%

Transport 399.5 420.3 451.6 513.0 588.0 679.7 791.8 928.9 2.9%

Social services and government 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 4.1%

TOTAL 2,338.4 2,529.8 2,823.5 3,403.7 4,122.7 5,017.5 6,136.3 7,542.2

Woody biomass 1,366.5 1,479.0 1,649.0 1,978.9 2,377.9 2,861.1 3,446.5 4,156.4 3.8%

Crop residue 16.8 17.6 18.8 21.0 23.4 26.1 29.2 32.6 2.2%

Charcoal 243.1 265.4 299.2 365.3 446.0 544.7 665.4 812.8 4.1%

Kerosene 68.2 74.5 84.1 102.9 125.8 153.9 188.3 230.3 4.1%

Gasoline 223.7 244.4 275.8 337.1 412.1 503.9 616.0 753.0 4.1%

Diesel 189.3 191.3 194.8 202.8 214.3 230.7 254.4 288.4 1.5%

Fuel oil 42.2 49.2 61.8 90.3 132.1 193.2 282.6 413.3 7.9%

Electricity 188.6 208.4 240.1 305.4 391.0 503.8 654.0 855.5 5.2%

Source: WWDSE (2004)

7. Environmental geology

7.1 Geological Setting and Tectonics

The geology of DDPA composed of all major three-rock types (metamorphic,

sedimentary and igneous). Based on existing geological maps, aerial photos and field

visits the WWDSE (2003) prepared geological map at 1: 50 000 scales. Thus, this work

is mainly based on this report.

7.1.1 Geological Setting

The geological setting of the DDPA consists of:

a) High grade basement rocks,

b) Mesozoic sedimentary sequences,

c) Quaternary volcanics, and

d) Quaternary Sediments.

The geology of the area is described based on their regional stratigraphic position, from the base (old) upwards (to youngest).

8. Sanitation current status/National level/

All documents reviewed report coverage figures without however defining the

word coverage, central statically authority [CSA] and MOH documents has coverage on

the basis of number of people with toilet facilities according to the mid term assessment

of progress to meeting the MDG drinking water and sanitation in Ethiopia is reported to

have the lowest ratio of sanitation coverage of all the reported countries. Table 1 below

shows the reported coverage figures from documents reviewed.

Table 1 reported sanitation coverage figures

Document Year Coverage Rural Urban Source

Sanitation strategy/WSP/ 2003 15% Issue paper

Master plan 2000 18% 8.9% 71.6% CSA WMS

HHRI, EFY 1995 of

MOH

2002/3 11.5% 3.9% 49.7% FMOH

Meeting the MDG

drinking water and

sanitation

2007 6% 4% 19%

MDG for water and

sanitation country

2000 15% 6% 62%

Master plan 1996 100% World

development

report

Existing toilet facilities in use in rural Ethiopia mostly consists of pit latrines with or

without improvement. The improved latrines usually have a 60x60cm sized samplats.

Urban Ethiopia latrine facilities include flush cisterns, VIPS and traditional pit latrines.

Table 2 shows people with access to toilet facilities at country and regional levels

Table 2 access to toilet facilities

Region Access to excreta disposalUrban Rural Total

Achieved % Achieved % Achieved %Current level 5,124,761 49.7 2578,446 3.1 7,703,207 11.5Tigray 409200 60 386,280 12 795,480 20.4Afar 62,381 58.3 58250 5 120,631 9.5Amhara 400,000 21.8 453.000 2.9 583,000 5Oromia 1,171,187 40.1 780751 3.8 1,951,937 8.2Somali 295,626 48.1 223,603 6.8 519,229 13.3Benishangul Gumuz

30,656 59 119,574 23.3 150,231 26.6

SNNP 402,137 38.0 537,285 4.4 939,422 7.1Gambella 8,533 21.9 7018 3.8 15,551 7.0Harari 50,721 48.3 11,730 17.5 62451 36.3Dire Dawa 177520 71.3 9.55 2 178,475 52.2Source: - Sanitation Millennium Development goals needs assessment document

Table 3 type and number of toilet facilities available at HH urban level

Region All

housing

Type of toilet facility %

House

no

toilet

Flush

toilet

private

Flush

toilet

shard

Pit

private

Pit

shared

Not

stated

Country level 1,482,589 4233 3.45 2.05 24.20 26.85 1.12

Tigray 115421 6999 2.37 2.64 9.82 13.77 1.41

Afara 20161 58.33 4.87 0.86 20.19 15.70 0.05

Oromia 406,169 39.94 1.82 1.35 33.41 22.39 1.10

Somali 70088 51.64 1.04 0.52 21.35 24.68 0.77

Benishangul

Gumuze

8,499 35.09 2.24 3.95 30.27 26.73 1.72

SNNP 142,212 35.86 1.24 0.87 38.08 22.77 1.19

Gambella 6268 66.98 3.03 3.14 13.05 11.74 2.06

Harari 17445 28.70 5.1 2.98 25.35 35.75 2.13

Addis Ababa 374742 23.89 8.04 3.95 18.12 45.03 0.98

Dire Dawa 36382 23.45 4.57 2.39 29.77 37.96 1.91

Source: - CSA results at country level voL. II analytical report June 1999

The national PASDEP document also states the national current status of toilet facilities

and waste disposal systems. It states that one of the indicators of the well being of house

holds incorporated in the welfare monitoring surveys is the availability and quality of

toilet facility. According to the survey results only about 28% of house holds have access

to pt latrine and the vast majorities (68%) do not have access to any kind of toilet

facilities. Among rural house holds more than 78% don’t have any toilet facilities and

20% have pt latrines. From a sanitation and health point of view, it is even more serious

to observe that almost a fifth of urban house holds do not have access to any kind of toilet

facility, and have to use open fields.

While this results are striking by inter national standards it is important to note that there

has been substantial improvement over the survey with the proportion having some form

of toilets with the proportion having some form of toilets raising from 13% eight years

ago to 31% today

Table 4 distribution of HH by types of toilet facilities

Type of toilet facilities and

place of residence

Survey year

1996 1998 2000 2004

Country

Flush toilet

Pit latrine

Container

Field /forest

Others

09

12.1

0.1

84.4

2.5

1.4

18.8

0.3

83.3

0.4

1.7

16.3

0.1

81.5

0.5

2.5

28.1

0.2

68.2

0.2

Rural

Flush toilet

Pit latrine

Container

Field/forest

Others

06

4.4

0.1

92.0

2.9

0.9

6.6

0.2

92.0

0.4

0.8

8.1

0.0

9.17

0.4

1.3

20.0

0.2

78.2

0.2

Urban

Flush toilet

Pt latrine

Container

Field/forest

others

2.4

55.6

1.2

41.7

0.2

4.4

63.3

0.9

30.6

0.8

7.0

64.6

0.7

26.9

0.8

8.8

71.4

0.3

18.2

0.3

Improper waste disposal systems have adverse repercussions on environmental sanitation

impeding efforts to control disease and pollution at country level more than half of house

holds (52% reported that they use the waste as manure /fertilizer/ in their fields these are

by and large rural house holds. A substantial proportion /31.9%/ stated that they dispose

their waste by just throwing away. Only a small proportion (4.8%) has access to a waste

disposal vehicle/container almost exclusively in urban areas.

Table 5 distribution of HH by method of solid waste disposal

Type of toilet facilities and

place of residence

Survey year

1996 1998 2000 2004

Country

waste disposal

vehicle/container

dug out

through away

Burning

Used as manure

others

2.1

3.1

86.2

-

-

8.6

2.6

4.4

83.9

3.2

-

6.0

2.7

3.1

49.8

3.5

-

1.1

4.8

6.3

31.9

4.1

52.0

0.9

Source: - PASDEP document.

9. INTERSECTORAL linkage

MDG goal a is described briefly below

Goal1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Sanitation can provide work and income to both the urban and rural poor the

local service Providers could come out from the local poor like local latrine

builders working in improving sanitation is the health and environment of the

urban and the rural poor that improver by the provision of sanitation facilities.

Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education

Improvement in sanitation facilities particularly provision of separate toilet for

girl and of enrollment of girl students. Further school students would be one vital

means in the dissemination of information.

Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women

Access to basic agitation brings significant difference to the quality of poor

women’s life. They become health and more dignified and enjoy the benefits of

privacy with the use of latrine gender issues are a cross cutting topic in water and

sanitation services women in particular have major responsibility for water,

sanitation and family health nursing their kids, preparing and distributing food

women also play a major role in transferring health in formal networks. They are

also responsible to managing sanitation facilities at the house hold level but not

all sanitation and hygiene education do not recognize women’s vital role in this

regard to meet the MDG goal community promoters that do promotional work

house to house are proposed to be women.

Goal 4 Reduce child mortality

Provision of proper sanitation reduces one of the killing causes of children under

five

Goal 5 Improve maternal health

Basic sanitation is needed in health care facilities to ensure basic hygiene

practices following delivery.

Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases

Access to sanitation and hygiene reduces the opportunistic infection disease

including HIV/AIDS victims. Home based care can only be provided to

HIV/AIDS patient and the task of ensuring their dignity when there is access to

sanitation

Target 11 of Goal 7

Significant improvement to the lives of all slum dweller for sanitation the

target is “Achieve significant improvement in lives at least 100 million slum

dwellers by 2000” which has an indicator of “The proportion of people with

access to improve sanitation” This has now been taken to generally apply to

all peoples not solely slum dwellers.

10. Development rapid population & Environment

Rapid population growth remains a major barriers to poverty eradication. The addition of

almost 2 million people per year puts tremendous strains on Ethiopia’s resource base, the

economy and the ability to deliver services. It is much more difficulty to make progress

in creating sufficient employment or in raising agricultural productivity to keep up with

good needs when a proximately 38,000 people are being added to the population each

week. There is also the direct cost of additional services and sanitation facilities for

example over a third of the massive cost of reaching the MDGs in education is accounted

for by expected population growth. Finally the high number of pregnancies (average 6

per women) has a debilitating impact on women and children’s health including

communicable diseases caused by lack of proper sanitation facilities.

11. International conventions and country policy & legal issues

Ethiopia have agreed a number of international convention on environmental issues

beyond these international convention regarding the importance and world wide needs of

environmental sanitation the third report of the WHO expert committee on environmental

sanitation states “Environmental sanitation is fundamental and basic to individual of life

and death”

Agenda 21 the United Nation conference on environment and development Rio Dejaniero

in 1992 emphasized on chapter 21 reducing waste and maximizing environmentally

sound waste reuse and recycling should be the first step in municipal waste management.

The environmental, social and economic benefits of integrating practices of waste

reduction in to MSWM municipal solid waste management/ are the basic for an emerging

world wide agenda.

There for environmental sanitation covers all aspects of our inter-relationship with our

environmental, social as well a physical activity problem of wastes generated by

production and consumption.

11.1Policy and legal measures in Ethiopia

Over the past few years, there has been a growing perception and commitment towards

an improved natural resources management and environmental protection regime of the

country. Consequently, in order to address the environmental problems mentioned at the

beginning of this paper and heading towards archiving sustainable development, the

mechanism of environmental protection adopted by Ethiopia since 1994 could bee

characterized by a three-stage approach.

11.2Constitution Measure

The constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia provides the overriding principles

and legal provisions for all legislative frameworks in the country. The concept of

sustainable development and the environmental right off the people are ensured in the

constitution by the following articles that stipulate the rights of people in Ethiopia.

Article 43: The right to Development

1. The peoples of Ethiopia as whole, and each Nation, Nationality, and People in

Ethiopia in particular have the right to improved living standards and to

sustainable development.

2. Nationals have the right to participate in national development and, in particular,

to be consulted with respect policies and projects affecting their community.

3. All international agreement and relations concluded, established or conducted by

the state shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s to sustainable development

4. the basic aim of development activities shall be to enhance the capacity of citizen

for development and to met their basic needs

Article 44: Environmental Rights

1. All persons have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment.

2. All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods have been adversely

affected as a result off State programs have the right to commensurate monetary

or alternative mean of compensation, including relocation with adequate State

assistance.

Article 92 also relates to environmental right and the duty to adopt enforcement

instruments. These constitutional provisions have served as the guiding principles for all

activates that are related to policy formulation, strategy development and the formulation

of legislative and institutional frame work for environmental protection.

11.3Policy Measures

The second stage was formulation of national policy and strategy on environmental

management and protection. The primary need in preparing national policy and strategy

document on environmental matters was aiming at determining the objectives and

strategies, which should be used in order to ensure the respect for environmental

imperatives, by taking is to account the prevailing economic, social and cultural

situations of the country.

In this context, with a view of further amplifying the constitutional provisions on

environmental protections, the Environmental Policy and the Conservation Strategy of

Ethiopia have been prepared. These policy and strategy documents recognized and

addressed environmental issues in a holistic manner, and were adopted as well as

approved on 2 April 1997.

11.4 Legislative Measures

The Federal Government of Ethiopia is in the process of passing a number of

proclamations that are aimed at providing the legislative instrument for the

implementation of the national environmental policy objectives and strategies. The

following approved and draft environmental protection proclamations are currently

existed in the country.

11.5 Environmental impact Assessment Proclamation

Environmental impact assessment is used to predict and manage the environmental

effects that a proposed development activity might entail and thus helps to bring about

intended development. Furthermore, assessment off possible impacts on the environment

prior to the approval of a public instrument is recognized as providing an effective means

of harmonizing and integrating environmental, economic, cultural and social

considerations in to a decision making process in a manner that promotes sustainable

development.

To this end the law is prepared to facilitate the implementation of the environmental

rights and objectives ensured is the constitution and the maximization of their socio-

economic benefits by predicting and managing the environmental effects which a

proposed development activity or public instrument might entail prior to their

implementation.

This proclamation requires all licensing agencies have to ensure that EPA or the

respective regional Environmental Agency has authorized their implementation prior to

issuing any type of license for projects. The proclamation includes provisions on:

categories of EIA requirements, duties and responsibilities of the project proponent and

the competent agency, procedures on EIA report and its approval, conditions of offense

and the ensuing penalties and conditions of public participation in the EIA process.

