U.S. History to Reconstruction

Unit 7 – The Federalist Era, 1789-1801

Starting the New Government On April 16, 1789, George Washington was

unanimously elected president by the Electoral College John Adams was selected as the Vice President Many thought his inaugural speech on April 30 was too

reminiscent of the English monarchy speeches to Parliament

Congress had to decide how to formally address Washington: “His Most Benign Highness,” and other kingly titles

fortunately gave way to “Mr. President” Washington’s skilled use of symbols of power were

key to his presidential success Successfully conveyed faith in the existence of a strong

republic

Starting the New Government Congress established three executive

departments: Secretary of War – Henry Knox Secretary of State – Thomas Jefferson Secretary of the Treasury – Alexander Hamilton

Bill of Rights One of Congress’s first tasks was debate over the

constitutional amendments that several states had made a condition of ratification

Congress sent twelve perspective amendments to the states in September 1789

Ten were approved to become the national Bill of Rights in December 1791

Starting the New Government Judiciary Act of 1789

Created the federal court system of 13 courts Purpose was to enforce national laws on a state level John Jay was selected as Chief Justice of the Supreme

Court Hamilton Tariff (1789)

Created a 5% tariff on all imported goods Helped the manufacturing north but harmed agricultural

south Count of the American Population

Necessary for proper representation in the House Undertaken in 1790 Found the U.S. population to be just under 4 million

Washington’s Inauguration (April 30, 1789)

Rise of Political Parties Development of political parties during this

period Mainly due to the ambiguity of republican ideology Both believed in the future of the U.S. but different

on how to transform the country from an agrarian society to an international power

Federalists Later referred to as the Hamiltonians, included the

likes of Alexander Hamilton and John Admas Called for the rapid integration into world economy Distrusted common man Strong national institutions

Rise of Political Parties Republicans

Included Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Jefferson

Would later be referred to as the Jeffersonians Faith in white yeoman farmers With no government intrusion, they could retain

virtue and resist crass materialism New dynamic public opinion

Politicians focused on public opinion Average people no longer deferred to their social

“betters” Period of increasing political debates, enflamed by

growth of newspapers

Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the

Treasury (1789-1795)

Hamilton’s Plans Two of Washington’s cabinet members would show

the growing split taking place in the 1790s: Hamilton and Jefferson

Hamilton caused the first disagreement Occurred when he submitted to Congress the first of

several major policy statements in January 1790 Ardent proponent of U.S. economic development

through domestic manufacturing and overseas trade Believed that competitive self-interest, whether that of

an individual or nation, was the surest guide to behavior

Hamilton’s politics were profoundly conservative in that he did not trust the people’s wisdom or their purposes

Hamilton’s Plans Main concern was over U.S. debt

Total debt of $54 million with additional state debt of $25 million

80% of debt held by speculators Hamiliton’s First Report on Public Credit

(January 1790) Called for the U.S. government to assume the

responsibility for the remaining state war debts All debts were to be repaid at face value Creditors were to exchange their badly

depreciated securities at face value for new, interest-bearing government bonds

Hamilton’s Plans Hamilton hoped these measures would:

Stabilize government’s finances Establish its credit Build confidence in the new nation at home and

abroad Tie business and commercial interests firmly to

the new administration Funding securities at face value seemed to

benefit speculators Mainly northern businessmen Hamilton believed the speculators who took the

risks should reap the benefits

Hamilton’s Plans Those states who had paid their debts were

opposed to federal assumption of them Included Pennsylvania and Virginia

Other critics were fearful of growing federal power Included Jefferson and James Madison Did not want most of the country’s debt in hands of

speculators Money people would look to the federal government

for a return on investment and that would spur federal use of taxation powers

Congress supported Hamilton’s measures Part of it due to southerners swapping support for a

federal capitol in the south on the Potomac

Hamilton’s Plans Second Report on Public Credit (December 1790)

Called for the creation of a national bank It would be capable of handling the government’s

financial affairs and pooling private investment capital Included making loans and issuing financial notes and

currency Opposition came almost entirely from the South

Critics said the Constitution did not support such an entity

Felt the bank would serve the needs of the northern merchants far better than those of southern agrarians

