vehicles handbook en 2005.doc

7/27/2019 Vehicles handbook En 2005.doc

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VehiclesVehiclesHandbookHandbook

May 2005


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Logistic DepartmentAction contre la Faim


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Document revision history:

Revisiondate

Author Summary of changes

25/15/2004 LogisticDepartment

Initial release

01/05/2005 LogisticDepartment Correction various mistakes, new format

Notes:

This handbook replaces Module 5 The basic principles of (car) mechanicsand maintenance of a fleet of vehicles" of 1996.

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 Page 3 / 57V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles 01/05/2005


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Table of contents:

1. Introduction...............................................................................................52. Principles of mechanics.............................................................................6

2.1. 2x4 and 4x4.........................................................................................62.2. The engine...........................................................................................72.3. The clutch..........................................................................................112.4. The transmission...............................................................................122.5. Brakes ..............................................................................................142.6. Suspension and shock absorbers.......................................................152.7. The cooling system ..........................................................................162.8. Electrical equipment..........................................................................20

3. Lubrication...............................................................................................223.1. Engine lubrication..............................................................................223.2. Oil filter..............................................................................................24

3.3. Other parts lubrications ...................................................................254. Pneumatics..............................................................................................264.1. Tyres categories................................................................................264.2. Tyre structure....................................................................................264.3. The tread on the tyre ........................................................................274.4. Classification of tyres (data from Michelin).......................................274.5. Choosing a tyre..................................................................................28

5. Driving within Action contre la Faim .......................................................305.1. General rules.....................................................................................305.2. Drivers check-lists.............................................................................30

6. Driving 4x4..............................................................................................32

6.1. When to use 4x4 transmission .........................................................326.2. The different types of 4x4.................................................................326.3. Selection of the appropriate 4-WD mode..........................................336.4. Recommendations for driving 4x4 ....................................................34

7. Human resources.....................................................................................357.1. Drivers...............................................................................................357.2. Recruitment of drivers.......................................................................357.3. Training a new driver.........................................................................367.4. Mechanics..........................................................................................36

8. Fleet of vehicles.......................................................................................38

8.1. The role of the Logistics Coordinator.................................................388.2. Vehicles characteristics ....................................................................388.3. Which 4x4 to choose? .......................................................................39

9. Vehicle fleet management.......................................................................419.1. Rental or purchase............................................................................419.2. Rental ...............................................................................................419.3. Rental tips.........................................................................................429.4. Ideal rental from Action contre la Faims point of view.....................429.5. Purchasing.........................................................................................439.6. Insurance...........................................................................................43

10. Annexes.................................................................................................44

10.1. Vehicle tool box for field missions...................................................4410.2. List of tools for the workshop..........................................................4510.3. Toyota Gibraltar Service glossary of 4x4 terms...............................47



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1. Introduction

This handbook is meant to provide the logistician with basic notions ofmechanics in order to deal with minor problems on the field. It will not turna logistician into a mechanic.

As with any aspect of work on the field, competence and professialism ofthe teams is essential, so this handbook provides some advice regardingrecruitment, main responsibilities and management of drivers andmechanics.

Despite the pollution and noise they produce, vehicles can be very useful,

especially 4x4. They are very useful tools for Action contre la Faim toaccess difficult areas. A 4x4 is not indestructible and because 4x4 oftentravel over rough terrain, they will need more care than an ordinary vehicle.

The Logistic department is responsible for the fleet management. Thishandbook provides the necessary information and mechanical knowledgefor a correct physical management.

Fleet management has a direct impact on:

- Security: an insufficiently maintained vehicle can causeaccidents, and in a war zone a poorly maintained vehicle that willnot start when needed for evacuation can cause serious problems.

- Programmes: bad vehicle management can cause delays in theplanning and are more expensive to repair than when regularlymaintained.

- Equipment management: Action contre la Faim owns somevehicles and some other are a donor's property. A goodmanagement enables the planning of the fleet renewal.



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2. Principles of mechanics

This chapter presents the main parts and accessories of a vehicle andrefers mainly to a 4x4 with a diesel engine.

2.1. 2x4 and 4x4

- 4-WD (4-wheel drive): equal traction from the rear and front wheels.

- 2 WD (2-wheel drive): traction is coming only from two wheels at the rearor front of the car).

Scheme of a 4x4 vehicle

1: Engine2: Gearbox3: Transfer box4: Rear drive shaft5: Front drive shaft6: Rear differential7: Front differential

2.1.1. Torque

Torque is the twisting force produced by the engine. The torque from theengine is what moves the vehicle. The various gears in the transmissionand differential multiply the torque and split it up between the wheels.

More torque can be sent to the wheels in first gear than in fifth gearbecause first gear has a larger gear-ratio by which to multiply the torque.

The interesting thing about torque is that in low-traction situations, themaximum amount of torque that can be created is determined by theamount of traction, not by the engine.

2.1.2. Traction

Traction is the maximum amount of force the tire can apply against theground (or that the ground can apply against the tire they're the samething). Here are the factors that affect traction:

-Weight on the tires: the more weight on a tire, the more tractionit has. Weight can shift as a car drives. For instance, when a car



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makes a turn, weight shifts to the outside wheels. When itaccelerates, weight shifts to the rear wheels.

- Coefficient of friction: the coefficient of friction is mostly linkedto the kind of tires on the vehicle and the type of surface thevehicle is driving on. For instance, a high-performance tire has a

very high coefficient of friction when it is driving on a dry, concretetrack. That is one of the reasons why such cars can corner at suchhigh speeds. The coefficient of friction for that same tire in mudwould be almost zero. By contrast, huge, knobbly, off-road tireswould not have as high a coefficient of friction on a dry track, butin the mud, their coefficient of friction is extremely high.

- Wheel slip: there are two kinds of contact that tires can makewith the road static and dynamic.

1. Static Contact: The tires and the road (or ground) are not slippingrelative to each other. The coefficient of friction for static contact

is higher than for dynamic contact, so static contact providesbetter traction.