11.6Environmental pollution control proclamation

The law recognizes the fact that some social and economic development endeavors may

inflict environmental harm that could make the Endeavour counter-productive. It also

underline the fact that the protection of the environment, in general, and the safeguarding

of human health and well being, as well as the maintaining of the biota and the aesthetic

value of nature, in particular, is the duty and responsibility of all. To this end the law

aims to eliminate or, when not possible, to mitigate pollution as an undesirable

consequence of social and economic development activities.

This proclamation contains general provisions on pollution control, environmental

standards, power and duties of environmental inspectors, rights to appeal and offenses

and penalties. The pollution control component includes provision on management of

hazardous wastes, chemicals and radioactive substances, management of municipal

wastes and protection of the ozone layer.

11.7 The draft industrial pollution prevention and control regulation (IPPC)

The draft industrial pollution prevention and control regulation has dual objectives.

Firstly, it is aimed primarily at preventing pollution at source by requiring industries to

take measures such as introducing appropriate and cleaner technologies that treat or

reduce polluting substances within the industrial process. Secondly, to control missions

or discharges to the environment through regulatory mechanisms such as setting

standards and putting in place a permit system.

The IPPC regulations is divided into seven parts which include general provisions (part

1); duty to prevent and reduce environmental damage (part 2); requirements to prevent

and reduce pollution (part 3); restrictions on discharging industrial release (part 4);

enabling measures to prevent or reduce pollution (part 5); compliance and enforcement

(part 6); and lastly, offenses and penalties(part 7).

11.8 Public Health Proclamation No. 200/2000

One of the rationales for enacting this proclamation, as stipulated in the preamble, is the

creation of a healthy environment for the future generation.

A number of issues are addressed by the proclamation from public health perspective.

These include provisions to control food quality and standards, water quality,

occupational health and safety, waste handling and disposal, and the availability of

sanitation facilities. Some of the provisions are relevant to the industry sector. The

proclamation tends to regulate industries with respect to the manner of discharging

wastes and ensuring the safety of their employees. More specifically, article 10(3)

prohibits industries from discharging untreated liquid waste into near by water bodies or

water convergence. There is a more general provision under Article 12(2) that prohibits

the disposal of solid, liquid or any other waste in a manner, which contaminates the

environment or affects the health of the society.

In Dire Dawa there are some important achievements have been seen by preparation of

regional solid waste management regulation and sanitation and beatification agency

regulation already forwarded on practice but the regional public health regulation yet not

formulated and set on practice.

12. International Convention /Agreement

The international community came together in 1992 at the Rio Conference to deal with

environment and development problems that humanity has faced in this era. The three

Rio Conventions, viz., the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

(UNCCD), the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity (UNCBD) and the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have been the major

outcome of this conference.

In recognition of the major environmental problems that are increasingly affecting the

country, Ethiopia has joined the international community by signing, adopting and

largely ratifying the Rio-Conventions (and the related protocols, agreements, etc

formulated on their basis). The country has undertaken a number of measures to pursue

their subsequent implementation. While EPA is the focal point and coordinator of the

12.1 The Convention on Biological Diversity

The major aim of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the conservation and

sustainable use of biological resources. The Cartagena Protocol on Bio safety establishes

a regulatory framework to control the harm arising from Genetically Modified Organism

(GMOs) on biodiversity and human health. Biological resources, both habitats and

species, are being critically threatened. Key habitats are being lost at a rapid rate.

12.2 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The major goal of the Framework Convention on Climate Change is to stabilize the

concentrations of Green House Gases (GHGs, e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous

oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, perflurocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride) in the atmosphere

that are related to human induced interference with the climate system. GHGs are thought

to exacerbate climate change and alter agricultural / eco zones e.g. mid-latitude regions

are expected to shift 200 - 300 km for each one degree Celsius increase in temperature.

Due to glacial melt and thermal expansion of the sea, sea levels are predicted to rise by as

much as 65 cm by 2100, threatening both coastal and low lying areas. The frequency and

intensity of extreme natural events e.g. storms and hurricanes are also expected to

increase.

12.3 The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

As described in Ch. 12 of Agenda 21, the Convention to Combat Desertification seeks to

not only tackle the impacts of desertification but also to mitigate the effects of droughts.

Under the convention desertification refers to dry-land areas vulnerable to over-

exploitation and inappropriate land-use as a result of poverty, political instability,

deforestation, overgrazing and bad irrigation. Currently the livelihoods of over 1.2 billion

people are threatened or at risk because of drought and desertification, impacting 110

countries. The detail national obligations and rights are summarized in the text.

12.4 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

The overriding goal of the Convention is to ensure that international trade in specimens

of wild fauna and flora does not threaten the survival of the species traded. CITES is

conceptually limited to prevent the overexploitation of international traded wildlife.

Parties must adopt domestic legislation, which prohibits international trade in specimens

in violation of the Convention, penalizes such trade, and allows for confiscation of

specimens illegally traded or possessed

12.5 The Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol

The Vienna Convention aims at protecting the ozone layer from modifications, due to

human activities, require international co-operation and action, and are based on relevant

scientific and technical considerations.

The Montreal Protocol was developed to minimize world-wide emissions of certain

substances (controlled substances listed under Annexes A, B, C and E of the Protocol)

that can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is

likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. On the basis of

this protocol, protection of the ozone layer involves actions of precautionary measures to

control global emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimate objective of their

elimination on the basis of scientific research and findings.

12.6 The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure

Based on the “London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in

International Trade” and “International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of

Pesticides”, the aim of the “Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure

for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade” is to protect

citizens and the natural environment from potential dangers of hazardous chemicals and

pesticides. Each year thousands die or are poisoned by toxic pesticides and chemicals.

These substances also accumulate in animals and plant life. Under the agreement export

of such chemicals can only take place with the prior informed consent of the importing

party. The detail national obligations and rights are summarized in the text.

12.7 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

The aim of the Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants will be to tackle chemical

substances that persist and bio accumulate through the food web and pose a risk to human

health and to the environment. It will initially cover 12 POPs including: 8 pesticides

(aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene), 2 industrial

chemicals (Poly Chlorinate Biphenyls - PCBs and hexachlorobenzene, also a pesticide)

and 2 by-products of combustion and industrial processes (dioxins and furans).

13. The Major Policy Frameworks of Ethiopia

The overall policy goal of Ethiopia is to improve and enhance the health and quality of

life of all Ethiopians and to promote sustainable social and economic development

through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources

and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The major policy

frameworks on which other policies have been based and that have an overall bearing on

environment and development are discussed hereunder.

13.1 Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI)

The framework economic development strategy of the current Ethiopian Government is

the Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI). The strategy envisages

agriculture as the engine of the country’s economic growth through agricultural

intensification and commercialization, increasing the proportion of marketable output. In

line with this strategy, the government has declared the pursuit of a liberalization policy,

including the withdrawal of input subsidies, deregulation of different markets, tariff

reduction, etc. Government efforts have continued to focus on rural development and

measures to improve productivity of smallholder peasant agriculture through “extension

packages” as well as rural credit services, primary education, health care, domestic water

supply and rural road construction.

13.2 Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP)

The long-term objective of the country is elaborated in the document entitled

"Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP)". The program is

designed to serve as the country's strategy to transform agriculture in the shortest time

possible (FDRE, 2002). The program outlines the fundamental development objectives of

Government to build a free-market economic system, which will enable the economy to

develop rapidly, the country to extricate itself from dependence on food aid, and poor

people to be the main beneficiaries form economic growth.

The strategy recognizes the importance of the environment and sustainable development

and treats it as crosscutting issue. It points out three priority areas for action including

strengthening and expanding on-going efforts to address land degradation, deforestation,

overgrazing, soil erosion, loss of soil structure and the disruption of the hydro-logical

cycle, giving special attention to highly degraded, drought prone and food insecure areas,

strengthening regulatory and institutional capacity, strengthening measures currently

under implementation to preserve, develop, manage and sustainable use biodiversity

resources.

In adopting the United Nations Millennium Declaration, Ethiopia agreed to take special

measures to address the challenges of poverty eradication and sustainable development in

the country. The country recognizes that the range of issues necessary to nurture its

environmental base and sustainable use of natural resources is vast and complex and that

a systematic combination of initiatives is necessary to translate into action a coherent

environment program. The capacity need assessment to achieve goal 7 of the MDG calls

for the development and adoption of a coherent action plan and strategies - to ensure

environmental sustainability while at the same time combating poverty and promoting

socio-economic development.

13.3 Food Security Strategy (FSS)

Food security strategy is basically derived from the country’s rural development policy

and is adopted since March 2002. It aims at increasing domestic food production;

ensuring access to food for food deficit households; and strengthening emergency

response capabilities. It is recognized that soil, water, and vegetation are the main asset

base of both the farming community and the country’s economy as a whole without

which the achievement of food security is unlikely. Water and natural resource

conservation based agricultural development constitutes a central element of the strategy.

The strategy has also given due attention to the problems of environmental degradation,

population pressure and land shortage, particularly in moisture deficit highland areas of

the country. Accordingly, water harvesting, proper land utilization and environmental

rehabilitation are identified as top priority areas of intervention that help to combat

drought and famine induced by environmental challenges such as desertification and land

degradation. Thus, the food security strategy is designed taking into account the

importance of conservation, rehabilitation and restoration of natural resources as an entry

point to changing the existing dire livelihood situation in the rural household economy.

13.4 The Conservation Strategy of Dire Dawa City Administration (RCS)

The Conservation Strategy of Dire dawa City Administration (RSC), which was

formulated in 2001 (The National Conservation Strategy, Volume I – Volume IV),

provides an adequate umbrella strategic framework, detailing principles, guidelines and

strategies for the effective management of the environment. It also elaborates state of

resource bases of the country, as well as the institutional arrangement and action plans for

the realization of the strategy.

The RCS Report is prepared in 4 volumes. Volume I deeles with the resource base, Its

utilization and planning for sustainability. Volume II presents a strategy for the

conservation of natural, human made cultural resources. Volume III deals with

institutional frame work and operational arrangements.

Volume IV presents a plan of prioritised actions within the framework of 11 cross-

sectoral and 11 sectoral programmes.

The principles, guidelines and strategies set out in the RCS documents are expected to

provide Dire Dawa City Administration with an adequate umbrella strategic framework

for the effective management of the environment including land degradation. Following

the RCS all sector and cross-sector specific policies are reviewed in line with the

strategy.

13.5 The Biodiversity Conservation and Research Policy

The National Policy on Biodiversity Conservation and Research was issued on April

1998. The policy is formulated based on the rationale that conservation of biodiversity is

one of the conditions of the overall socioeconomic development and sustainable

environmental management goals. It provides a general framework towards effective

conservation, rational development and sustainable utilization of genetic resources.

The objectives of the National Policy for Biodiversity Conservation and Research are to:

ensure that the Ethiopian plant, animal and microbial genetic resource and

essential ecosystems as a whole are conserved, developed, managed and

sustainable utilized;

assert national sovereignty over genetic resources and develop a mechanism for a

fair exchange, safe movement and proper management of these resources;

enrich the genetic resources of the country through introduction ( from abroad and

within the country ), repatriation and restoration in accordance with the laws and

regulations of the country and according to bilateral and/or multilateral

agreements the country had made;

build national scientific capacities and capabilities to explore, collect, conserve.

Characterize, evaluate and utilize the biodiversity of the country:

integrate biodiversity conservation and development programs into Federal and

Regional agricultural, health, industrial and overall national economic

development strategies and plans;

recognize, foster and augment the indigenous knowledge and methods relevant to

the conservation, development and sustainable use of biodiversity, and promote

and encourage the development and putting into practice of new emerging

technologies such as biotechnology;

encourage the participation and support of local communities in biodiversity

conservation , development and utilization. Furthermore, ensure that they share

the benefit accrued as a result of using indigenous knowledge and/or germplasm;

create a functional and efficient organizational structure to ensure inter

institutional linkage and coordination in biodiversity conservation, development

and utilization;

promote regional and international cooperation in biodiversity conservation,

development and sustainable use;

13.6 Water Resource Management Policy of Ethiopia

Ministry of water Resources prepared water resources management policy of Ethiopia.

The over all goal of the policy is to enable and promote all national efforts towards the

efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available water resources of Ethiopia

for significant socioeconomic development on sustainable basis.

The detail objectives of the water resources management policy are:

Development of the water resources of the country for economic and social benefits

of the people, on equitable and sustainable basis.

Allocation and apportionment of water based on a comprehensive and integrated

plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity of

access and sustainability of the resources.

Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow on-set disasters

through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of water

resources.

Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,

rehabilitation and other practical measures.

Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic

environment on sustainable basis.

13.7 Economic Development Strategy for Ethiopia

This strategy is named and commonly known as the "Agriculture Development Led

Industrialization Strategy (ADLI)". This strategy is the guiding tool for the current

development of the country. The basic objectives of the strategy are:

Sustainable economic growth

Equity, including regional equity; and

Self reliance, meaning dependence on national resources and Independent

National Development.

The strategy is a "road map" for the development of the Agricultural, Industrial, Mining,

Science& Technology, Infrastructure and Tourism sectors.

13.8 Poverty Reduction Strategy

Poverty is deeply entrenched in Ethiopia. To meet both domestic goals and the

International commitment to reduce poverty by half in the medium term, the government

introduced the poverty reduction strategy in 1999-2001. Targets were set for poverty

oriented interventions and executing agencies were identified. The plan has served as a

vehicle for resources mobilization and allocation. The second generation of the plan

"Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty" (PASDEP) covers

the period from 2002 to 2007. The scope of this plan is broader than the first and

incorporates the well known "Millennium Goals" (MDGs). The regional states, including

DDPA are expected to address poverty issues in accordance with PASDEP.