Also the belief that the bank might “perpetuate a large monied interest” to run the country

Hamilton’s Plans Hamilton defended constitutionality through

doctrine of “implied powers” Meant that the government had the authority to

make any laws “necessary and proper” for exercising the powers specifically granted it by the Constitution

In February 1791, the First Bank of the United States was created with a 20 year charter

Washington signed the bill He followed Hamilton’s arguments regarding the

“implied powers” of the Constitution over Jefferson’s strict reading of it

Hamilton’s Plans People were fearful that Hamilton was

bringing corrupt British system to America Another recommendation in his Second

Report was the creation of excise taxes It proposed a series of excise taxes, including one

on the manufacture of distilled liquor (so-called “Whiskey Tax”)

Signaled government desire to use taxing power to increase revenue

Hamilton know that the power to tax and spend was the power to govern

Whiskey Tax became law in March 1791

Hamilton’s Plans Report on Manufacturing (December1791)

Called for tariffs on imported European goods in order to protect American industries

Bounties to encourage the expansion of commercial agriculture

A network of federally sponsored internal improvements which were intended to stimulate commerce and bind the nation together

Opposition: Madison warned that program would strengthen

federal government at state expense Jefferson warned that the rise of cities would

destroy agriculture and agrarian civic virtue Southerners opposed to protective tariffs

Congress refused to pass these recommendations

Hamilton’s Plans In October 1791, opponents of Hamilton in

Congress establish a newspaper that vigorously attacked the administration’s policies Hamilton responded with a bunch of anonymous

articles accusing Jefferson (inaccurately) of having opposed the Constitution and of fomenting opposition to the government

Washington pleaded for restraint In northern towns, artisans and other working

people turned out to support Hamilton’s ideas

First Bank of the United States

The Whiskey Rebellion Whiskey Rebellion

Started by farmers in western Pennsylvania Upset at the federal government especially at the

Whiskey Tax Their livelihood depended on the transport of

surplus grain in the form of distilled alcohol This made it easier to ship over the Appalachians to

eastern markets Fearful of losing control over local affairs

They were being increasingly absorbed into the market economy and system of politics dominated by more populous, commercialized areas to the east

The Whiskey Rebellion Hamilton cared little about the farmers plight since

the government needed the revenue In the summer of 1792, angry citizens began

gathering at mass meetings across western Pennsylvania Denounced the tax and vowed to prevent its collection Washington issued a proclamation warning against such

“unlawful” gatherings In July 1794, a federal marshal and a local excise

inspector attempted to collect the tax 500 armed men cornered soldiers at the inspector’s

home Soldiers surrendered after an exchange of fire and the

home was burned Similar incidents occurred across the state

The Whiskey Rebellion Republican governor refused to act

Federalists interpreted as Republican conspiracy Washington called federal troops to restore order

He was fearful of an extended rebellion First opportunity to exercise federal authority

By late August, a federal force of 13,000 marched into western Pennsylvania As troops approached, “Whiskey Rebels” disappeared Twenty were captured and two sentenced to death

though they were later pardoned Afterwards there were harsh criticisms about

federal troops being used against American citizens

George Washington leading troops against the Whiskey Rebellion

Battle Over Foreign Affairs Foreign policy generated extraordinary

excitement during the 1790s French Revolution and European war that

accompanied it threatened to draw the U.S. in Age of democratic revolution

In Europe, Ireland, and the Caribbean, political insurgents were using the American Revolution as an inspiration for their own cause

France’s revolution began in 1789 as an effort to reform the injustices of a weakened monarchy Soon exploded into a radical rebellion with the

beheading of Louis XVI in 1793

Battle Over Foreign Affairs For more than a decade the revolution

dominated the stage in European politics Threatened American security Divided Americans deeply Created a huge diplomatic problem for the

American government French Revolutionary Wars shaped U.S.

political divisions Jeffersonian Republicans

Favored France States’ rights Strict interpretation of the Constitution

Battle Over Foreign Affairs Hamiltonian Federalists

Favored England Strong central government and economic planning Maintenance of order by federal troops