2. Dynamic Contact: The tire is slipping relative to the road. Thecoefficient of friction for dynamic contact is lower, the vehicle hasless traction

2.2. The engine

The role of the engine is to convert the fuel energy into torque.

The diesel engine is designed for heavy duty. Diesel engines areappropriate for 4-WD vehicles as they can work in rough conditions. Dieselengines require specific tools and knowledge.

Petrol engines fail when they are too wet but they are easy to repair. For anidentical output power the RPM of petrol engines is much higher than theone of diesel engines.

Motorbikes and portable generators are equipped with petrol engines.

4-WD field vehicles are usually diesel, but some Action contre la Faimmissions have also petrol vehicles. A mechanic working for Action contre laFaim must be familiar with both diesel and petrol engines.

All engines, and particularly diesel engines, need awarming up time.

This heating time enables the circulation of lubricants in the engine. In a

warm environment, heating time can be limited to two minutes, in a coldenvironment 10 minutes or more. Until the engine reaches 80-90 thedriver must avoid pushing it.



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Some engines are equipped with an automatic device that turns off theengine if the RPM is too high before a sufficient temperature is reached.

2.2.1. The diesel engine

Most diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle:1. The piston's first, downward stroke draws in air2. The second, upward stroke compresses it3. The third, downward stroke, following combustion, delivers power4. The fourth, upward stroke expels waste gases.

At the end of a piston's compression stroke, a fuel injector sprays fuel intothe combustion chamber. Air temperature inside the chamber at that pointis about 540 C. The fuel ignites, causing a rapid expansion of hot air thatforcefully pushes the piston downward. That downward power stroke turns

the crankshaft.

The compression ratio of a gasoline engine varies from about 6:1 to 10:1.The compression ratio for a diesel engine varies from about 12:1 to 24:1.The diesel's higher compression ratios are necessary to create airtemperatures hot enough to ignite fuel on contact.

This difference of compression ratio explains that diesel engines are moreefficient when using the engine break than petrol engines but also that theyrequire more power to start.

2.2.2. The fuel

When refilling the tank, the logistician must check that he/she is using theright fuel: Diesel for a diesel engine and petrol for a petrol engine. This



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seems obvious but the name of the fuel and the colour can change fromone country to another (petrol, gasoline, gas, fuel, essence, super etc.).

Gasoline (essence) dries out without leaving grease on the fingerwhile Diesel leaves grease traces. Petrol is between gasoline andDiesel in terms of density.

The use of an inappropriate fuel can damage the engine.

In some countries the quality of fuel is very bad so the logistician mustnegotiate a high quality one and inspect the delivery.

Storage of fuel must be waterproof. Small quantities of water can mix withdiesel and will spoil the injection pump. Ideally storage is organised in largetanks that will facilitate the decantation (separation of the water and dustfrom the fuel). Clean drums can also be used.

It is always safe to filter the fuel when filling the tank and stop beforereaching the bottom of the tank. Similarly, driving on the reserve tank isdangerous as the reserve contains much more dust. Dust in the fuel canblock the injection circuit (or carburettor for petrol engine).

2.2.3. The tank

The tank is generally at the rear of the vehicle parallel to the chassis forsecurity reasons. It is possible to install a supplementary tank. Most ofAction contre la Faim 4X4 have two fuel tanks.The driver must check that:

- The tank is firmly attached to the vehicle- It is properly sealed- Pipes and filling funnels are in good condition

Normally cleaning a fuel tank is not a regular operation. However if dust ormud entered the tank it must be washed with fuel and dried properly.

2.2.4. Fuel filters

4-WD vehicles have fuel filters and pre-filters usually found at the rear ofthe tank, connected to the main fuel filter by a pipe. A diesel fuel filtershould be drained weekly, more frequently if fuel quality is poor.

Drainage: The drain plug below the filter must be unscrewed, the driverwill let the fuel flow until clean fuel comes, then the driver tightens thedrain.

Air bleeding: Air in the fuel filter should be bled. There is commonly ableeding screw located on top of the filter and a hand pump to pressurisethe filter. The driver will un-tighten the screw and will pump until airbubbles stop coming out and only pure fuel is flowing.



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The driver will then fasten the pump and bleeding screw back to theiroriginal positions.

The lifetime of a fuel filter depend on the environment and on the fuelquality. The mechanics and the logistician define the maintenanceperiodicity, which must never exceed the manufacturer's

recommendations.

2.2.5. Injection pump

The injection pump is the heart of the engine. It pumps the fuel from thefilter to the injectors and then into the cylinders. The injection pump doesnot need to be included in the regular maintenance but it is good to checkconnections for leaks or damage.

The injection pump is a very sensitive and very expensive assembly, repair

and calibration are normally done by a specialised workshop.

2.2.6. Injectors

Injectors are situated on top of the engine block, seated on the cylinderhead. A fuel injector is a valve supplied with pressurised fuel by the fuel-pump, and it can open and close many times per secondMaintenance work on injectors must be done by a specialist.Symptoms of bad injectors are: difficulty to start the engine, irregular RPMand permanent black smoke.

2.2.7. Glow plug

Diesel engines use fuel combustion while petrol engines use fuelexplosion.

In a petrol engine, a spark plug ignites an air/fuel mixture under pressure.In a diesel engine pure air is compressed and then fuel is injected.Compression raises the air temperature and the fuel is ignited

progressively.

Diesel fuel is not as flammable as gasoline, so diesel engines are moredifficult to start when cold, especially in winter. To solve this problem, eachcombustion chamber has a glow plug containing a small coil that heats upwhen an electric current passes through it. Briefly activating the glow plugsbefore starting a diesel engine preheats the combustion chamber andmakes starting easier.

If the engine doesnt start in the morning, the driver must check the heaterplug: it can be unscrewed with a normal spanner and is connected in seriesto the electrical system.