13.9 Water Supply and Sanitation Policy

The overall objective of water supply and sanitation policy is as stipulated in the Federal

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia water resources management policy is to enhance the

well-being and productivity of the Ethiopian people through provision of adequate,

reliable and clean water supply and sanitation services and to foster its tangible

contribution to the economy by providing water supply services that meet the livestock,

industry and other water users demands.

To ensure that improved environmental sanitation be placed highest on the federal

and regional agenda for achieving sustainable urban development;

To promote the construction by individual families of their own houses and create

conducive conditions for communities and individual families to make improvements

to their immediate habitats as well as to provide human and domestic waste disposal

facilities;

To recognise the importance of and help bring about behavioural change through

education and public awareness of environmental sanitation problems in trying to

achieve demand driven community led sustainable use and maintenance of sanitation

facilities;

To bring about a sound partnership between the government and communities in the

development of an integrated sanitation delivery system, and to the supplementary

role of NGOs;

To ensure that housing and sanitation technologies and regulatory standards are set at

a level and cost that are within reach of the users and flexible enough to be adaptable

to the very varied socio-economic, epidemiological, climatic and physical site

conditions which are found in urban areas.

To give priority to waste collection services and to its safe disposal;

On the one hand to recognise the importance of adequate water supply as an

important component in achieving a sustainable and healthy urban environment, and

on the other hand to recognise the minimisation of the need for water as and

important factor in the choice of sanitation technologies;

To construct shared VIP latrines in the low income and very high density housing

areas of Addis Ababa and the older towns with frequent emptying by tankers

integrated with programmes on user education, health and hygiene, with follow up

maintenance and cleaning, all implemented as a component of a broader urban

environmental upgrading programme including storm water drainage;

To ensure the construction of family latrines in lower density urban and peri-urban

areas as a conditionality of the house plot lease and to integrate this with health and

hygiene awareness programmes

To create conducive conditions for families, housing groups and communities to

construct latrines and private entrepreneurs to undertake latrine emptying as well as

waste collection and disposal services.

To undertake studies which identify suitable sanitary landfill sites in the major cites

and towns of Ethiopia.

To establish safe limits for the location of sanitary landfill sites in the vicinity of

wells, bore holes and dams, and issue regulations to enforce them;

13.10 Sanitation Policy

Define and implement acceptable minimum sanitation facilities differentiated in

urban and rural scenarios.

Develop a collaborative and co-operative framework for the development of

sanitation system through definition of the responsibilities of the different

governmental and other major stakeholder in sanitation at all levels.

Develop and promote guidelines, rules and regulation, for the study, design, operation

and maintenance for efficient, appropriate and sustainable sanitation services as well

as foster appropriate water saving sanitation services and utilisation norms.

Foster culturally and socially acceptable method and facilities for sanitation.

Promote the formulation of a housing construction and urban development policy that

incorporates sanitation services.

Promote the involvement of non-governmental organization, external support

agencies and the private sector in sustainable sanitation programs.

Develop standards for different types and levels of sanitation systems including both

on site and off site, non-water dependent and water dependent systems.

Promote research and development on low cost and suitable sanitation alternatives

and enhance users participation in the development of sanitation systems.

Manage the import of wastewater treatment technologies and materials through

pertinent institutions.

Build capacity in terms of engineering, design, construction, operation and

maintenance … etc. Of sanitation systems.

Promote that sanitation services are based on participation driven and responsive

principles without compromising social equity.

13.11 Health Policy – Hygiene and Environmental Health Policy

The health policy was issued by the then Transitional Government of Ethiopia in

September 1993. The policy gives emphasis on the preventive aspect of health services.

The central themes of the National Health Policy (1993)are Awareness raising and

education on personal and Environmental Health care and Sanitation through

information, Education and Communication (IEC), Control of disease, and Promotion of

primary Health care through community participation.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH POLICY OBJECTIVES

To promote proper waste management system with regard to the collection,

transportation and disposal of any domestic, commercial, agricultural, industrial and

mining wastes including hazardous, liquid, solid, infectious and radioactive wastes.

Establish community based hygiene education promotion.

Advocate and promote the availability of excreta disposal facilities at household

level and develop a latrine culture.

o Ensure sound and effective waste management system, (collection, storage, transport

and disposal)

13.12 Regional Conservation Strategy of DDPA

Strategies for conservation of natural resources are instrumental to determine the extent

in which economic growth and social progress could be achieved on a sustainable basis.

Formulation of a strategy for conserving natural resources is, therefore, essential to

improve the living condition of a society.

With this regard, the DDAC has given due attention to develop a strategy for sustainable

management of the natural resources as they are the base for survival. The conservation

strategy of the Council was prepared in March 2001

In a strategy document the optimal interaction among, all natural, human, capital and

other relevant factors, are taken into consideration in order to attain development that

meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future

generations.

The overall strategy goal is to improve and enhance the health and quality of the life of

all people of Dire Dawa Administrative Council and to promote sustainable social and

economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human made

& cultural resources and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the

present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their

own needs.

The strategy seeks to:

a. Ensure that appropriate interventions to restore the present impaired regenerative and

productive capabilities of renewable natural resources, and ensure that essential

ecological process and life support systems are sustained, biological diversity is

preserved and renewable resources are used in such a way that their capacity to

regenerate and produce is maintained and where possible enhanced, so that the

satisfaction of future generation is not compromised;

b. Ensure that non-renewable resources are exploited in such a way that the benefits

are extended as far into the future as can be managed, and minimize the negative

impacts of their exploitation on the use and management of other natural

resources and the environment;

c. Identify and develop natural resources that are currently under utilized by finding

new technologies and/or intensifying existing uses;

d. Incorporate the full economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of

natural resources development into planning, implementation and accounting

processes by a comprehensive valuation of the environment and the services it

provides, and by considering the social and environmental costs and benefits

which cannot currently be measured in monetary terms;

e. Improve the environment of human settlements to satisfy the physical, social,

economic, cultural and other needs of their inhabitants on a sustainable basis;

f. Prevent the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost effective way so that

the cost of effective preventive interventions would not exceed the benefits;

g. Conserve, develop, sustainable manage and support Ethiopia’s rich and diverse

cultural heritage;

h. Ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations

at all levels in environmental management activities; and

i. Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages

between environment and development.

14. MDGs target for sanitation

The system that removes waste, particularly human excreta thus preserving health is

called here sanitation. The working definition adapted to basic sanitation by the

millennium development goals task force is “the lowest cost option for securing

sustainable access to safe, hygienic and convenient facilities and services for excreta and

sullage disposal that provide privacy and dignity while at the same time ensuring a clan

and healthful living environment both of home and in the neighborhood of users”.

The definitions off the millennium development goals for water and sanitation task force

I adopted settings in Ethiopia. Thus urban sanitation comprises storage, collection,

transportation, treatment and disposal of liquid and solid waste so as to avoid

environmental degration and aesthetic nuisance at the same time rural sanitation is

defined to mean preservation of health of individuals and communities by carrying

human excreta; animal and household wastes back to nature by providing comfort and

convenience to users.

Sanitation converge

The millennium development goal sanitation coverage is to have by 2015, the proportion

of people with out sustainable access to basic sanitation in this need assessment two

development scenarios are adopted, one ambitions one that meet the full range of

internationally agreed upon MDG targets and another one that meet the current level of

available funds. In both cases the targets as reported here below are assumed to the same,

instead the difference between thee two scenarios is in the type of interventions and

sanitation facilities that will be built.

Target

“To reduce by half between now and 2015 the proportion of people who lack access to

basic sanitation”

This means to raise the national sanitation coverage from 11.5% to 56% by 2015 by the

targeting over 43.8% of people. Rural coverage is raised from 3.9% to 58% and similarly

urban from 49.7% to 75%. The table blow shows national and regional sanitation

coverage and the additional number off people that will have access to sanitation

facilities by the end of the millennium.

National & regional millennium targets

RegionSanitation coverage No of people to be served by

2015/in thousendsRural Urban2005 2015 2005 2015 Rural Urban

National 3.9% 52.0% 49.7% 74.9% 37550 7292Addis Ababa 0.0% 0.0% 80.0% 90.0% 0 1403Afar 5.0% 52.5% 58.3% 79.2% 718 64Amhara 2.9% 51.5% 21.8% 60.9% 10155 1365Benshagul 23.3% 61.7% 59.0% 79.5% 295 43Dire Dawa 1.0% 50.5% 71.3% 85.7% 59 166Gambela 3.8% 51.9% 21% 61.0% 115 27Harari 17.5% 58.8% 48.3% 74.2% 40 76Oromia 3.8% 51.9% 40.1% 70.1% 13888 2297SNNP 4.4% 52.2% 38.0% 68.0% 8248 848Somali 6.8% 53.4% 48.1% 74.1% 2076 484Tigray 12.0% 56.0% 60.0% 80.0% 1955 521

The coverage targets for both urban and rural sanitation assumed that the uptake in the

first few years of the intervention in any community is slow but the progress will come in

the latter years of the projects.

Calculated sanitation coverage for urban Ethiopia

Region 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

National 50% 50% 52% 55% 57% 59% 61% 64% 62% 70% 72% 75%

Addis Ababa 80% 80% 81% 82% 83% 84% 85% 86% 87% 88% 89% 90%

Afar 58% 58% 60% 62% 64% 66% 68% 70% 73% 75% 77% 79%

Amhara 22% 22% 26% 29% 33% 36% 40% 44% 48% 53% 57% 61%

Benshagul 59% 59% 61% 63% 65% 67% 69% 71% 73% 75% 77% 80%

Dire Dawa 71% 71% 73% 74% 75% 77% 78% 80% 81% 83% 84% 86%

Gambela 22% 22% 26% 29% 33% 36% 40% 44% 49% 53% 57% 61%

Harer 48% 49% 51% 53% 56% 58% 60% 63% 66% 69% 72% 74%

Oromia 40% 40% 43% 46% 49% 51% 54% 57% 61% 64% 67% 70%

SNNP 38% 38% 41% 44% 47% 50% 52% 56% 59% 63% 66% 69%

Somali 48% 48% 51% 53% 55% 58% 60% 63% 66% 69% 71% 74%

Tigray 60% 61% 62% 63% 65% 67% 69% 71% 73% 75% 77% 80%

Calculated sanitation coverage for rural Ethiopia

Region 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

National 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 16% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%

Addis Ababa 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Afar 5% 6% 8% 10% 12% 17% 22% 27% 34% 40% 48% 53%

Amhara 3% 4% 6% 8% 10% 15% 20% 26% 32% 39% 47% 51%

Benshagul 23% 24% 26% 27% 29% 33% 37% 41% 46% 52% 58% 62%

Dire Dawa 1% 2% 4% 6% 8% 13% 18% 24% 31% 38% 46% 51%

Gambela 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 15% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%

Harer 18% 18% 20% 22% 23% 28% 32% 37% 42% 48% 55% 59%

Oromia 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 15% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%

SNNP 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 16% 21% 27% 33% 40% 48% 52%

Somali 7% 8% 10% 12% 13% 18% 23% 29% 38% 41% 49% 53%

Tigray 12% 13% 15% 17% 18% 23% 28% 33% 39% 45% 52% 56%

The indicator is the proportion of urban and rural population with access to improved

sanitation facilities

15 List of interventions in MDG

1. Urban sanitation interventions

In urban Ethiopia waste generates from domestic industrial ad institutional peaces in this

MDG assessment cost of providing urban sanitation considers waste from domestic sites

alone. Domestic waste composes both liquid and solid waste management and

intervention in case of MDGS scenario deals with both waste although of these wastes

are treated in this need assessment separately. The constrained budget scenario on the

other hand only considers the liquid waste.

Assumptions

Costing for private latrines is done in this MDG NA but it is assumed that in urban

settings all new houses that will be constructed in future will have latrines constructed at

the owner’s expense. Houses that at present do not have latrines or that need upgrading

are also costed in this assessment with the same assumption that individual house holds

would cover their cost. House in the slum area that at present do not have latrines will

also be provided with latrine facilities at the house hold level but costing for the same is

done by the urban development intervention instead. Coverage increase due to this urban

development intervention has not been taken in to account.

Communal septic tanks will be provided in place where there is space limitation with

communal septic tank as master plan report indicates a saving of cost up to 2/3rd of the

investment can be attained. Even in such cases, for the communal septic tank and latrine

construction as well is considered.

List of intervention

1. Latrine construction

This composes sewer connected latrines, latrines with communal septic tank or individual

septic tank VIP latrines and improved pit latrines.

2. Sewerage system.

This composes new sewer systems and sewage treatment plan + design and construction.

Both the technical and Economical feasibility of such a should be taken into account in

the provision of a sewerage system houses that can be connected to a sewer system to be

technically feasible these hoses that would be connected to a sewer system need to have

in house water supply connection this great enough velocity of flow.

3. Septic tank sludge(septage) collection, treatment and disposal

Intervention concerning this is the same for bath scenarios, this comprises provision of

vacuum truck services, treatment and environmentally safe disposal of septage for large

and medium size town vacuum trucks are used for the removal of the undigested sludge

for the septic tank or septage, and transportation of the same to the treatment site

4. Solid waste management

This comprises collection of solid waste in urban towns, transportation and disposal at a

sanitary landfill

5. Hygiene education and sanitation promotion

Although awareness for the need for sanitation facilities in urban Ethiopia is relatively

high. There is still a need to promote hygiene education and sanitation promotion in all

urban towns in general and in slum areas in particular the negative impacts due to lack of

sanitation facilities in slum area is evident. The intervention will include social marketing

using radio soap opera for hygiene improvement training of community promoters and

mobilization of sanitarians.

16.Dire Dawa town current sanitation condition

The over all sanitation condition of Dire Dawa town is not satisfactory it has a

converge of 79% generally the features of the sanitation conditions as follows.