The decision was made to remain neutral in the war

By mid-1790s, American merchants were earning handsome profits from neutral trade with both England and France American shipbuilding was booming In 1800, American ships carried 92 percent of all

commerce between U.S. and Europe

Battle Over Foreign Affairs England and France wanted American goods but

also wanted to prevent goods from reaching the other Stopped American ships and confiscated their cargoes Royal Navy also practiced impressment French Treaty of 1778 seemed to obligate U.S. to side

with France British still occupied Ohio River Valley

Discriminated against American trade Franco-British War broke out in 1793

England violated American sovereignty and neutrality on high seas

Jefferson wanted to punish England by cutting off trade Hamilton wanted to appease England because too

strong

Battle Over Foreign Affairs The American public initially viewed French

Revolution as an extension of their own struggle for liberty By the mid-1790s many Americans pulled back in alarm

Federalists saw France as symbolizing anarchy and threatening European order Often seeking a way to bind the U.S. more closely to

England Others, including Jefferson, condemned the

excesses of the revolution but not the revolution itself Often saw England as a bastion of political privilege and

oppression

Battle Over Foreign Affairs Rebellions broke out throughout Europe

Supported by invading armies from France and inspired by the doctrine of natural rights

In 1791 a multi racial coalition rebelled against French rule in Saint-Dominque Conflict developed between white landowners,

mixed-race mulattoes and black slaves Led to a decade of warfare against 30,000 French

and British troops, 100,000 casualties and the devastation of the Haitian economy

Battle Over Foreign Affairs In 1798, the black majority, led by Toussaint

L’Ouverture, seized control of the revolt Made abolition of slavery the primary goal Six years later established Haiti as the first black

nation-state in the Americas For Americans, Haitian revolt demonstrated the

universal relevance of U.S. struggle for liberty It struck a blow against European colonialism in the

New World However, feared the effect of the rebellion on American

slaves Also cast doubt on racial assumptions that blacks could

not comprehend the true meaning of liberty U.S. did not recognize Haiti until the American Civil War

Toussaint Louverture (1743-1803)

Democrat-Republican Societies Political clubs served as tools of democratic

reform Provided safe havens for dissidents and intellectuals The Jacobin clubs in France were the most famous, but

similar organizations appeared in the United States As early as 1792, “constitutional societies” were

formed to oversee the rights of the people Some formed in opposition to Hamilton’s financial

program The increase in these clubs was spurred in 1793

by the arrival of Citizen Edmund Genêt, French minister to the United States Genêt had instructions to court popular support and

negotiate a commercial treaty

Democrat-Republican Societies Genêt began commissioning American

privateers to attack British shipping in the Caribbean Also enlisted Americans for attacks against

Spanish Florida, which would break American neutrality

When he urged Congress to reject Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation, Washington demanded he be recalled Genêt succeeded in fanning popular enthusiasm

for France

Democrat-Republican Societies Forty popular societies sprang up in the next few

years Working people made up bulk of membership Included Irish fleeing from British repression at home Leaders were often doctors, tradesmen and lawyers Organized public celebrations, issued addresses and

sent petitions critical of the administration West of Appalachians, societies agitated against

English control of frontier forts and against Spain for closing the Mississippi Everywhere protested Excise Tax, opposed overtures

to England, and called for a press free of Federalist control

Jay Treaty of 1974

Jay Treaty of 1794 Alarmed by sinking relations with England,

President Washington dispatched Chief Justice John Jay to London in 1794 Purpose was to negotiate a number of

disagreements left over from the Revolutionary War Jay Treaty of 1794

British promised to withdraw from posts in the Great Lakes

Provide selective access to British West Indian ports Provide compensation to U.S. ship owners U.S. received most favored nation trading status Guaranteed payment of debt to Britain