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2.2.8. Air filter

Diesel and Petrol engine need air for combustion or explosion of the fuel.An engine can use about 10,000 litres of air for every 1 litre of fuel. This aircan contain suspended dirt particles that can enter the engine and mix with

oil. Contaminated oil then grinds off metal particles that add to the abrasionand can block up rings, valves and oil-ways. An efficient air filter canprevent this occurrence.

4-WD vehicles are generally equipped with two types of air filter: the paperfilter screen or the oil bath filter. A dirty air filter affects the performance ofthe vehicle: slower RPM.

The driver must check the air filter weekly, even more often in difficultconditions. An air compressor can blow the dust from paper filters betweenservices.

When crossing a creek or river the driver has to verify that the level ofwater is far below the air intake. Water entering the engine causes severebreakdowns. A raised air intake is fitted on most of Action contre la Faim4x4.

2.3. The clutch

In an automobile clutch, the flywheel is connected to the engine, and the

clutch plate is connected to the transmission. When the drivers foot is offthe pedal, the springs push the pressure plate against the clutch disc,which in turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to thetransmission input shaft, making them spin at the same speed.

A: From the engineB: To the transmission

1: Flywheel

2: Clutch disc3: Pressure plate4: Clutch cover5: Diaphragm spring6: Clutch release bearing (also calledthrow-out bearing)

The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between

the clutch plate and the flywheel, and how much force the spring puts onthe pressure plate.



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When the clutch pedal is pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on therelease fork, which presses the throw-out bearing against the middle of thediaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring is pushed in, aseries of pins near the outside of the spring cause the spring to pull thepressure plate away from the clutch disc. This releases the clutch from thespinning engine.

There are two common types of clutches:- Hydraulic clutch, which requires refilling with clutch fluid at regular

intervals- Manual clutch, which works through cables to transfer movement

from the pedal to the fork.

2.4. The transmission

The main parts of any four-wheel-drive transmission are the twodifferentials (front and rear), a gearbox and a transfer case. In addition, thepart-time and full-time 4x4 have locking hubs.

2.4.1. The differentials

A 4x4 has two differentials, one located between the front wheels and onebetween the rear wheels. They send the torque from the drive shaft ortransmission to the drive wheels. They also allow the left and right wheelsto spin at different speeds when the vehicle goes around a turn The

differentials enable speed differences between the inside and outsidewheels.

In 4 WD mode, the speed difference between the front and rear wheels ishandled or not by the transfer case

Oil levels in the differentials should be checked every 15,000 km or atintervals recommended by the manufacturer.

2.4.2. The gearbox.

The gearbox is the unit between the clutch and the transfer gearbox in a4x4 and between the clutch and the shaft in a 2x4. It allows selecting thecorrect power ratio for the required speed or road conditions. It multipliesthe energy or power provided by the engine to the drive wheels.

Contained within the gearbox is a series of cogs of increasing sizesurrounded by oil. A mechanic must check the level of oil in the gearbox atregular intervals. When changing gears, a fork inside the gearbox movesthe drive gear (the gear receiving torque from the engine) onto the correctsize of gear driving the wheels. The gearbox gives the correct torque(turning force) to the vehicle whenever it is needed.



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2.4.3. The transfer gearbox

This is the device that splits the power between the front and rear axles ona four-wheel-drive car.

4x4 vehicle is a generic term, the characteristics of the transfer casedepend on the type of 4x4:- Part-time- Full-time- Permanent- All wheel drive

Part-time 4x4 have a manual selection to 2x4 High speed, 4 High speed,and 4x4 Low speed.The transfer case on a part-time four-wheel-drive system locks the front-axle drive shaft to the rear-axle drive shaft, so the wheels are forced to spin

at the same speed. This causes tires slipping when the car goes around aturn.Part-time systems like this should only be used in low-traction situations inwhich it is relatively easy for the tires to slip. On dry concrete, it is not easyfor the tires to slip, so the four-wheel drive should be disengaged in order toavoid jerky turns and extra wear on the tires and shafts.

Permanent 4x4 vehicle: These vehicles are designed to function on alltypes of surfaces, both on and off-road. The explanation is the presence ofa central differential between the rear and front shaft. Permanent vehicles

have a manual selection between High and Low speed and additionally acentral differential locking system.

Full-time 4x4 are a combination of Part-time and Permanent: the drivercan choose between 4x4 high, 4x4 low and 2x4 high. These vehicles have acentral differential that usually locks in 4x4 low.

All wheel drive: these vehicles are like a permanent 4x4 except that theydont have low gear range. They are mostly sedan with limited off roadabilities.

Commons problems with the transfer case:1. Abnormal noises coming from the transfer when engaging ordisengaging the 4-WD2. Difficulties in locking the differentials

These problems could be caused by damaged gears, damage to thetransfer mounting, dried mud or insufficient oil in the transfer. In thetransfer there are two outlets, one that enables the driver to check oil leveland refill, and one that allows draining the oil. Oil level in the transfershould be checked regularly and drained and re-filled every 15,000 km.



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2.4.4. Locking hubs

Each wheel in a car is bolted to a hub.

Part-time and full-time 4x4 vehicles usually have locking hubs on the frontwheels. When four-wheel drive is not engaged, the locking hubs are used to

disconnect the front wheels from the front differential, half-shafts (theshafts that connect the differential to the hub) and drive shaft. This allowsthe differential, half-shafts and drive shaft to stop spinning when the car isin two-wheel drive, saving wear and tear on those parts and improving fuel-economy.

Manual locking hubs used to be quite common. To engage four-wheel drive,the driver actually had to get out of the truck and turn a knob on the frontwheels until the hubs locked. Newer systems have automatic locking hubsthat engage when the driver switches into four-wheel drive. This type ofsystem can usually be engaged while the vehicle is moving.

Whether manual or automatic, these systems generally use a sliding collarthat locks the front half-shafts to the hub.