16.1 Solid waste management

Over the past year efforts have been conducted to bring proper solid waste

management, but the attempts was not lead to the good result, because of shortage of

appropriate information and need assessment. Now a day. There will be some important

base line dates from 5 year strategic plan preparation and generation and composition

survey of sanitation and beatification agency to prepared good plan of action. /5/

The municipal solid waste of Dire Dawa town include, household wasters,

commercial establishments, (like shops and markets) and service institutions/like

educational, health care and utilities/ streets, hotels and other sectors it can also embody

ordinary wastes fro small and large industrial firms with in the populated areas as well

as construction and demolishing wastes. /5/

16.2 MSW sources, Generation rates & Composition

This type of information is important or they help in the general planning for

IMSW system.

The Compost ion data provides insights in to the opportunities for material

recycling & composting, energy values and the potential recycling characteristics of land

fill gas and leech ate. The generator source details provide insights in to the majors

contraptions to MSW and suggests possible approaches for modifying generation patterns

and management Approaches. /5/

16.3 Generation Rate

The waste quantities and characteristics are site specific and tend to vary with

such factors as standards of living and seasons but the recent survey with is conducted by

the sanitation and beatification agency shows that and average of 0.6kg person/day./5/

The composition is about the following:-

1. Vegetable 12.3

2. Bones 6.6

3. Papers 5.71

4. Texistle 8.6

5. Plastices 7.2

6. Rubber 8.9

7. Gross/leaves/wood 13.1

8. Metals 11.9

9. Glass 5.5

10. Ah 6.5

12. Others 7.8

As the figure indicated above that the organic waste took the 1st rank and a huge

potential of the city to produce compost. So producing compost in Dire Dawa context

seems feasible if there is an opportunity for market not only with Dire Dawa but also in

the neighboring of /Eastern Haregee and Oromia/. /5/

Among the plastic products the so-called festal are the most devastating and

serious environmental challenges and is at its climax in many of the small medium and

large size towns and even in the rural part of the region and reached to an irreversible

stage in Dire Dawa town it estimated that on the overage of 60,000 fastals are used daily

as a container for chat and such amount is used for food items fruit vegetable, meet,

sugar, salt and others/ and is thrown away after a single used because of it is cheap

price. The daily impute of festal in to the environment is assumed to be more than any

other manufactures good using fastales as container become almost a culture of every

citizen. /5/

Some negative impacts of festales are:-

1. Bad image/an esthetic view of the city/

2. Decrease agricultural productivity

3. Decrease percolation rate of water

4. Soil pollution/stay with in the soil / over 80 year with out any fiscal and

chemical change/

5. Intestinal Dieses and depths of animal

6. Produce dioxin when burned

Based on the above facts the total daily generation rate of the Dire Dawa

population /270,000/ is 162,000 kg/per/day. /5/

16.4 Collection Efficiency

The collection efficiency of the town vary between kebele to kebele, that means

the scatter and some slum village of kebeles village of kebeles have low collection

efficiency than the well planned residential, but the average collection efficiency of the

town is 64% such amount of low efficiency shows that there will be great amount of

accumulation of solid waste makes a great problem of the town. It should be alerated;

however the precautionary measure should be necessary to clean the accumulation sites

by developing appropriate system. /5/

16.5 Existing system of MSW collection and transportation

The system of MSW collection and transportation in Dire Dawa town is listed

below:-

a. House hold and commercial wastes

1. Door to Door collection by small and micro enterprise and transport by 1.5-2m3

size hand carts. Transported to communal containers

2. Commercial collection:-

- The collection takes place by the 8m3 size communal containers which and

discharged by the lifter trucks.

b. Street wastes

Street sweeping are manually collected by 0.4-0.5m3 hand carts which are

directly discharged or loaded on 8m3 size communal containers. Which are placed at

different pints. /5/

c. Institutional wastes

Wastes generated in schools, hospitals and some industrial enterprises are

collected by the sanitation and Beatification agency and transported by lifter truck and

side loader trucks and some institutions have their own collection and disposal

systems. /5/

16.6 Treatment and processing of waste transformation

Transformation or treatment such as composting and incineration practices are

not exercised in large scale, but there is a little practical effort have been sorted now

production of compost from the solid waste by one associations.

The composition rote survey indicate that Dire Dawa has a potential waste

material to make composted and recyclable materials such as organic waste paper,

Glass, plastics and metals. /5/

16.7 Final Disposal system

Open /Random/ dumping is the predominant practice for the last years but now

a day there is a proper designed control damping area sanitary land fill prepared and

there is on attempt to purchase a machinery for operational purpose./5/

17. LIQUID WASTE MANAGMENT

17.1 Domestic/private sanitation facilities

In Dire Dawa town, there is no central municipal sewerage system at present. the

sanitary system and practice in the town is very poor unlined traditional pit latrines

are the most common technology in use in the town at present the town doesn't have

any system for the safe disposal of waste water. Each house hold is in charge of

disposing of its own waste. It is clean that the existing facilities don't coves the needs of

the town it terms of sanitary sate of affairs. /6/

Sanitation in Dire Dawa town at the moment is the responsibility of both the

water supply and sewerage authority and the sanitation band beatification agency. Even

though they have insufficient means of this disposal to adequately execute their role. The

water and sewerage authority have only two vacuum tracks for emptying the fillings of

the toilets. /6/

Sanitation technologies currently uses in the town are as follows,

Septic tanks and sock way pits

Private unlined pits traditional pits

Communal pit latrines

Public latrines

Open filed deifications and urination

One of the problems facing in urban settlement is the skill to cope with increasing

quantity of wastes, in spite of the growing demand of the population. Thus all urbon

settlements are facing with serious health and environment complications, as the existing

sanitation conditions true out to be worst by unrestrained po0pulaion increase and

urbanization. /6/

Two consecutive national population census had been carried out in the year 1984

and 1994 and analytical reports had been issued by CSA. The report included urban and

rural sanitation condition for the whole country. Where the project towns of Dire Dawa

town included. /6/

In the census analysis distribution of housing units or household is made by

Types of toilets facilities used

Types of bathing units/facilities/ used

There fore as the information obtained from CSA the position regarding sanitation

facilities is the town presented here below. /6/

Toilet facilities of Dire Dawa town by housing unites to 1194 census

Town All housing

unit

Types of toilet facilities

has no Toilet

Flush Toilets private

Flush Toilets Shared

PIT private

PIT Shared

Not Stated

Dire Dawa 36382 8531 1662 851 10831 13811 696

Bathing facilities of Dire Dawa town by housing unit as per 1994 CSA data

Town All

housing

units

Topes of Bathing facilities

has no

bathing

facilities

Bathing

private

Bathing

shared

Shower

private

Showers

shared

other Not

stated

Dire Dawa 36382 32743 326 59 1521 488 1007 238

17.2 Non-Domestic facilities

Non domestic facilities in Dire Dawa town are Hotels, Restaurants, Schools,

Health facilities and bars etc dispose, of their waster through pit letrines and septic

tanks and some of them dispose in open fields. /6/

17.3 Public sanitary facilities

Public bathing

There are 5 public bathing facilities operated in the town but there are a lot of

private public bathing facilities operating by charging 75 cents per uses

Public Latrines

Public latrines in all respect are for use by people who are away from this home

and for street dwellers and should be erected at cents area, shopping centers, bus

stations and market places. as stated above in Dire Dawa there are 12 public latrines

operating in the town or serving for people but the number is small when we compare

with the population growth and urbanization progress. /6/

18. Dire Dawa town environmental sanitation survery results

According to 2003 Dire Dawa health office sanitation base line survey result the

following waste management survey result. Have been presented in 2003.

18.1 Excreta Disposal

There is a significant different between urban respondents those who have a latrine the

urban respondents of 88.9% have a latrine and 11.1% have no latrine. In rural areas 18.7

% of the respondents have access of pit latrine. The rest 81.3% have no any type of

latrine. This shows urban dwellers have much more accessibility than the rural ones.

The reason why the rural respondents have not a latrines indicate in the survey was

financial problems. 73.3 % of the urban respondents who have not a latrine have a

reason of financial problem and the rest lack of space to constructs their own or

communal latrine.

37.4% and 44 % of the latrines were not in good condition in urban and rural areas

respectively. This shows most of the urban and rural latrines sanitary condition is not

good because of different conditions.

23.2 percent from the total respondents urban and 15.9% of the rural dwellers, have no

supper structure for their latrines. This is because of lack Knowledge about the use of

supper structure.

There is an important point of the survey finding is seen in the 129 /45% / respondent

of the urban arias, when the latrines are filled. They are seen play emptying manually by

digging another open pit. This practice was totally in Santeria and leads to gross

contamination.

Out of the 87 respondents 16% in urban aria who have latrine but they do not used by

the latrine, respond the reason why they are using their latrine was the bad smell of the

latrines .

In rural area 20.7 % of the respondents is not practice hand washing after using the

latrines. This shows there is very low awareness on hygiene education. But in urban

areas a large number of respondents /92/6%/ have practiced hand washing after

defecation.

60.9 % of the rural responds simply throughing their children faces in open filed. This

practices lead to for transmission diseases. Where as this type of practice is not

significant in urban respondents.

18.2 Liquid waste disposal

In urban and rural areas respondents asked the question of how to mange their liquid

waste excluding urine and feasus. In urban areas 63.3% disposed in un open field,

12.4% in the latrine, 19.5% in open ditch in rural areas. 98.5 % of the respondent

disposed their liquid waste in an open field and 1.5 % in their latrine.

Out of the 625 respondents in urban and rural area 95.7% and 100% of the respondents

have no any type of septic tank for liquid waste disposal system.

18.3 Solid waste disposal

90.6% of in rural area respondent about solid waste disposal system give the answer of

damping in an open field, 2.2% on their garden and 8% burning in their compound.

68.5% of the urban respondent disposed their solid waste on municipal container/

Garbage bines/, 1.9% by municipal truck, 6.5% in the pit, 9.8% burning in their

compound, and only 5.7% disposed in an open field. /but this is not practical figure

according to the practical open field disposal system of the town/.

91.5 respondents of the rural area have not any type of solid waste collection material

also 27.4% of the urban respondents do not have solid waste container.

Out of 254 respondents who have solid waste container in urban area 110 respondents /

40%/ does not have closed system containers for their solid waste containers. This leads

to for fly breading.

The types of solid waste generated from the house hold respondent of urban and rural.

Urban Rural Type of solid waste

1.57.8% 28.3% Rabbish2.2.2% 5.5% grass3.11.4% 32.1% Ash415.3% 6.2% fruits512.5% 0.9% Plastic products6.0.3% 20% animal dungAnd the rest other types of waste /that much not significant/.18.4 Food Hygiene

25% of the urban respondents were having the habit of row meat also 6.2 in rural areas

also 88.9% and 78% of the urban and rural respondents are know about the disease

transmission of row meat respectively.

The answer of the respondents about the knowledge of the type disease the are

transmitted by row meat as follows.

Type of diseases Urban Rural

1. Amoeba 10% -2. Tapeworm 76.4% 75.4%3. TB - 1%4. Ascaries 0.3% 0.5%5. Cough - 1%6. Dysentery 3.6% 1.9%7. Hook worm - 1.9%8. Jardea 0.3% -9. Intestinal parasite 19.6% 19.7%

9.6% in urban area respondents and 51% in rural area respondents have habit of drinking

row milk. 19.3% of the urban and 33.5% of the rural respondents do not know the disease

transmitted by drinking raw milk, but 90.2% of the urban and 71.5% respondents know to

make free the row milk from disease agents by boiling. However 28.5% of the rural

respondents do not know anything about method of milk preservation.

57.7% respondents in urban area and 44.8% in rural area used to eat row vegetable, but

42.3% and 55.2% of the respondents do not eat row vegetables.

75.3% in urban area respondents and 64.7% respondents of the rural area knows about

the disease transmission that comes but raw vegetables, but 24.7% in urban and 35.3% in

rural area respondents do not know the disease transmitted by row vegetables. But 90.8 of

the urban respondents and 75.9% of the rural respondents will know that makes row

vegetables free from disease by cooking.

Assessment of constitutions rights, polices, proclamation and regulation issues.

19. Statement of the problem

Lack of environmental sanitation probably causes more Illness and death than any simple

factor in the world today. although access to sanitation is a fundamental right that safe

Guards health and human dignity , world wide more than 204 million people lack access

to sanitation Facilities and are unable to practice the basic hygienic practices . Numerous

Infection and infestation of man are spread through inadequate sanitation facilities (2)

In Ethiopia recent organized data on environmental sanitation are scanty however some

studies Reports and experiences indicate that environmental sanitation situation is very

poor as a result it contributes to the occurrence of 60-80% of communicable diseases that

are major causes of mortality, mobility and disability, water and sanitation In adequacy

also hinder economical and social developments constitute a major ingredient to poverty

elevation and in equitability lead to environment degradation.(2)

Inherent to other regions of Ethiopia the environmental Sanitation condition of Dire

Dawa is not good, this result a very curious health problems such as diarrhea, Intestinal

parasite malaria etc….lack of sanitation Facilities also packed by over crowding ,In

creasing population and unemployment which results the In crescent of slummy areas and

street children in the town.

Most of the Dire Dawa population traditional hygiene and sanitation practice

Characterized by the Following Features (especially, in the Ashewa –near by Kebeles and

other sum areas) (7)

Excreta Disposal methods Remains unsolved so that in discriminate defecation

and handling of faces exist resulting in soil water and food contamination

consequently there is high incidence of gastro intentional infection and

infestation.

Liquid and solid waste disposed of in sanitary condition and hence serve

as a suitable harborages and breeding media for disease vectors such as

insects and rodents, create nuisance (odour and unsightly condition).

Adequate/quality and quantity) water supply provision is not satisfactory.

In General the sanitation sector has met with money set backs in the past

due to varied and several reasons few among the many are.

Lack of or low awareness of the community about health implication of

sanitation practices, hence, insufficient or no involvement of the

Beneficiary communities in the sanitation scheme development and

promotion.

Lack of or insufficient government Budget or subsidy and fund to the

sanitation program.