Jay Treaty of 1794 Public was incensed despite administration claims

that this was the only way to avoid war with England Southerners were upset there was no compensation for

their lost slaves Westerners complained British were not evacuating

posts fast enough Merchants and sailors disliked Jay’s failure to stop

impressment or open West Indian trade Republicans and the press criticized Washington Demand for clarification of executive privilege in

national security affairs House demanded papers related to Jay’s mission Washington claimed right to withhold national security

secrets

Jay Treaty of 1794 Washington’s prestige muted criticism, but

bitter partisan division already entrenched Senate ratified treaty by a narrow margin British encouraged Indians to attack settlers

as they withdrew Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)

U.S. army defeated alliance of Indian nations in Ohio

Treaty of Greenville (1794) Forced Indian removal from Ohio

British withdrew support from Indians, pulled back into Canada

Jay Treaty of 1794 Spain interpreted Jay’s Treaty as Anglo-

American alliance against Spain Treaty of San Lorenzo (1795)

Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney Spain recognized the U.S. boundaries under the

peace treaty 1783 and gave up all claims to U.S. territory

Gave free navigation of Mississippi and right to unload goods for transshipment at New Orleans for three years

Settled disputed border between Florida and U.S. Spanish ceased inciting Indians against settlers

By 1796 Jefferson quit as secretary of state and went into open opposition

Thomas Pinckney (1750-1828)

Election of 1796 Washington’s Farewell Address (September

1796) Deplored deepening political divisions Warned against entangling alliances with foreign

nations Announced he would not accept a third term Announcement timed to prevent Republican

organization of presidential campaign Presidential election of 1796 was narrowed to

Thomas Jefferson or John Adams Two very different men who had a great deal of

shared experiences in the Revolution and the creation of the government

Election of 1796 Adams was a committed Federalist

Believed in a vigorous national government Was appalled by the French Revolution Feared “excessive democracy”

Jefferson supported the Constitution but: Was alarmed by Hamilton’s financial program Viewed France’s revolution as a logical extension

of America’s struggle for freedom Hoped to expand democracy at home

Bitterly divisive election

Election of 1796 The Federalists were divided

Hamilton tried to push Pinckney over Adams Adams won the election by only three votes

Jefferson was to serve as his Vice President Adams was forced to accept people in his

cabinet that were not supportive Federalist Department heads more loyal to

Hamilton than Adams

Electoral College votes of 1796

War Crisis With France Adam’s first trial as president was caused by

French interference with American shipping in the Caribbean

Jay’s Treaty prompted France to treat U.S. as unfriendly nation Quasi-war developed with the French seizing U.S. ships

XYZ Affair An American delegation was sent to Paris French administrators (termed “X, Y, Z”) made it clear

that the success of the American mission depended on a loan to the French government and a huge bribe for themselves

Two of the commissioners sailed for home and one stayed under threat by Talleyrand of war if all three left

War Crisis With France Adams reported the “XYZ Affair” to Congress

Federalist congressmen saw this as an insult to American honor

Secretary of State Pickering urged a declaration of war Provoked anti-French outrage in U.S. Federalists attempted to crush Republicans by

branding as pro-French In May 1798, Congress called for a naval force

capable of defending the American coast against French attack

In July, it repealed the treaty of 1778 Also called for the formation of 10,000 man army

War Crisis With France Federalists began building up the army

Ostensible purpose: repel French invasion Actual intention: stifle internal opposition

Jeffersonians worried the army would be used against them

Adams was also worried when Hamilton was placed in charge of the army He issued only a few officer commissions thereby

preventing the army’s mobilization (the army can’t move without officers)

Hamilton sought declaration of war against France to begin operations against dissent Adams created navy, but refused to ask Congress

for war

Text of the Alien Friends Act (1798)

Alien and Sedition Acts Congress also sought to curb the flow of aliens

into the U.S. Fearful of foreign subversion and aware that the

many immigrants were active in the Jeffersonian opposition

Passed a series of laws in 1798 known as the Alien and Sedition Acts

Purpose to silence Republicans First civil liberties crisis

Naturalization Act 1798 Raised residency requirement for citizenship from

5 to 14 years Many immigrants supported the Republican party

Alien and Sedition Acts Alien Friends Act

Authorized the president to expel aliens whom he judged “dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States”

Investigations were launched that were intended to force foreigners to register with the government