2.5. Brakes

On a vehicle, brakes are a system allowing to slow down or to stop whenrequired. The braking system on a 4x4 is much more complex than on a2x4 and should withstand and resist to any climatic conditions. Brakes use

leverage, hydraulic power and friction. The main components are:

2.5.1. The fluid reservoir

The reservoir contains a special fluid and should be checked every morningbefore driving. When driving, if the brakes control red light turns on, itmeans there is a problem: the braking fluid reservoir is empty or the handbrake is still engaged. If the hand brake is not engaged, it could mean thelight switch under the hand brake lever is defective.

2.5.2. The master cylinder

The role of this unit located under the reservoir is to pressurise the brakelines with the fluid contained in the reservoir every time the brakes areengaged by pushing the brake pedal.

The master cylinder is providing the breaking assistance, to do so theengine has to run. To break with an engine halted will require a muchhigher pressure on the break pedal.



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2.5.3. Drum brake and disc brake

Commonly drum brakes are use on rear wheels and disc brakes on frontwheels.

- Disc brakes include a brake disc and brake pads, which, when engaged

by the brake pedal, clamp on both sides of the disc and slow the wheeldown.- Drum brakes consist in two brake shoes which when activated by thebrake pedal, push out onto the wheel drum and slow the wheel down.

The rear wheels are attached to the drum brake whereas the disc brake islocated behind the front wheels with the disc attached to the axle. Brakelinings and shoes need regular checking and not only when metal isgrinding against metal. Disc brakes should be checked every 15,000 kmand drum brakes every 25,000 km. Replace brake shoes or linings whenthey are below 1.5 mm thickness, or less than specifications.

Important: Both pads or shoes (either on the front or back) should bechanged at the same time, even if one has worn less than the other,otherwise the vehicle will have a dangerous behaviour when braking.

2.6. Suspension and shock absorbers

2.6.1. Suspension

Good tyres are necessary for the safety of the vehicle and a goodsuspension ensures comfortable driving and efficient handling on the road.There are three types of suspension used for 4x4 vehicles:

1. Leaf springs or wishbone suspension where several layers of metalstrips are stacked together and give a suspension platform; usedon Toyotas.

2. Coil spring suspension, which is the classic spiralled springmounted vertically; used on Land Rovers.

3. Hybrid suspension: coil spring in the front of the vehicle and leafspring in the rear

Wishbone or leaf spring: connected to the chassis by the shackle pins withbushes and washers. It is necessary to regularly check the bushes for wearor perish, and check the shackle pins for:

1. Wear2. Cracks3. Brakes

It is important to check effectiveness of the suspension regularly. Drivingtoo fast on a bad surface is the main reason for damages to thesuspension. The driver must wash the suspension every week and ensureit is in good condition.



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The drivers or potential users of vehicles must be vigilant to the load: themaximum weight indicated on the vehicle handbook corresponds to normalroad conditions. When driving on bad road conditions the load must bereduced by 50%.

2.6.2. Shock absorbers

The function of shock absorbers is to absorb vibrations due to roadimperfections. Driving on bad roads can cause shocks to lose theirefficiency and they should be checked every week, especially on 4-WDvehicles. On normal vehicles they should be checked every month.

When checking the shocks absorbers the driver should also check thecushions and retainers that attach the shocks to the vehicle.Replacement of shock absorbers requires special tools and is timeconsuming.

Recommendation: shock absorbers should be changed pairs by pairsotherwise the vehicle will not be stable. Only shock absorbers designed forthe vehicle must be used.

2.7. The cooling system

Overheating is a major risk. It will cause serious damages to the cylinder

head and to the engine block. The cooling system of the vehicle regulatestemperature: 80 C for diesel and 90 C for petrol to prevent overheating.

Note: Some engines are air-cooled (Small motorbikes, generators and afew vehicles); in this case there is no radiator, no water pump and nohoses. Engine oil and air circulation lower the engine temperature.

Overview: The pump sends the fluid into the engine block, where it makesits way through passages in the engine around the cylinders. Then itreturns through the cylinder head of the engine. The thermostat is locatedwhere the fluid leaves the engine. The plumbing around the thermostat

sends the fluid back to the pump directly if the thermostat is closed. If it isopen, the fluid goes through the radiator first and then backs to the pump.

There is also a separate circuit for the heating system. This circuit takesfluid from the cylinder head and passes it through a heater core and thenback to the pump.



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A - Head CoolingB - Block CoolingC - ThermostatD - Water PumpE - Cooling FanF - Radiator Cap

G - Overflow TankH - RadiatorI - Transmission oil cooler(optional)J - Heater ValveK - Heater CoreL - Heater Fan

2.7.1. The radiator

A radiator is a type of heat exchanger. It is designed to transfer heat fromhot coolant flowing through it to the air blown through it by a fan. Mostmodern cars use aluminium radiators. These radiators are made by brazingthin aluminium fins to flattened aluminium tubes. The coolant flows fromthe inlet to the outlet through many tubes mounted in a parallelarrangement. The fins conduct the heat from the tubes and transfer it tothe air flowing through the radiator.

The driver must check radiator fins properly, especially in Africa, as thereare a number of insects that block radiator fins. To clean the radiator the

driver can use pressurised air or water but never a cloth nor a wire brush.

2.7.2. The coolant

Water is one of the most effective fluids for holding heat, but water freezingtemperature is too high to be used in car engines. Most cars use a mixtureof water and ethylene glycol, also known as antifreeze. Antifreeze alsocontains additives to resist corrosion.When adding ethylene glycol to water, the boiling and freezing pointsimprove significantly. The temperature of the coolant can sometimes reach

121 to 135 C without boiling and in winter can resist to - 25C or more.

It is absolutely forbidden to put river or lake water in a radiator except inextreme emergencies. Dust from river water may block the cooling system.

2.7.3. The pressure cap

The pressure cap is usually a plastic container. It is a reserve for the coolantfluid and it increases the boiling point of the fluid by about 25 C.

When fluid in the cooling system heats up, it expands, causing the pressureto build up. The cap is the only place where this pressure can escape, so



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As a preventive measure, in tropical or sub tropical countries most of thelogisticians simply remove the thermostat.