In adequate trained personals of various levels in order teach the

comminutes, design, appropriate Technologies, supervise the facilities to

a certain their proper usage up keep and maintaine and evaluate, The

Impacts of the Falsities In adequate Technology choice , No appropriate

sanitation Technologies which take in to account cost , weather , Ground

waters level, Availability of water construction materials , culture religion

and special needs of women and children, Appropriate designing of

latrines

Based on the above General Feature of environmental sanitation of Dire Dawa town. The

following major environmental sanitation problems Identified by Environmental

sanitation Assessment, which is conduct in 1994.

PROBLEMS OF ENVARONMENTAL SANITATION

Documents reviewed without exception report about sanitation issues need to be

resolved in order to improve the sanitation condition include,

1. Low awareness of linkage between sanitation and Health

2. Less priority given for sanitation by community because of the prevalent other

pressing needs

3. Lack of integration of sanitation with other sectorial development

4. Prevalence of uncleas institutional frame work roles and responsibilities of sector

ministries

5. Limitation of resources and Technology choice

6. Inappropriate or inadequate promotional methods

7. Bad reputation for traditional pit latrines

8. Non availability of affordable, durable and desirable latrine design

9. Inadequate sanitation facilities

20. Sanitation problems deep analysis

Waste is an inevitable result of living the nature (composition) and volume of waste

however varies with the source of waste and consequently the options for disposal.

Evidently waste from domestic site consists of human excreta which contain plentiful

pathogenic disease causing organisms and parasites that reside in the human intestinal

tract. Waste from domestic site also contains food waste. Both human excreta and food

waste are mainly organic and its allowed to accumulate with out treatment decomposes

thus generating malodorous gases. On the other hand if these wastes are made to compost

will be instead resource for agricultural production. Industrial site wastes may also

contain disease causing micro organism’s organic matter or toxic compounds. Thus

proper disposal of waste generated is essential for breaking the chain of disease

transmission and attain nuisance free removal of waste.

In the Ethiopia context primary source of waste particularly both in urban and rural

setting is from domestic sites. The other source of waste in the urban Ethiopia also

include waste from industrial waste institutions and storm waster, while hazard causing

waste in rural settings in Ethiopia all generate from domestic site alone. Safe drinking

water sanitation and hygienic practices are requirement for human health and for over all

reductions in morbidity and mortality rates specially among children studies indicate that

51% diarrhea reduction can be achieved with the use of latrine, 15% with the use of clan

water, 35% with proper sanitation and 32% with the practice for hand washing, as per the

health and health indicators of Ethiopia. Fiscal year 1995 published by panning

department of MOH. The under five child mortally, rates in Ethiopia is 177/100 which

20% of the death is caused by diarrhea.

21. Challenges in sanitation development

1. Low awareness of linkages between sanitation and health

Many people are an aware of the health impact that safe disposal of excreta brings about,

people usually to have latrine merely for the sake its convenience and service delivery

purpose.

2. Less priority given for sanitation by the community because of the prevalent

other pressing needs.

This is particularly the case of in rural areas where demand for basic food, education and

health facilities are more predominate and when open defecation is considered as a norm,

on the other hand demand for clean accessible water and willingness to contribute for the

same is comparatively high.

3. Lack of integration of sanitation with the provision of water

Despite the ongoing discussion of integrating water and sanitation at a higher level very

little is done in integration of the same at the community level. In fact most of the water

projects are given the name water and sanitation and are designed with in the aim of

bringing a health impact during implementation however.

4. Prevalence of unclear institutional frame work roles and responsibilities of

sector ministries

Policies, proclamation and regulations are already inn place but they lack clarity on

establishment of an institutional frame work. Roles and responsibilities of concerned

bodies have not been well defined. MOWR is tasked with the elimination of liquid waste,

which consists of transportation of waste water away from human population, but the

responsibility does not include the treatment of waste water until safe discharge in to the

environmental adoption of proper technology choices with inn the area of liquid waste

handling and disposal.

5. Limitation of resources and technology choice

There is a limitation of resources in terms of finance and skilled personal to promote

hygienic practice. The communities need to see role models who demonstrate before

them the beauty of a hygienic practice usually the private owners are expected to build

their own latrines and affordability of latrines which is much more expensive than water

is a issue.

6. Inappropriate or in adequate promotional methods

The approach that has been used in the past is mostly didactic. Not only it is didactic but

also it has never been continuous. This has always assumed if the people have head

knowledge about sanitation, they would put is in to practice head knowledge on its won

has not brought behavior change.

7. Bad reputation for traditional pit latrine

Although traditional pit latrines are affordable to many urban and rural communities, its

bad smell and substantial number of flies associated with it has been the draw backs for

its wide promotion of use collapse of poorly constructed latrines labs and fear of small

children falling in the pit latrines contracted is Amhara region has proved otherwise.

8. Non available of affordable durable and desirable latrine design

Quality of latrines constructed inn Ethiopia is generally poor. The master plan study

reported that over 50% of the latrines to be structurally un safe and 50% hygienically

inappropriate the need to demonstrate the different technological options, in the form of

sanitation ladder is there for important.

9. Expectation for subsidies

Particularly in rural Ethiopia where hygiene education and latrine use promotion is done

by NGO, communities are provided usually with samplat. This on the other hand limited

the expansion of latrine use since the other communities also expect for provision of san

plats by an external body demonstration latrines constructed in the past were also

inappropriate.

10. MICRO credit opportunities not explored

Cost of providing sanitation facilities at the house hold levels as the master plan study

indicates is about 4 times that of providing water supply. However to date except

subsidies that UNICEF through health bureaus and NGO’s provide the micro credit

opportunity has not been explored inn Ethiopia.

22. Dire Dawa water resource current status

22.1 Status of existing well fields

a) Dire Jara Well Field

In 1996, GIBB/ Seuereca, has conduct hydro geological study and selected Dire Jara area

as well field for Harar town water supply and subsequently, drilling results of bore holes

at Dire Jara well field shows that:

The water bearing formations are mainly fractured sandstones and lime stones

The overlying formations, basalts and alluvial deposits (silty clay and sandy clay) are

the confining layer the water bearing formations of upper sandstone and lime stone

Mostly water was struck at average depth between 120 and 140 meters below ground

level, while the static water level varies between 50 and 70 meters below ground

level

From the pumping test results 12 bore holes have well yield each greater than 20 l/s.

Currently additional drilling of production wells is underway in Dire Jara well field.

b) Sabian well field

Associated Engineering PLC (AE) carried out hydrogeological study in 1986 and

selected potential groundwater sites of Sabiyan well field located Northwest of Dire

Dawa town. The well field has areal boreholes distribution and wells spaced 200-300

meters apart.

Rehabilitation and pumping test on existing wells has been performed in 2002/2003 in

Sabian well field. Comparison was made between pumping test results during well

accomplishment in 1989, and before and after rehabilitation works. The results are

summarized as shown as below:

22.2. Existing ground water pollution level

General

The study of the groundwater quality was carried on the different geological formation

within the Dire Dawa Administrative Council territory on water samples collected during

the water points inventory program and analyzed for physical, chemical and

bacteriological analysis. In this section, it is attempted to classify the various types of

water in the different geological formations and compared with different standards to

evaluate their quality from different uses.

22.3 Ground water quality

Groundwater samples taken during the hydrogeological study of Dire Dawa basin were

analyzed. According to Ethiopian guidelines the analyzed groundwater of each geological

formation is compared and found that most of the tested water samples fulfils the

desirable level in their median except hardness. All ranges of value of tested water

samples fulfill the permissible level except some areas of nitrates value. The range, which

exceeds the permissible level are water samples from polluted boreholes and hand dug

wells.

Samples were also collected in the Dire Dawa town area for bacteriological analysis with

the objective to evaluate the human interference condition of the alluvial and sandstones

aquifers found within the town. As the result of analysis the following conclusion was

drawn:

High faecal coliform bacteria is observed in dug wells, while in bore holes in

most case the faecal bacteria is zero.

No correlation is observed between faecal coliform bacteria with nitrates,

indicating that the contaminated water has taken longer time than the lifetime of

the bacteria to reach the sandstone aquifer.

The sabiyian well field production wells water and reservoir water were found to

be free of both faecal and total coliform bacteria, except PW2, which could be

recent contamination or an outlier.

22.4 Pollution of the Groundwater system & Aquifers Vulnerability

The first report on the nitrate contamination of the hydro-geologic system in the Dire

Dawa town centre was reported in 1959 with maximum nitrate concentration of 45 mg/l.

Since then a number of records show that the contamination increasing from time to time.

For example, in 1981 it was recorded a maximum nitrate concentration of 320 mg/l. The

degree of nitrate concentration in the groundwater depends on the population density and

recharge condition in the area. There are two aquifers in Dire Dawa town area i.e. the

alluvial and the upper sandstone aquifer. The main aquifer that is exploited for the Dire

Dawa town water supply is the upper sandstone. This aquifer is vulnerable to pollution

due to moderate to high permeability of the alluvial sediments overlying the aquifer.

The main ground water contamination sources of Dire Dawa groundwater are:

Pit latrines and septic tanks, which form aerial distribution of

contamination due to their high density and forms a continuum by

diffusion since the town is without sewerage system.

Solid waste and waste water disposal along Dechatu river

Animal feed lots and irrigation areas

Faulty constructed dug wells and not properly abandoned wells

Waste from industries, cemeteries and fuel station, etc.

Recent drilling report indicate that wells drilled at a depth greater than 170

m in Sabian well field shows low concentration of Nitrate ions.

22.5 Water Samples collections and Hydro chemical analysis

For the study and analysis of the water quality of the groundwater of DDAC the

following numbers of water samples were analyzed during Phase II program:

72 water samples for physico-chemical analysis

26 water samples for Bacteriological analysis

Additionally, about ten previous physico-chemical analyses (with recent data) are

considered for further evaluation of the water quality of the various geological

formations.

Totally 82 physico-chemical analysis were used for classification and comparison with

water standards. The water quality parameters considered for analyses are physical,

chemical and bacteriological characteristics.

a) Physical characteristics: The main physical characteristics considered in

the analysis are:

Color, Turbidity, taste and odor

Temperature

b) Chemical Analysis: In the chemical analysis the following parameters

were determined.

The main cations (NH+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, total Iron and

Manganese)

The main anions (Cl-, NO2-, NO3-, F-, HCO3-, SO42-, and ortho PO43-

Total alkalinity as mg/l of CaCO3 and

Total hardness as mg/l of CaCO3

Electrical Conductivity @25oC

Total dissolved solids @105oC

PH @25oC

c) Bacteriological analysis

Faecal Coliform

Total Coliform

The laboratory data were entered in the DDAC groundwater database, checked for

correctness by checking the sum of cations to be equal to the sum of anions and by

correlating Conductivity with total dissolved solids (TDS.

The laboratory error for each analysis was checked by the following relationship:

Laboratory Analysis error (%) = 100*abs (Sum of Cations – Sum of anions)/(Sum of

Cations +Sum of anions)

All laboratory results were checked by the above relationship and it was found that more

than 86% of the analyzed samples were found to have less than 10% error and 14% of

them from 10 to 30% error. All laboratory results with lab error of more than 20% were

excluded from further analysis.

22.6 Water Quality indicators

As discussed earlier the main water quality indicators are physical, chemical and

bacteriological constituents of water. These constituents are highly influenced as a

function of geological formation and human interferences.

In this section the three main characteristics of the DDAC groundwater are described as

follows:

i) Physical and Chemical Characteristics

The physical characteristics considered in the present study are color, turbidity,

temperature, odor, taste, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH. The water quality analysis

showed that almost all of the water samples analyzed are colorless, odorless, non-turbid

and tasteless.

The statistical value of the physico-chemical analysis of the groundwater of DDAC is

given in the following table.

Table 1 Statistical Physico-chemical Composition of DDAC groundwater

Water quality indicator pH

EC, S/cm Na+,mg/l

Ca++, mg/l

Mg++, mg/l

Mn4+, mg/l

Fe++ mg/l

Cl-, mg/l

NO3-, mg/l

F-, mg/l

HCO3-, mg/l

CO3--, mg/l

SO4-- mg/l SAR

Min 6.7 178.0 2.0 32.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 0.0 0.1 107.4 7.2 2.4 0.4

Max 8.5 3780.0 600.0 472.0 109.4 0.2 0.8 694.1 244.0 2.4 700.3 16.8 1213.0 1.8

Average 7.5 1171.9 72.3 151.9 28.6 0.1 0.1 110.9 34.0 0.6 403.7 12.0 120.1 0.5

St. Dev. 0.3 588.2 89.4 63.7 22.2 0.0 0.2 122.0 50.7 0.3 100.6 6.8 208.6 0.4

Var% 21.0 95.0 100.0 93.0 97.0 95.0 99.0 99.0 100.0 94.0 85.0 57.0 100.0 0.9

Sample No 76.0 76.0 68.0 68.0 68.0 48.0 31.0 75.0 71.0 73.0 68.0 2.0 74.0 76.0

The major and important physico-chemical parameters of the groundwater of Dire Dawa

area are discussed in this section.

Temperature:The temperature of the groundwater as function of surface elevation shows

the following relationship fig27. From the figure it can be seen that the groundwater

temperature increases when the surface elevation decreases with a correlation coefficient

(r) of 0.79.

Figure 1 Relationship of surface elevation versus groundwater temperature

The temperature distribution in the different geological formation (fig.28) shows that the

temperature of the alluvium and upper sandstones aquifers has relatively higher mean

temperatures. This is mainly governed by their location in the area i.e. the alluvium and

the upper sandstone aquifers are found at the foot of the escarpment of lowered elevation.

The basalts and basement rocks temperature is represented by springs emerging on the

escarpment of higher altitude. High temperature ground waters are recorded in the basalt

formation at the eastern part of DDAC i.e. thermal spring (Lega hartu spring) BH-01at

Armakule. Summary of temperature of various formations is given in table 20.