Large numbers of foreigners left the country Alien Enemies Act

Gave the president the right to imprison or deport any aliens from hostile nations during times of war without any charges or appeals

Alien and Sedition Acts The Sedition Act

Made it punishable by fine and imprisonment for anyone to: Conspire in opposition to the government or aided

insurrections Write, print, utter or publish “any false, scandalous and

malicious writings…”against the government, Congress or the president

25 people were arrested under this act and 15 were indicted

Federalist appointees in federal courts enforced Sedition Act in absurd ways Republican Congressman Mathew Lyon arrested,

won re-election from jail

Alien and Sedition Acts Luther Baldwin

While drunk, commented that he did not care if the cannons in Newark firing to celebrate Adams presence, “fired thro’ his ass”

He was charged and convicted of sedition, was fined and sent to jail until both fines and court fees were paid

Jeffersonian Republicans made a field day of the Baldwin trial

David Brown set up a liberty pole in Dedham, MA The words “No Stamp Act, No Sedition Act, No Alien Bills,

No Land Tax, downfall to the Tyrants of America…” were placed on it

Convicted of sedition and forced to serve 18 months in jail

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions With little redress in the Federalist-dominated

Congress, Jeffersonians turned to the states for redress Saw Alien and Sedition Acts as dire threat to liberty Believed the states should have final say in

determining constitutionality of federal law Kentucky Resolutions (November 16, 1798)

Kentucky Assembly passed a resolution declaring the federal government had violated the Bill of Rights

Each state had the right to judge infractions and decide on the appropriate redress

Nullification (declaring a federal law invalid within a state’s borders) was the remedy for unconstitutional laws

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Virginia Resolutions

Written by Madison, they were passed by the Virginia assembly the next month

Asserted that when the central government threatened the people’s liberties, states were bound to prevent it

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions received little support outside of those two states Alien and Sedition Acts were not enforced in the South It illustrated popular opposition to the Federalist

program Purpose of resolutions: clarify differences between

Republicans and Federalists, not justify secession

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions By 1799 country seemed on the brink of war

between the Federalists and the Opposition In Virginia, the Assembly called for a reorganization of

the militia In Philadelphia, Federalist patrols walked the streets

to protect government officials from angry crowds President Adams smuggled arms into the White

House as a precaution Things calmed down when Adams broke with

Hamilton Word from France came that Talleyrand was willing to

negotiate Adams sent a new team to negotiate with France

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Adams cabinet was enraged

Peace would undercut the Federalist war program which depended on the crisis for legitimacy

When Secretary of State Pickering refused to send the commissioners, Adams dismissed him and sent them anyway

Treaty of Mortefontaine (1800) No compensation for seized American ships 1778 treaties null and void French restrictions on U.S. commerce removed Created climate of trust between France and U.S.

Signing of the Treaty of Mortefontaine

“Revolution of 1800” As presidential election approached, the

Federalists were in disarray Going into the election they were charged with

exercising federal power unconstitutionally, suppressing political dissent, and threatening to use a federal army against American citizens

Plotted Adams defeat when he announced effort to be re-elected

Federalists lost, but Republicans Jefferson and Burr tied Both Republicans, each had 75 votes Adams had only 65 votes

“Revolution of 1800” The election was thrown into the House of

Representatives Hamilton and Federalists decided Jefferson better than Burr Jefferson was elected 10 states to 4 states on the 36th

ballot 12th Amendment

Designed to prevent a recurrence of such a crisis Provided for separate ballots for president and vice

president In Congress, the Federalists lost their majorities in

both the House and the Senate The election revealed the strong sectional

divisions in the country’s politics

“Revolution of 1800” Federalists

Dominated New England because of regional loyalty to Adams, area’s commercial ties with England, and fears that their opponents intended to import social revolution from France

Support was strongest among merchants, manufacturers and commercial farmers situated within easy reach of the coast

From Maryland south the Jeffersonians dominated The election was more evenly contested in the

middle states Election of 1800 one of the most important

Transfer of power from Federalists to Republicans achieved peacefully

Nation averted ideological civil war

Electoral College votes in 1800