2.7.6. The fan

4x4 have mechanical fans moved by a belt.

2x4 have electric fans still turning after the vehicle has stopped. 2x4 haveelectric fans because the engine is usually mounted transversely, meaningthe output of the engine points toward the side of the car. The fans arecontrolled either with a thermostatic switch or by the engine computer, andthey turn on when the coolant temperature reaches a set point. They turnoff when the temperature drops below that point.

The driver must check the tension and condition of the fan belt on a 4x4.

2.7.7. The radiator hoses

Hoses connect the radiator, the thermostat, the water pump, the engineblock and the reservoir.

The driver must check for potential leaks whenever the level of liquid in thereservoir diminishes.

2.7.8. Temperature gauge or temperature indicator light

The temperature gauge indicates the temperature of the fluid in the coolingsystem. Standard gauge are mechanical while modern ones are digital. Awarning light will turn on if the temperature is too high. When the light is onor when the needle is in the red area, the driver must stop immediately:theres a problem with the engine (fan belt cut, not enough fluid, radiatordirty etc.).

2.7.9. The engine block

The engine block and cylinder head have many passageways cast ormachined in them to allow for fluid flow. These passageways direct thecoolant to the most critical areas of the engine.

Temperatures in the combustion chamber of the engine can reach 2,500 Cfor petrol engine, so cooling the area around the cylinders is critical. Areasaround exhaust valves are especially crucial, and almost all the spaceinside the cylinder head around the valves that is not needed for structureis filled with coolant.



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2.8. Electrical equipment

2.8.1. The battery

A 12-volt storage battery consists of layers of positive and negative chargelead plates that, together with their insulated separators, make up each of

six two-volt cells. The cells are filled with an electricity-conducting liquid(electrolyte) that is usually two-third distilled water and one-third sulphuricacid. Space between the immersed plates provides maximum exposure tothe electrolyte. The interaction of the plates and electrolyte produceschemical energy that becomes electricity when a circuit is formed betweenthe negative and positive battery terminals.

The driver must check regularly the levels of electrolyte in each of thebattery cell. (Never add acid whenever it is low, only distilled water to fill upto the maximum, especially during winter)

The driver must check the mounting regularly and make sure the poles arenot rusting or dirty. Poles should be greased with Vaseline. If the electrolyteis spilled on the battery or vehicle body, the driver must wash all parts withwater carefully and check for cracks.

2.8.2. The ampermeter

Some vehicles are equipped with a gauge to indicate if the alternator isdelivering power. Its a useful accessory to control whether the battery is

charging (the needle should be moving towards the + symbol rather thanthe - symbol).The driver must check the alternator belt tension frequently.

2.8.3. The alternator

The alternating-current generator, or alternator, is the electrical system'schief source of power while the engine is running. The belt that spins thefan drives the alternator shaft. It converts mechanical energy intoalternating-current electricity, which is then channelled through diodes that

alter it to direct current for the electrical system and for recharging thebattery The battery goes weak quickly when the alternator is faulty. Thealternator does not require specific maintenance.

2.8.4. The fuses

Fuses are meant to protect the wiring. Fuses should be sized and located toprotect the wire they are connected to.

If a device like the radio suddenly draws enough current to blow the fuse,the radio is probably already faulty. The fuse is there to protect the



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electrical wiring of the vehicle, which would be much harder to replace thanthe radio and to prevent the complete burning of the faulty devise.

Most cars have two fuse panels:1. The one in the engine compartment holds fuses for big devices (like

the cooling fans, the anti-lock brake pump and the engine control

unit) located in the engine compartment.

2. Another fuse panel usually located in the dashboard, near the driver'sknees, holds fuses for devices and switches located in the passengercompartment.

The conductor inside the fuse is made of a metal similar to solder. It has alower melting point than the wire itself. The size of the conductor iscalibrated very carefully so that when the rated current is reached, enoughheat is generated to melt the conductor and break the circuit.

When a fuse is blown, it must be replaced before the circuit will work. Ablown fuse must be replaced with a same amperage fuse. An electricianmust determine why the fuse blown.



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3. Lubrication

3.1. Engine lubrication

The engine lubrication system supplies oil to all the friction surfacesbetween the engine moving parts. If the lubrication system did not supplythese moving components with oil, friction would quickly destroy thesesurfaces.

A good lubrication will:- Lubricate engine parts and prevent wear- Reduce friction (increases engine power and efficiency)- Protect against rust and corrosion- Keep engine parts clean- Minimise combustion chamber deposits

- Cool engine parts- Seal combustion chambers- Permit easy starting, be non-foaming and contribute to fuel economy

The periodicity between services is determined in kilometres or in hours forstationary engines such as generators.

The engine oil must suit the engine characteristics:- Diesel / Petrol- Engine complexity: turbo charged engine or not, double

camshaft etc.

- The environment

3.1.1. How to choose the engine oil viscosity?

Viscosity refers to how "thick" or "thin" a liquid is, or how easily it pours.The viscosity of oil must suit the temperature(s) of use of the vehicle andthe characteristics of the engine. (Old engines usually requires poorviscosity while newer require high viscosity)

The viscosity is mentioned on the container by an indication as follow:

SAE 15 W-

40

Society of

AutomotiveEngineers

Coldtemperature

viscosityW=Winter

(Measured at 18 C)

Hightemperature

viscosity*(Measured at

100 C)



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A multigrade oil has two numbers, for example SAE 15W-40, or 20W-50. Tosimplify, multigrade oils keep their viscosity when temperature changes.A monograde oil only has one number, for example SAE 5W, SAE 30, or SAE40.

Important note: The numbers are used to define the various SAE norms.They refer to a viscosity measurement and not to an ambient temperature.The unit of measurement for reporting cranking viscosity and pumpingviscosity is the centipoises (cP) and the centistoke (cSt) reports thekinematic viscosity

In a multigrade oil:- The first number/letter combination (15W in the example)

indicates how well oil will flow to lubricate critical engine parts atlow temperatures, The lower this number the more easily will oilhelp the engine start in cold weather.