Table 2 Groundwater temperature variation in the various formations

Geological FormationsTemperature in deg.C

Min Max Mean MedianAlluvial 20.6 29.5 24.27

24.6Basalts 12.6 60 21.21 20.9

Upper Sandstone 18.7 28.6 23.11 24

Limestone 17.3 24.8 19.49 18.1

Basements rocks 16.7 22.3 19.20 19.15

Figure 2Temperature of groundwater versus different geological formations

PH of the groundwater: The pH of the groundwater in the various geological

formations varies from 6.7 (in the alluvium) to a maximum of 8.5 in the Upper sandstone

aquifers. The pH distribution in the various geological formations is given in fig 29. The

mean pH of all water bearing formation is about 7.5.

Conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS): The relationship of conductivity versus

total dissolved solids (fig30) for all geological formations gave the equation expressed by

the following formula.

TDS = 0.66 Cond, with coefficient of correlation of r = 0.95

For each geological formation the relationship of Conductivity versus TDS shows that all

the formations have similar relationships. i.e.

Relationship of Conductivity with TDS in various geological formations

No. Geological formation Regression equation Coefficient of

correlation

1 Alluvial TDS = 0.69 Cond 0.95

2 Basalts TDS = 0.62 Cond 0.96

3 Upper Sandstones TDS = 0.65 Cond 0.95

4 Hamanlei lime stone TDS = 0.57 Cond 0.95

5 Basement rocks TDS = 0.65 Cond 0.98

Groundwater temperature in different geological formations

20.7 20

SP-30 Lega HartuThermal spring

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Alluvial Basalts Upper Sandstone Limestone Basements rocks

Geological formations

Tem

p.

deg

.C

Temperature

Mean

The distribution of Conductivity and TDS versus geological formations is given in

fig31.a and fig31.b. From the figures the Upper sandstones and alluvial have higher

Conductivity and TDS compared to the other formations. Very high conductivity and

TDS is observed in the alluvial of Dire Dawa town. Similarly, in the Upper sand stone

where the conductivity greater than 1582 S/cm is observed in bore holes within the

center of the Dire Dawa town.

Figure 3 pH versus geological formations

Figure 4 Conductivity Versus TDS

Electrical Conductivity versus Total dissolved solids of all formation

TDS= 0.6588ECR2 = 0.9098

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Conductivity, ,MicroS/cm

TD

S, m

g/l

Figure 5 Conductivity and TDS distribution in various geological formations

a) Conductivity

b) Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids in the various formations

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

Alluvial Basalts Uppersandstone

Hamanleilimestone

Basement rocks

Geological Formations

TD

S, m

g/l

TDS

Mean

Conductivity distribution in Various Formations

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Alluvial Basalts Upper sandstone Hamanleilimestone

Basement rocks

Geological formations

Co

nd

uctiv

ity, m

icro

S/c

m Mean

Hardness: As can been from fig.32 all groundwater of Dire Dawa area can be considered

as hard with mean hardness of 512, 359.8, 543, 429.6, and 446 mg/l for alluvium, basalts,

upper sandstones, lime stone and basement rocks respectively. The median values are less

than the mean for all formations indicating that the distribution is log normal distribution.

Figure 6 Hardness Concentration in different geological formations

Hardness versus geological formations

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Alluvial Basalts Uppersandstones

Limestons Base,ments

Geological formations

Har

dnes

s, m

g/l

Hardness

Mean

Table 3 The Statistical values of hardness for all formation

Hardness

value

Geological formations

Alluvium BasaltsUpper

Sandstones

Hamanlei

limestone

Basement

rocks

Min 100.0 100.0 368.0 370.0 180.0

Max 1630.0 790.0 940.0 496.0 770.0

Mean 512.6 359.6 543.0 429.6 446.3

Median 465.0 278.0 476.0 430.0 415.0

The highest recorded hardness 1630 mg/l is from shallow unprotected Dug well at Gebre

Anano with five meters water level depth caused by high pollution.

Nitrates: Although some igneous rocks contain small amounts of soluble nitrates or

ammonia, in general nitrates are not derived from the minerals in the rocks or sediments.

Natural nitrates ranges from 0.1 to 10mg/l. The nitrate concentration in the different

geological formation is given in fig.33and table 22.

Table 4 Nitrate concentration in different formations

Nitrates (mg/l)

Geological formationsAlluvium Basalts Upper

SandstoneHamanlei limestone

Basement rocks

Min 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.2 7.9Max 244.0 25.5 220.0 14.1 46.2Mean 26.7 11.7 67.0 8.3 20.7Median 11.0 9.2 35.2 11.2 13.6

Figure 7 Nitrate distributions in different geological formations

Nitrates versus various geological formations

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

Alluvial Basalts Upper sandstone Hamanleilimestone

Basement rocks

Geological formations

NO

3, m

g/l

Nitrates

Mean

The chemical contaminants of principal importance that are derived on-site sanitation are

nitrates and chlorides.

High correlation (fig34) between chlorides and nitrate indicates that the origin of high

nitrates in Dire Dawa town is certainly sewage.

Figure 8 Chlorides versus NitratesHigh nitrate, chlorides, calcium and sodium concentration is observed in the wells found

within the Dire Dawa town.

i) Bacteriological Analysis

26 water samples were collected in the Dire Dawa town area for bacteriological analysis

with the objective to evaluate the human interference condition of the alluvial and

sandstones aquifers found within the town. The bacteriological analysis is given in table

23 and the following conclusion can be derived from the table.

High faecal coliform bacteria is observed in dug wells, while in bore holes in

most case the faecal bacteria is zero.

No correlation is observed between faecal coliform bacteria with nitrates,

indicating that the contaminated water has taken longer time than the lifetime of

the bacteria to reach the sandstone aquifer.

The sabiyian well field production wells water and reservoir waater were fournd

to be free of both faecal and total coliforrm bactria, expt PW2, whih ould be ceent

contaminationor an outlier.

Relationship of Chlorides versus Nitrates at Dire dawa Town

35138

Hafcat

Palace

DD food complex

Railway stationRas Hotel

Sabiyian W-7

Sabiyian W-6

E.A bottling

1Amdael

SabiyianPW-1Sabiyian PW-4

Sabiyian PW-8

NO3 = 0.7631CL - 15.711R2 = 0.6877

1

51

101

151

201

251

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Chlorides, mg/l

Nit

rate

s, m

g/l

Table 5 Bacteriological analysis, chlorides, Nitrates and sulphates

Code LocalName UTMeast UTMnorth Formation

Faecal Coliform

(per100ml)

Total Coliform

(per100ml) SWL,m CONDUCTIVITY TDS,mg/l NA,mg/l CA,mg/l CL,mg/l NO3,mg/l SO4,mg/l

BH-52 Rail way station 813936 1061662 Upper Sandstones 0 0 29.77 1582 1092 60 214 166 129.4 56.7

BH-07 D/Dawa food complex 814520 1063426 Upper Sandstones 25 480 30 1996 1060 40 188.8 144 155.32 92.3

BH-14 Hafcat #1 814865 1063384 Upper Sandstones 0 2740   1810 1245 80 240 216 184.8 221.5

BH-05 Cement Factory 812378 1061804 Alluvial 100 250 16 994 532 30 116 83.6   18.46

BH-06 Ras Hotel # 2 813870 1061350 Upper Sandstones 50 100 45 1393 946 60 200 150 115.28 50

BH-10 East Afri Bot#2 814020 1061049 Upper Sandstones 0 45 36.5 1137 834 40 152 80.6 92.84 39.56

DW-14 D/DEdible oil f 812941 1061925 Alluvial 45 210 23 1084 650 60 140 100 34.76 31.65

DW-30 Tony farm #1 811769 1063611 Alluvial 60 110 15.5 1168 724 5 183 91.2 25.5 65.9

DW-31 Christos school 814820 1061283 Alluvial 40 100 38              

SP-14 Cement Factory 812255 1061280 Alluvial 1500 1900   908 526 4 132 94.6 18.92 7.9

SP-21 Legehare 818219 1061625 Hamanlei Limestone 5 25   966 570 50 140 56.1 4.84 15.8

BH-43 Sabian Pw-1 812491 1063930 Upper Sandstones 0 0 13.5 1057 622 50 136 106 34.32 44.8

BH-44 Sabian Pw-2 812097 1063961 Upper Sandstones 80 100 9.3 1066 664 50 160 100 27.28 42.2

BH-46 Sabian Pw-4 812527 1063543 Upper Sandstones 0 0 19.7 1060 670 50 160 106 35.2 29

BH-47 Sabian Pw-5 812362 1063793 Upper Sandstones 0 0 15.9 1017 618 40 159 75.7 23.76 47.5

BH-13 Amdael well #1 814356 1064666 Upper Sandstones 20 110   1302 790 100 112 161 21.12 14.5

BH-2 Dechatu 816294 1058832 NA 0 160   784 470 10 140 28.6 27.72 12.1

BH-67 Textile A.W-2 814652 1064390 Upper Sandstones 30 100 32.13              

BH-70 Textile N.W 3 816584 1062892 Upper Sandstones 0 820 14.86              

DW-26 Goro(sheh Moham 810773 1062220 Alluvial 600 640   1279            

DW-22 Catholic ch. 816161 1061685 Alluvial 180 1000                

DW-23 ELFORA 811200 1062365 Alluvial 0 0 26              

DW-04 Tsehay Hotel 813009 1061596 Alluvial 120 290   1380 878 80 180 133 92.4 15.8

DW-21 Cement Factory 812282 1061937 Alluvial 1400 2400 5.7              

WSS-1 Reservior       0 0                

WSS-2 Tap       5 20                

22.7 Water Quality of different geological formations

To classify the type of waters in each geological formation and determine their

relationship, different graphical methods of interpretation of the chemical analysis and

correlation of major ions of the different formations is carried out. For the classification of

the water type in the different formations piper is used for each geological formations

applying Aquachem computer software. The Piper Diagrams for each geological formation

are given in fig35.

i) Piper Diagrams for Classification

a) Alluvial Sediments

Alluvial sediments piper in fig. 35.a clearly shows that the water types in the alluvial

deposits varies in a wide range. The major water types are Ca-Mg-HCO3, Ca-HCO3-Cl,

Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4, etc. The water type with

chlorides, sulphates and sodium are the modification of the water by human interference in

the Dire Dawa town and unprotected shallow dug wells.

b) Basalts:

Piper Diagram of the Basalts groundwater (fig35.b) shows that the ground waters are Ca-

HCO3, Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3 are the major type of waters. It should be noted

that similar to the alluvial sediment water types with chlorides are ground water that the

water quality is modified by human interference.

c) Upper Sandstones and Hamanlei Limestones

The piper diagram of the upper sandstones and Hamanlei lime stones (fig35.c) show a

wide variety of water types. The main water types are Ca-HCO3, Ca-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Mg-

HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-Cl-HCO3, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4, etc.

Evaluation of the water types in the different part of the area the following results are

found:

Water types of Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 are distributed at Dire Jara well field,

Serkama well at Hurso and recently test well drilled at Bore TW4. These bore holes

are located in the rural areas and free from human activity and under protected

conditions.

The Sabiyian well field bore holes have been modified to Ca-HCO3-Cl (PW2 and

PW4), Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl (PW-6 and PW-8) and Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl (PW-7)

indicating that the groundwater of Sabiyian well field is modified.

Similar to the Sabiyian well field the groundwater of Dire Dawa town have

different water types Ca-HCO3-Cl [Ras Hotel (BH-06), Railway (BH-52), BH-10,

BH11, etc], Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl (Melka Jebdu BH-09,

Palace bore holes), Ca-Mg-Na-Cl-SO4 and Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4 (Hafcat wells BH-14

and BH-15). In general the bore holes in Dire Dawa town and its periphery (Melka

Jebdu) have high concentration of chlorides, sulphates and sodium unlike bore

holes far from the town.

d) Basement rocks

Unlike the other formations, the basement rocks outcrops on the escarpment and the

groundwater of the weathered and fractured of the formation or recharged by the limestone

emerges as springs favored by its topography. Piper diagram of basement rocks (fig35.d)

also shows that the diversity of water types is limited and most of them are Ca-HCO3 and

Ca-Mg-HCO3. However, there some unprotected springs (Halobusa SP-2, Adada SP-4 and

SP-8), which have high chloride concentrations.

Figure 9 Piper Diagram of all water bearing formations

a) Alluvium Sediments

b) Basalts

c) Upper Sandstones and Hamanlei limestones

d) Basement rocks

ii) Relationship of groundwater in the different formations

The relationship of the groundwater in different geological formation is preliminarily

evaluated by correlating the average major ions of one of the formation with the other

formations (fig36).

The correlation results are summarized in table 24.

Table 6 Summary of Correlation of average major ions of the formations

No. Correlated formation EquationCoeff. of

correlation (R2)1 Alluvial versus Basalts PN =0.6Q + 27 0.872 Alluvial versus Upper sand stone Ka = 0.8Q + 0.9 0.953 Alluvial versus Hamanalei lime stone Jh = 0.97Q – 46.8 0.904 Alluvial versus Basement rocks PC = 0.90Q –28.9 0.945 Basalts versus Upper sandstones Ka = 1.07PN – 5.4 0.736 Basalts versus Hamanlei lime stones Jh = 1.18PN – 48.8 0.637 Basalts versus Basement rocks PC = 1.12PN –31.9 0.678 Upper sandstones versus Hamanalei

limestone Jh = 1.12Ka – 45.9 0.929 Upper sandstone versus Basements PC = 1.06Ka –28.1 0.9510 Hamanalei lime stone versus Basements PC = 0.92Jh +17.3 0.99

As it can be seen from figure 36 and table 24 the groundwater in the different water

bearing formation interacts each other. In general the following preliminarily

understanding can be derived from the above relationships.

The alluvial water bearing formation shows high relationship with the other water

bearing formation and there is groundwater movement to the lower water bearing

formations forming one groundwater system in the area.