- The second number (15W in the example) indicates oils ability tolubricate the engine at high temperature. The higher the number;the thicker the oil stays in warm environment.

This scheme illustrates howoils of appropriate viscositycan be selected according tooutside temperatures. Alltemperatures are in degrees

centigrade.

However, due to differentengine characteristicsalways verify with thevehicle manufacturermanual before purchasingoil.

3.1.2. How to choose the engine oil quality?

It should be noted that SAE is not a performance category it only refers tothe viscosity of oil. In addition engine oil must respect the minimalmanufacturer quality requirement. There are two international qualityclassifications for lubricants: API and ACEA.

American Petroleum Industry: 2-letter code (Category + class)

Diesel engine (Commercial): CA, CB, CC, CD, CDII, CE, CF, CF2, CF 4, CG 4,CH 4



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Petrol engine (Service): SA, SB, SC, SD, SE SH, SJ, SL

Qualities in grey are obsolete.

Association Constructeurs Europens dAutomobiles, 2-digit code: 1

letter and 1 number(Replaces CCMC norms)

Refer to the full API and ACEA documentation.

Mineral Oils Versus Synthetic Oils

Synthetic oils offer certain advantages over mineral oils in terms of lowtemperature performance, and high temperature oxidation stability.

Synthetic oils are very expensive and properly formulated mineral oils aremore than suitable for most engine applications.

Synthetic oil can be considered for very cold temperatures, or forapplication that may need an outstanding level of oxidation protection but

it should be remembered there is a significant cost.

3.2. Oil filter

The oil filter is meant to remove dust, dirt, sludge, and water before itreaches the engine parts. An outside metal shell houses the folded paper-

filtering element.


Petrol engine

A1 Special oil with lowviscosityA2 General purpose oilA3 Oil for high performanceengine

Low qualityStandard qualityGood quality

Light duty

diesel engine

B1 Special oil with lowviscosityB2 General purpose

B3 Oil for high performanceB4 Oil for direct injectionengine

Low qualityStandard quality

Good qualityGood quality

Heavy dutydiesel engine(Trucks)

E1, E2, E3, E4 and E5


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When changing the filter, the metal shell and filter element are changed asa unit.After a long period of use, the oil filter element may become clogged withparticles filtered from the oil. If oil no longer flows easily through theelement, it no longer gets to engine parts. To prevent this problem, abypass valve is located inside the filter assembly. When the filter element

becomes clogged, the pressure inside the canister increases and pushesopen the bypass valve.The oil then goes around the filter element, instead of through it, anddirectly into the engine, but it is not clean.

3.3. Other parts lubrications

A vehicle will need at least to other types of lubricants:- Grease: for chassis, U joint, shaft- Transmission oil(s) for gearbox, transfer box and differential

Refer to the vehicle handbook for oil characteristics. To use non-appropriateoil in automatic transmission or limited slip differential will damage theparts.



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4. Pneumatics

Appropriate tires will provide good traction. In some countries where Actioncontre la Faim is operating its advantageous for4x4 to have two completesets of tires: one for winter or rainy season and one for the good season.

The use of tubeless tyres is forbidden with 4x4 vehicles. The logisticianmust purchase inner tubes if a new vehicle is equipped with tubelesswheels.

The logistician must be particularly vigilant about:

Under inflation: can cause tires to wear more on the outside thanthe inside. It also reduces fuel efficiency, and increases build up ofheat in tires. It is important to check tire pressure with a gauge at

least once a month and before long trips.Over inflation causes tires to wear off more in the centre of thetread. Tire pressure should never exceed the maximum listed on thetire side. Car manufacturers often suggest a lower pressure than themaximum because it will give a softer ride, however running tires atthe pressure mentioned on the tyre will improve mileage.

4.1. Tyres categories

There are three categories of tyres for 4x4 vehicles:

1. Tyres for normal roads, similar to 2x4 tyres.2. Special tyres: mud, sand, snow or generic off road3. Mixed tyres (for general use and with correct abilities for off-road)

Special tyres have an important impact on traction, but they quicklydeteriorate on normal roads.

4.2. Tyre structure

All 4x4 tyres have one of the following structures:

Diagonal structure (cross ply, where metal reinforcement in tyres isshaped in a criss-cross diagonal structure), can resist temperatures ofup to 40C. These tyres are less expensive but the tyre is prone todeforming easily.Radial structure (invented by Michelin) and have thicker metalwires contained in the tyre, and can resist up to 90C. This is the besttype of tyre for cornering and general use but it is easily damagedand is a handicap for cross country, but it is also one of the best tyres

for braking, it keeps good traction and grip.



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4.3. The tread on the tyre

The deeper the tread on the tyre the better it is for cross-country use, i.e.mud, snow and sand etc. Deep tread tyres are noisy and quickly deteriorateon tarmac roads. The driver must be involved in the choice of the tyres.

4.4. Classification of tyres (data from Michelin)

How to read a sidewall:

1 (205) - Width of the tyre in mm2 (55) - Aspect ratio (this sidewalls height is roughly 55% ofthe tire width).

3 (R) - For radial construction4 (16) - Diameter of the rim in inches on which the tyre fits5 (88) - Numerical code associated with the maximal load atyre can carry6 (V) - Speed rating (this tire could sustain speeds up to 149MPH)7 (XGT V) Manufacturers name for thread design andarchitecture

Note: Some size designations may be preceded by a P,signifying Passengers

Loa

cod

Weig

In Kgpertire

Loadcode

Weig

In Kgpertire

Loadcode

Weig

In Kgpertire

Loadcode

Weig

In Kgpertire

Loadcode

Weig

In Kgpertire

62 265 75 387 88 560 101 825 114 118063 272 76 400 89 580 102 850 115 121564 280 77 412 90 600 103 875 116 125065 290 78 425 91 615 104 900 117 1285

66 300 79 437 92 630 105 925 118 132067 307 80 450 93 650 106 950 119 136068 315 81 462 94 670 107 975 120 1400



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69 325 82 475 95 690 108 1000 121 145070 335 83 487 96 710 109 1030 122 150071 345 84 500 97 730 110 1060 123 155072 355 85 515 98 750 111 1090 124 160073 365 86 530 99 775 112 1120 125 165074 375 87 545 100 800 113 1150 126 1700

Speedrating

Km/h Speedrating

Km/h

Q 160 V 240R 170 W 270S 180 Y 300T 190 ZR(Y) >300H 210 ZR >240

4.5. Choosing a tyre

The logistician should always purchase- Reliable tyres (Michelin or other good manufacturer)- Tyres designed for the rim- Tyres adapted to the road conditions

The following must be considered when replacing tyres:

1. Tyre size markings across an axle must be identical. (Standardseries tyres are equivalent to 80 Series, e.g. 165R13 and

165/80R13 tyres are compatible).2. Tyre constructions across an axle must be the same, i.e. cross-ply

or radial.3. It is recommended that the load index of replacement tyres is

either equal to or greater than the load index of the manufacturerapproved tyres for the vehicle.

4. It is recommended that the speed rating of replacement tyres iseither equal to or greater than the speed rating of themanufacturer approved tyres for the vehicle. The mixing of tyreswith different speed ratings is not recommended.

5. M&S tyres (Mud and Snow - Winter) should ideally be fitted incomplete sets. They should not be mixed with other tyre typesacross an axle.

6. It is not recommended that a new tyre (even of the same type) befitted across an axle with a tyre that is well worn.

7. In general, when fitting two new tyres, they should be fitted to therear irrespective of whether the vehicle is front or rear wheel drive.

8. There may be special dimensional requirements governing themixing/replacement of tyres on:- All-wheel drive (4-WD) vehicles to avoid damage to the

transmission.

- Vehicles with anti-lock braking to ensure that the ABS systemremains functional. Consult the vehicle manufacturer/drivershandbook for recommendations.



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- Directional tires have a "one-way" tread pattern optimised forthe direction the tires rotate on the car.



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5. Driving within Action contre la Faim

5.1. General rules

Action contre la Faim requests that all employees or expatriates driving avehicle:

1. Have a valid driving licence and accomplished national formalities ifneeded

2. Have received a training on basic check (and specification for 4x4)3. Know and respect the local traffic customs and regulation4. Are not under the influence of alcoholic beverages or psychotrops

As a reminder, only professional drivers are entitles to drive duringworking hours.

Expatriates are authorised to drive only under specific conditions.

5.2. Drivers check-lists

Usually the job description refers to the daily and periodical check. These

checks are as follows:

Every morning before starting the vehicle, check and correct ifneeded:

1. Engine oil level.2. Coolant fluid level3. Brake and clutch fluid levels4. Battery tightening5. Cleanliness of the radiator

6. Condition of the five wheels, i.e. pressure and wear.7. Absence of oil leakage or traces on the soil8. Cleanliness of windscreen, side and rear-view mirrors9. Presence of all materials in the car, i.e. tool box, jack, spare tyre etc.

After these checks, the driver should start the vehicle and check thattemperature rises normally.

10. While the engine is warming up, the driver checks the dashboarddisplay

11. Fuel level versus mission duration



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Every evening duties

1. Wash the car if needed2. Refill fuel tanks if needed / policy defined by the Logistic Coordinator.3. Fill in logbook4. Report day incidents

5. Make radio contact when on the field

Every week or after a long distance trip, check:

1. Battery water level and condition of terminals2. Radiator fixation and hose pipes fixation and condition3. Fuel filter drained of all debris4. Oil level in the power steering5. Cleanliness and condition of air filter6. Lights and electrical system functioning7. Windscreen washer reservoir8. Windscreen wipers cleanliness and condition9. Chassis condition10. Condition of cushions and bushes11. Shock absorbers and suspension struts12. Greasing of spider kit inside the universal joint13. Mounting of exhaust pipe14. Tightening of all bolts and nuts15. Inventory of all kits supposed to be on board, i.e. tool kit etc.



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6. Driving 4x4

6.1. When to use 4x4 transmission

In snow: Pushing a car through snow takes a lot of force, and the amountavailable is limited by the available traction. Most two-wheel-drive carscan't move when snow on the road is more than a few centimetres thick,because in snow, each tire has only a small amount of traction. A four-wheel-drive car can use traction of all four tires.

Off-road: In off-road conditions, it is fairly common for at least one set oftires to be in a low-traction situation, such as when crossing a stream ormud puddle. With four-wheel drive, the other set of tires still have traction,so they can pull (or push) the vehicle out.

Climbing slippery hills: This requires a lot of traction. A four-wheel-drivecar can use the four tires traction to pull the car up the hill.

6.2. The different types of 4x4

Characteristics

Part time4x4

Full time 4x4Permanent

4x4All Wheel

Drive

High 2x4 YES YES NO NO

Low 2x4 NO NO NO NOCentraldifferential

NO YES YES YES

High 4x4 YES YES YES YESLow 4x4 YES YES YES NO

Mainrestriction

4x4 to beengaged only onSLICK pavement

Selection of the driverbetween 2x4 and4x4. Can also be

automatic.

No low range

Note

If the vehicle has

manual hubs onthe front wheels,they need to be

locked first to use4x4.

Central differentialusually locked in 4x4

low.If the vehicle hasmanual hubs on thefront wheels, theyneed to be lockedfirst to use 4x4.

Centraldifferentialusually locked

in 4x4 low

Theses vehiclesare for bad roadconditions but

not for off-road.

Example Jeep WranglerLand Cruiser

78/79DefenderLada Niva

Audi Quattro

These 4 categories are not international norms. Manufacturers may develophybrid systems.This table highlights the importance for the driver has to know precisely thecharacteristics of the vehicle as an improper use can severely deterioratethe vehicle.