Comparatively the basalts ground waters do not highly correlates with the other

formations water indicating that the basalt aquifer is relatively isolated or the

groundwater distribution is highly localized.

Upper sandstone aquifer and Hamanalei limestone aquifer highly correlate

indicating that these aquifers form one complex aquifer unit.

The Limestone and basement aquifers major ions are almost identical. This is

probably the springs from weathered and fractured basement rocks, mainly gets

from the overlying fractured and sometimes karstified limestone.

The above conditions make it possible to consider the DDAC as one groundwater system

for all formations together.

Figure 10 Correlation of average major ions of various formations groundwater

a) Alluvial water versus other formations

b) Basalts water versus other formations

c) Upper Sandstone waters versus other formations

Correlation of average major cations and anions of alluvium sediments with the other formations

Basalts = 0.6Alluvium + 27.

R2 = 0.8718

sandstone= 0.8all+ 0.9

R2 = 0.95

Basement = 0.9094alluvium - 28.9

R2 = 0.94

Limestone = 0.97alluvium - 46.845

R2 = 0.90

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0

Average major cations and anions of alluvium sediments, mg/l

oth

er

form

ati

on

, m

g/l

Correlation ofaverage major cations and anions of Basalts with the other formation

Sandstone= 1.073Basalts - 5.4

R2 = 0.73

Limestone = 1.184Basalts - 48.8

R2 = 0.6371

Basement = 1.1216Basalts - 31.905

R2 = 0.6745

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Average major cations and anions of basalts, mg/l

oth

er

form

atio

ns

d) Hamanalei limestone water versus Basement formation

Correlation of average cations and anions of upper sandstones with the other

formations

Basement = 1.06sandstone - 28.1

R2 = 0.95

Limestone= 1.128Sandstone - 45.9

R2 = 0.92

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Average major ions of upper sandstones, mg/l

aver

age

maj

or io

ns o

f oth

er

form

atio

n, m

g/l

Correlation of average major ions of Hamanlei limestones versus basement rocks

Basement= 0.9158Limestone + 17.3

R2 = 0.99

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0

Average major ions of limestone, mg/l

Av

era

ge

ma

jor

ion

s o

f

ba

se

me

nts

, m

g/l

22.8 Water quality criteria (standards)

To Asses the suitability of the groundwater for different purposes, it was necessary

to apply criteria or standards of acceptable quality. The major purpose standards of

acceptable quality are as follows.

a) Drinking water

b) Irrigation water

c) Industrial water

a) Drinking water standards

To analyze the suitability of the groundwater of the DDAC for drinking purposes it

was compared with Ethiopian Guidelines Specification for Drinking Water Quality

March 2002 (table 26).

According to Ethiopian guidelines the groundwater of each geological formation is

compared. As can be seen from the above table most of the tested water samples

fulfils the desirable level in their median except hardness.

All ranges of value of tested water samples fulfill the permissible level except some

areas of nitrates value. The range, which exceeds the permissible level are water

samples from polluted boreholes and hand dug wells.

B) Standards of water for Irrigation purpose

Irrigation water classification based on Sodium Adsorption ratio (SAR) DDAC

groundwater. Sodium concentration is important in classifying irrigation water

because sodium reacts with soil to reduce its permeability. The salinity laboratory

of U.S. Department of Agriculture recommends the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

because of its direct relation to the adsorption of sodium by soil. It is defined by

SAR = Na/ [(Ca + Mg)/2

Where the concentration of the constituent are expressed in milli-equivalent per

liter.

The classification of SAR in terms of suitability is tabulated below.

SAR Class

< 10 Excellent10-18 Good18-26 Fair> 26 Poor

Table 7 Comparison of DDAC groundwater qualities with Ethiopian Guidelines for drinking water-2002.

PropertyEthiopian Guidelines

Value (2000), mg/l

Alluvial sediments Basalts Upper Sandstones Hamanalei limestone

Basements Remark

Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Median

Sodium (Na) 358 4.0-300.0 80.0 12.1-412.3 50.0 14-125 50 8.0-50.0 12.0 2-140 37.5

Chloride (Cl) 533 23.1-694.1 92.9 12.1-412.3 56.1 8-331 100.1 13.0-67.1 23.1 28.6-226.6 58.85

Boron (B) 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

Iron (Fe) 0.4 0.01-0.09 0.01 0.01-0.39 0.2 0.01-0.78 0.06 0.01-0.116 0.05 0.01 0.01

Manganese (Mn) 0.5 0.01-0.2 0.1 0.1-0.2 0.1 0.0-0.2 0.1 0.05-0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

Sulphate (SO4) 483 2.6-1213 48.8 2.4-1000.5 62.0 14.5-448.5 56.7 7.9-142.0 23.7 2.64-168.8 17.01

Total hardness (as CaCO3)

392 110-1630 465 100-790 278 368-940 476 370-770 430 180-770 415 Median above

pH 6.5-8.5 6.67-8.1 7.54 7.03-8.03 7.69 7.01-8.49 7.4 7.23-8.18 7.43 7.3-7.74 7.56

Nitrate (NO3) 50 0.4-244.0 11.0 0.0-25.5 9.2 0.2-220.0 35.2 0.2-14.1 11.2 7.9-46.2 13.6

Fluoride (F) 3.0 0.27-1.4 0.67 0.15-2.39 0.51 0.0-1.4 0.53 0.22-0.55 0.43 0.16-0.81 0.42

The SAR of the total samples analyzed in DDAC varies from 0.4 to 1.8 with a mean of

0.5. Therefore, the tested water samples are excellently suitable from the point of their

SAR value for irrigation.

ii) Irrigation water classification according to USSL method.

The Feasibility Report classification based the United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL)

is acceptable (fig.38).

From the figure it clearly depicted that almost all of DDAC groundwater has High

salinity hazard (750 –2250 micro S/cm) and low sodium hazard (SAR<10) and can be

used on soils with adequate drainage with special salinity management.

Figure 11 Suitability of water for Irrigation (USSL-Method) -all water samples

c) Standards for industry

It should be apparent that the quality requirements of water used in different

industrial processes very widely varies i.e. high-pressure boilers must meet

extremely exacting criteria where as water of as low quality as sea water can be

satisfactorily employed for cooling of condensers. Even within each industry,

criteria cannot be established; instead only recommending limits.

Water for industrial use not only must satisfy a certain quality level but also a

relative constancy of its constituents should be guaranteed. Water characteristics

to be considered are: the corrosive or encrusting behavior of the water, its

hardness, the pH, the salinity and its iron and silica content. Various types of

industries demand water with different water quality.

23. Major ground water pollution source in and around Dire Dawa

23.1 GENERAL

The first report on the nitrate contamination of the hydro-geologic system in the

Dire Dawa town centre was reported in 1959 with maximum nitrate concentration

of 45 mg/l. Since then a number of records show that the contamination

increasing from time to time. For example, in 1981 it was recorded a maximum

nitrate concentration of 320 mg/l. The degree of nitrate concentration in the

groundwater depends on the population density and recharge condition in the

area.

According to Taye Alemayehu, (1988) report it was stated that Dire Dawa town is

a fast growing industrial and commercial town, which produces pollutants in great

quantities. The town has no sewer system and wastewater treatment plant. The

main sources of pollution are multiple point sources pollution of pit latrines and

septic tanks and linear source pollution of industrial and domestic waste disposal

along the sandy seasonal river channels.

Human waste disposal in the town are pit latrines and septic tanks. The rapid

infiltration condition of the unsaturated zone of the sandy formation of the area

and shallow groundwater condition have facilitated to receive large amount of

contaminant load into the groundwater. The filling of pit latrines and septic tanks

is rare chance. It is estimated that annually about 65,000 tons human excreta is

dumped in the groundwater system and about 10,000 m3 of solid wastes were

accumulated on three hydro-geologically favorable to pollution areas. Dire Dawa

textiles factory discharges waste water with TDS of 7500 mg/l with abundant of

sodium, chlorine and sulphate in the Lege Hare river channel.

23.2 Aquifers Vulnerability

There are two aquifers in at Dire Dawa town area i.e. the alluvial and the upper

sandstone aquifer. The main aquifer that is exploited for the Dire Dawa town

water supply is the upper sandstone. The main aquifer (upper sandstone) is semi

confined overlaid by the alluvial aquifer. The groundwater level depth (fig41) and

groundwater level elevation maps (fig42) show that the groundwater level is deep

along Dechatu river and at the same time is the overlying alluvial and the upper

sandstones are highly permeable and the groundwater flow concentrates along the

river. Along Dechatu river fan the upper sandstones aquifer is highly vulnerable to

pollution due to the high permeability about 5 m/day of the alluvial sediments.

Away from the Dechatu river to the west the alluvial becomes finer and the

permeability decreases to 1m/day, the upper sandstone aquifer is also vulnerable

to pollution. In general the upper sandstone aquifer at Dire Dawa town area is

vulnerable to pollution due to the high to moderate permeability of the alluvial

sediments overlying the aquifer.

23.3 Sources of groundwater Contamination

The main ground water contamination sources of Dire Dawa groundwater are:

Since the town is without sewer system, Pit latrines and septic tanks forms

aerial distribution of contamination due to their high density and forms a

continuum by diffusion.

Solid waste and waste water disposal along Dechatu river

Animal feed lots and irrigation areas (Hafcat, Tony and Amdael farms)

Faulty constructed dug wells and not properly abandoned wells

Waste from industries, cemeteries and fuel station, etc.

The main sources of contamination and their location (excluding pit latrines and

septic tanks are given in table 31 and fig43.

Table 8 Inventory of Contamination sources within Dire Dawa town

Source Location UTMN UTME Elevation Physical setting of the site

Description of contamination source Description of contaminant Date of

source type Apperances Type Nature of Release Areas affected site visit

1 D.D Textile Factory 1061995 816583 1189 Flat plain Waste water from industry surface costic soda, H2O2, NaSO4, H2SO4Line, point   16/02/2003

2 Hafcat dairy farm 1062851 815079 1159 Flat plain, near Decahtu river Animal feedlots, irrigation surface   Point, Diffuse 120000m2 16/02/2003

3 Amdael Agri-farm and diary 1064603 814550 1128 Flat plain, near Decahtu river Animal feedlots, irrigation surface   Point, Diffuse 270000m2 16/02/2003

4 Elfora 1062105 812470 1178 Inclined to the east solid waste and waste water surface   line   15/02/2003

5 Main 1062911 815528 1155 Inclined to the east Cemetry Unsaturated zone   Point 90000m2 15/02/2003

6 East Africa bottling 1060725 814353 1205 Inclined to the east Waste water from industry surface   line   15/02/2003

7 D.D. Food complex 1063470 814420 1175 Slightly inclined to NE direction Waste water from industry surface   line   15/02/2003

8 D.D. Slaughting factory 1062634 811558 1188 flat plain Waste water from industry surface   Point   15/02/2003

9D.D. Solid waste disposal area 1063541 815485 1147

Slightly inclined towards Dechatu river solid waste and waste water surface   Points 120000m2 15/02/2003

10 Total Fuel station 1061089 814724 1208Slightly inclined towards Dechatu river Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line   16/02/2003

11 Agip/shell fuel station 1061200 813750 1199 Slightly inclined to North direction Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line   16/02/2003

12 Shell fuel station 1060730 813880 1211 Slightly inclined to North direction Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line   16/02/2003

13 Legehare Cemetry 1061027 815743 1243Slightly hilly and inclined to northeast Cemetry Unsaturated   Point 157500 16/02/2003

14 Christos school 1061283 814820 1236 Slightly hilly and inclined to north Abndoned well Below water table   point   16/02/2003

15 St Gebriel school 1061800 813338 1201 Flat plain along Dechatu river Abndoned well Below water table   point   16/02/2003

17 Garages, machine shops 1061450 813500 1180 Plain Salvage yard, garage, machine shop Surface   point   16/02/2003

18 WFP(Abikian) 1063061 814317 1189 flat plain Abondoned well Below water table   point   16/02/2003

19 Tony Farm well 1063118 811366 1181 flat plain faulty constructed well Below water table   pont   16/02/2003

20 Tony farm 1063118 811366 1181 flat plain Irrigation practice, manuring surface   diffuse   16/02/2003

21Goro kebele, sheh Mohammed 1062220 810773 1211 rugged plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table   point   16/02/2003

22 Goro kebele 1062334 810738 1215 rugged plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table   point   16/02/2003

23 Tsehay Hotel 1061596 813009 1179 Plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table   Point   16/02/2003

24 Cement factory 1061937 812282 1180Slightly hilly and inclined to southwest faulty constructed dug well Below water table   Point   16/02/2003

25Cement factory (Butiji spring) 1061280 812255 1185 depression Unprotected spring surface   Line   17/02/2003

23.4 Contamination Condition of the upper sandstone aquifer

Since the Dire Dawa area \groundwater is generally vulnerable to pollution and

the on site sanitation contamination is directly related to population density. As

can be in figs 44, 45, 46, and 47 the high nitrates and chlorides concentrations are

distributed where the population density is high. High chlorides concentrations

are also found at Hafcat and Palace area. High concentration of Sulphate within

the town is found at high population density areas and at low population density

areas at farming plots of Hafcat, Tony etc.

From Nitrates, Chlorides and Sulphate concentration distribution in the upper

sandstones aquifer in the Dire Dawa town area the following observations are

made:

High concentration is directly related to high population density, farming

and industrial areas

The high concentration plume is flowing along the groundwater flow

direction

At the Sabiyain well field a localized plume of Nitrates, chlorides and

sulphate are flowing to the well field. At present some of the wells in the

well field are located within the zone of 50-100 mg/l of Nitrates.

The pollution condition of the Dire Dawa area is highly manifested mainly due to

the absence of sewerage system in the town. This condition may not be resolved

in the near future. In order to have an early warning system on the rate of Nitrates

and chlorides contamination of Sabiyian well field, it is highly advisable to start

water quality monitoring work along the advancing plumes of from southeast to

northwest direction on the following monitoring wells i.e. Dire Dawa food

complex water supply well and PW9, PW6, PW4, PW5 and PW2 of the Sabiyain

wells. Here is recommended to carry out analysis of main cations and anions

including nitrates two times per year (in July and January).

It was not possible to model the extent and amounts of nitrates pollution and other

contaminants since there is not sufficient data to construct flow model as stated

earlier.

24. Urban Green Areas

Over the past few decades the city of Dire Dawa has preserved natural and aesthetically

pleasing green areas in various metropolitan landscapes. Especially, these are found on

street green belt, in urban parks, in public and private gardens in natural and semi natural

green zones including urban woodlands. Landscapes along stream banks and flood plains

in and around the city have been farmed by peri-urban inhabitants and were kept green

and hygienic.

Various exotic and land race tree species have been maintained in public and private

gardens, and along streets and avenue landscapes of the metropolitan.

In spite of the urban population growth and associated growing demand for greenery

during the past 20 years, only few green structures, i.e. one municipal and three private

parks, were developed for public greenery and recreation access. Few plantations have

been made on roadsides, peri urban areas and over the ground water buffer zone.

Except few ecological land race Acacia species left as a natural remnant in conservation priority areas at the southwest, a vast green

zone in the north and most gullies, stream banks, flood plains unkempt lots, and utility right off ways at various parts of the city are

covered by exotic invasive species, i.e. Prosopis juliflora and Parthenium hystrophorous, which are known to be a major threat for the

green biodiversity.

24.1 Existing green area features of the city

Recreation and leisure are fundamental aspects of human life, which provide relaxation

entertainment, and personal and social development. According to the Dire Dawa spatial

development report (NUPI, 1994) the most important elements of green area system

includes: private green yards and small public green areas, semi public institutions, land

between buildings, street trees, green areas along some dry rivers, stream channels, flood

plain green areas, private horticulture, trees and wood lands.

I) Residential greenery

According to the green area assessment sample survey study made on residential

settlements of transition and expansion zones, about 95% of the housing plots are found

to deserve green vegetation with an average coverage ratio of 12% per plot size. How

ever, higher green area as high as (30%) coverage has been observed in compounds of

the public facilities and social service providing offices and institutions. This shows that

green areas/trees are important to moderate the climate of the area.

Except in some government quarters, sub neighborhoods green areas are less developed

because open spaces and play lots are scarce in most portion of the city (see Table 18

below).

Table 1. Existing green area structural components of the city

No Type of greenery Area estimate [ Ha]

Remarks

I Developed green areas1.Green belt along street

Avenue trees [9km] Road Island Squares [Six squares]

3567.87.3

0.550.04

Total city road length is 187 km [asphalt covers 31 km][RasHotel,Ferensai,Municipal,Laga-har, Tedros&Michael]

2.Residential greenery Home stead Office/public institution

132.265.067.2

3. Parks and gardens Private parks/gardens Municipal parks/gardens Hotel gardens

4 Sport fields.

18.761.0116.21.537.24

FunctionalUnfunctionalFunctionalFunctional, but not green

6.Agricultural land 190 (C.S.A report) II Natural/semi natural greens

1. Open access/Bush & Shrub/1181.12

1112 (1994 master plan report) 2.Reserved area 61.2 3.Youth centers 0.90 4. Play grounds 9.017.12 Total 1539.1

Source: - Urban sanitary and beatification office, Land supply study, [DDIPO, 1996], CSA and Kebeles

II) Neighborhood green network

It includes open areas, pedestrian lands, parking lots, play grounds, riverbanks/channels,

conservation and buffer areas, and woodlands on the flood plains.

Currently, out of the former 25 kebeles, playgrounds of different sizes ranging from

6440m2 to 14479 m2 are distributed in each one of the 13 kebeles’, and all of them are

undeveloped open spaces.

Table 2 Playground facilities at kebele level

No Kebele Size of play

ground [Ha]

1 Keb. 01 15000

2 Keb. 02 20417

3 Keb. 03 8574

4 Keb. 04 7066

5 Keb. 05 9625

6 Keb. 06 No

7 Keb. 07 6440

8 Keb. 08 8400

9 Keb. 09 14479

Total 90001

In the peri urban areas of the city, i.e. Melka Jebdu, Lega Hare, Butiji, horticultural

orchards are developed at respective riverbanks. Few farm and conservation plantations

are developed at few parts of Dechatu flood plains, while most portion of Dechatu, Goro

GTZ, Butiji and air port flood plains are still un developed and remains a major threat of

flooding hazard.

Hilly areas of Butiji-Goro, Goro-MelkaJebdu, Lega Hare, Genda Gerada, and Addis

Alem are degraded hills except little coverage at Addis Alem hills. Butiji-Melka Jebdu

hills are conservation priority areas for the groundwater aquifer protection. The only

developed buffer areas include plantation of Sabian groundwater well field, near Gende

Tesfa, and the banks Melka Jebdu flood plain cemetery buffer areas.

As far as woodland and urban forest is concerned, the Melka Jebdu peri urban prosopis

plantation is the only wood lot for urban fuel wood supply. However, natural woody

shrubs and trees around Melka Jebdu and the vicinity urban rural peasant association’s

(PA’s) constitute the natural green nets. The survey made during data collection showed

that many areas are under severe degradation in and around the City table 20. below.

Table 3 Size and distribution of degraded ecology and undeveloped green areas in and

around the city.

No Green area structures (natural semi natural

greens)Landscape location and size

I

Degraded ecology

Site (Gps Location) Size (Ha)

1. Urban hills and food plains. 1.1 Genda Gerada hills 1.2 Lega Hare hills

47.84166.4

1.3 Addis Alem hills 1.4 Butiji Goro hills 1.5 Dechatu flood plains 1.6 Butiji flood plains 1.7 Leg Hare flood plains 1.8 Air port approach flood plains 1.9 Goro-GTZ flood plain 2.0 Melka Jebdu flood plain

46.4153.559.16.2

20.1-

17.83.1

2. Degraded ecology of groundwater aquifer

Butiji-Melka Jebdu 240.8

II Less developed poorly managed green belts

1. Road and avenue trees 2. Road Island 3. Squares

187

III Un developed and poorly managed public recreation amenity and parks 1. Municipal recreation amenities

1.1 Lega Hare parks 1.2 Kezira parks 1.3 Butiji parks 1.4 Airport left location 1.5 Cuba camp recreation 1.6 Festival place at Dechatu 1.7 Youth center (at each kebele and city level)

16.070.1626.8813.6216.35

512.16

(11.25+0.91)2. Sport field 2.1 One stadium at kebele level

2.2 One big stadium at city level 11.25

43.Private gardens and parks 3.1 Existing private park

Jungle Park Dini Park Sami Park

3.2 Additional private parks

0.560.150.3-

IV Less developed green/ open space

1. Residential settlement 2. Office and commercial settlement 3. Industrial settlement 4. Public facilities

15% total plot25% " "10% " "50% " "

V Undeveloped preserved areas and buffer zones

1. Airport road right 2. Sabian groundwater wellfield 3. Shinile cemeteries buffer zone

15.137.6-

VI Undeveloped urban open access /wood land/

Melka Jebdu (peri-urban) -

Vll Low accessed Urban nursery and Botanical garden

Existing Goro nursery 8.9

VIIl Low accessed peri urban farmland.

Butiji-Goro valley and Boren. -

III) City wide green network

Includes formal green areas in the form of parks recreation areas, street side and green

boulevards.

IV) Parks and recreational areas

Survey made by this study shows that except 3 private parks located entirely in one

kebele (03), there is no municipal parks for public access. The Lega Hare Park, which

was planned to be a major municipal park, remains unfinished and ownerless project are

now in a state of demolishing .The Kezira Mini Park which used to serve minor

recreation facilities are now changed in to office.

No

Name of garden / parks Location Area size (Ha)

Number of residents within 1km distance from urban green space.

Number of public transport line leading to green space

I Public recreations and parks: 1. Airport- left -recreation 2. Lega Hare - recreation 3. Kaaba - Butiji - recreation 4. Cuba camp - recreation

kebele 03kebele 08kebele 02kebele 02

13.6216.0726.8816.35

89305013627822782

11-1

II Private gardens and parks: 1. Jungle - parks 2. Dini paradise- park 3. Sami - park

kebele 03kebele 03kebele 03

0.560.150.30

893089308930

141

III Hotel gardens: 1. Ras hotel garden 2. Tsehay hotel

kebele 04kebele 04

1.160.350

3283832838

22

Table 4. Size and distribution of recreation gardens and parks

Green areas reserved for recreational activities of special nature include parks, forest areas,

farms and research gardens.

Natural woodlands of Butij-Cuba camp, air port vicinal areas; Tony Farm and Goro nursery

are reserved as potentially citywide natural recreation centers.

Table 5. Size and distribution of reserved area

No Name of Area Location Area size (Ha)

1 Airport road (right) kebele 03 15.1

2 Airport road (left) kebele 03 38.5

3 Sabian-groundwater

well field

Kebele 02 7.6

Total 61.2

Source: - Dire Dawa Development and Improvement Project Office, 1996

V) Sport fields

Include main stadium, the city has got six sport fields for community access. However, except

the main stadium most of the rest fields are undeveloped open areas. Boulevard roads of

Kezira, Sabian and Fasika Hotel are presently used as a ridding field for bicycle riders and

athletics runner.

Table 6. Size, distribution and accessibility of Sport fields

Name of the

field Location

Sport Fields

Location Area (m2)

Number of resident with in 1km

distance from urban green space.

Number of public

transport line

leading to green

space

*Main stadium sport

field

Kebele 04 25731.4 42148 1

Sabian sport field Kebele 02 11100 2782 1

Leghare sport field Kebele 08 8400 50136 1

Police meret sport

field

Kebele 09 12000 12057 1

Konel sport field Kebele 07 15162 48860 2

*Total area of main stadium football field is 8250

VI) Street sides and green boulevards

Presently most street side trees are confined at city core areas of Kezira, Genda Kore, and to

some extent in Genda Dipo. It covers about 9 kms, which is only 5% of the total road size.

Table 7. Size and distribution of Squares and Boulevards

No Name of the square Location Area size (M2)

1 Ferensai square kebele 03 154

2 Ras hotel square kebele 03 28

3 Michael square Kebele 03 78.57

4 Tedros square Kebele 03 28

5 Lagahar square Kebele 03 28

6 Municipal square Kebele 03 63.64

Total 380.2 [=0.038 ha]

On the contrary green boulevards are mainly developed over the roads of expansion and

transition areas as in the Table ---below.

Table 8. Size and distribution of green boulevards along streets

No Location Area size [m2]

1 Ferensai-Sabian Road 1993.5

2 Ras Hotel-High School Road 460

3 Michael Road 96

4 Kefira Front Road 63

5 Administration Front Road 64

6 Firdbate-Food Complex Road 675

7 Lega Hare Road 1998

8 St. Mary Road 100

Total 5449.5[=0.54 ha]

Consequently, the roles of green structure in the past were limited to very few functions like

climatic amelioration (shade) and recreational amenity, while the vital ecologic, economic and

social roles of the green structures are still poorly understood.

The following Table 26 below shows the existing green area coverage and the standard

required to be meet in Dire Dawa. From the Table 26 there is a large gap between the actual

need and the standard.

Table 9. Existing green area in relation to demand

No Type of greenery Existing area

estimate

Required based on

norms and

standards

Remarks

1

Street and avenue

greens

9km 187 km

Total road length is 187

km of which asphalt

covers 31km

2

Residential greenery 132.2

[4 - 5%]

439-732

[15-25%]

3

Parks and gardens 18.76 ha 60 ha All existing functional

parks and gardens are

located in one kebele

[kebele03]

4 Sport fields.

4.92 ha 16.25 ha Only main stadium [2.5

ha] is developed green

area.

5

Play grounds 9.1 ha 27.2

[1m2/ person]

6

Agriculture and

wood land

190 ha Above 600 ha

However, in recent years, many municipal plans have pointed out the importance of green

areas for the following main purposes:

It allows restoration of ecological balance, reduce pollution and wind speed, and

replenish the ground water aquifer.

It improves the living environment and provides aesthetic pleasure and recreation

amenity.

It gives opportunity and access to use un build areas, such as unkempt lots, utility right

off ways, sand streams, flood plains and urban hills for urban forestry and agriculture.

Green areas are important in-situ conservation sites for plant biodiversity and corridor

for wild life.

Thus, in view of its immense functions spans of green nets are currently increased and include

the following basic components:

Home gardens and open areas /Green space at neighborhood level/

Green belts along streets /Avenue, road island and squares/

Recreational amenities [Public and private parks, Sport fields and youth centers]

Zoo, botanical gardens and nurseries.

Natural monument, cemetery buffer zone and worships places

Natural and semi natural urban woodlands and forest areas.

Urban farms /Mixed agriculture/

Protected and preserved areas that lie in and around the conservation priority areas of

the metropolitan.

& PROJECT PLANNING

91

Deterioration of the quality of life

EFFECTS

Accumulation of all types of wastes at critical parts of the cachment area

Inadequate collection and

disposal of solid waste

ACTIONS

Bad condition of the existing public

private and communal latrines

Inadequate collection and

disposed of liquid wastes

Open field urination and defecation is a

common practices

Economic restriction of the

municipality /government/

Inadequate infrastructures and sanitation facilities

The living standard of the community is

low

Technical and systemic

constraints of the

implementing bodies

Low level of community

awareness and participation on environmental

sanitation

REASONS/Causes

Public health

problem

Lead to water and open space

pollution

Clogging of urban

drainage system

Municipal budget demand

Emission of GHG

Wastage of use full resource

Breading ground for vector and

scavenging animals

Spoil the image of the city by vision & potential developers

Problem tree analysis of environmental

sanitation

Poor environmental sanitation

Prevalence of general

institutional frame work roles &

responsibilities off sector minister

Limitation of technical

choice

Core problems