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6.3. Selection of the appropriate 4-WD mode

On non-permanent 4x4 the driver must frequently lock the fronthubs when engaging 4x4. To use 4x4 transmission with free font

hubs is equivalent to 2x4. On tarmac road hubs must be freed.

The driver must select the appropriate mode:

Mode Toyota Mercedes NivaLand-Rover

2-WD high speedPropulsion from rearwheels, for normaltarmac roads

2H SNot

relevant

Not

relevant

4-WD high speedUse on low adherencesoils: wet roads, snow,mud or cross countrywithout obstacles

4H SA High

4-WD low speedUse on low adherencesoils with difficultobstacles

4L GA Low

DIFFERENTIAL LOCK

On 4x4 part-time:These vehicles dont have a central differential. Theuse of 4L and 4H is therefore restricted to situations of poor adherence.Using the 4-wheel drive transmission will severly damage the vehicle whentraction is good.

When the vehicle is fitted with a differential lock (central, front or rear) thedriver can use it (them) only on extremely low adherence soils, no turn ispossible.

On 4x4 full-time: 4x4 low usuall automaticly locks the central differentialOn permanent 4x4 vehicles: Manual selection of the central differentiallockOn 4x4 vehicles with a rear or front differential lock (optional):Manual selection

To change mode manually (some full-time vehicles have automatic 4 WD):

- Engage 4 Low: vehicle must be stopped.



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- From 2H to 4H: best to stop; some vehicles tolerate very lowspeed.

- From 4L to 4H: vehicle must be stopped.

Differentials: the driver must select the command when the vehicle isstopped, then he moves the vehicle slowly to lock or unlock differentials.

Frequently to unlock is difficult, in this case the driver can use the reversegear on few meter.

6.4. Recommendations for driving 4x4

The driver of a 4x4 shouldnt exceed 90 km/h

The 4x4 used by Action contre la Faim on missions are not tourism vehicles.

They are professional, heavy duty 4x4 with different specifications. Thedriver must adapt his/her driving to the vehicles characteristics.

Compared to 2x4, the 4x4 vehicles centre of gravity is very high. Thevehicle is unstable, especially in curves or when driving on wet roads. Thehigher the vehicle is, the more difficult to handle.

Action contre la Faim uses Toyota HiLux. These vehicles are light pick-upwith good off-road capacity but they are unstable in curves and in sideslopes due to a high centre of gravity.

In addition, 4x4 are heavy vehicles: their braking distance is longer than2x4's.

When driving an empty pick-up the driver must be aware of the lack oftraction and adherence of the rear axle. Additional weight must be addedon the rear axle for long trips (minimum 100 kg)

Steering is usually less responsive when on 4-WD mode; the driver must beready for obstacles before reaching them.

When reaching an obstacle the driver must leave the vehicle and assessthe situation.Trying to get across any obstacle with a high-speed manoeuvre will damagethe vehicle. The driver must use the 4x4 abilities of the vehicle.



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7. Human resources

7.1. Drivers

Action contre la Faim recruits professional drivers to drive vehicles.Expatriates and other employees are normally not authorised to drivevehicles.

The reasons for this policy are multiple:- A vehicle will wear more when used by different drivers- A specific driver will take better care of a vehicle if it is his/herallocated machine- Driving cross-country or on sand is exhausting- Drivers know the road conditions

- Drivers know the national regulation and traditions- Drivers know how to react in case of accident

For long missions, Action contre la Faim recommends two persons in avehicle. The passenger can assist the driver for navigation, and for radiocontacts. In case of accident or breakdown one can stay with the vehicle tokeep radio contact, while the other goes looking for help.

The logistician must allocate one vehicle to one driver. The driverwill be responsible for his/her vehicle. The wear of a vehicle will beless if driven by one driver only.

It is also a way to evaluate the performance of a driver: a good driver willhave reasonable fuel consumption, a vehicle in good condition and regularmaintenance services.

7.2. Recruitment of drivers

The recruitment of good drivers is essential for the mission. TheAdministrator defines modalities and documentation of the recruitmentprocedure and the logistician selects the best candidate.

Some examples of job descriptions are available in the Human Resourcespart of the Kit Log V 2.0. The common tasks of a driver are:

1. Driving2. Radio monitoring3. Maintenance and regular checking of allocated vehicle4. Filling in the Log Book and other administrative documents5. Small support to the logistic team: loading, mail distribution,

purchases



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The recruitment normally goes through three stages1. Selection on resume, based on experience, age, references2. Selection by interview and physical test (a driver must have a

good sight, natural or corrected)3. Driving and mechanical tests.

Example of a mechanical test:1. Ask the driver to perform the daily checking2. Name and function of different parts (fuel pump, alternator,distributor etc.)3. Specificities of a 4x4 vehicle4. Minor breakdown to detect (fuel valve unplugged, break fluid sensorunplugged etc.)5. Time to change a wheel

Example of a driving test:Driving in the city, respect of pedestrian, regulation

Driving off-road:- 4x4, 2x4, L4, and H4 according to the vehicle- Mud, sand, drainage crossing

The logistician in charge of the test must have enough knowledgeand driving skills to judge the candidate

Once the candidate is selected the logistician must introduce him

to the Administrator for a briefing on Action contre la Faim staffregulations and for signing the employment contract.

7.3. Training a new driver

The training of a 4x4 vehicle driver must include:

1. Specification of the vehicle and basic mechanics2. Pre departure checks, use of controls on the dashboard, Action contre

la Faim documents3. 4x4 driving theory and practice: use of 4L, 4H, locks and driving

exercises4. Documents and equipment required: emergency kits, tools, logbook,

passes, maps etc5. Use of HF radio6. Security procedures to follow (check points, convoy mines etc.)7. Ethic and behaviour on the road

7.4. Mechanics



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When the fleet of vehicle is important Action contre la Faim hiresmechanics.Action contre la Faim often undertakes all maintenance and reparationwork internally.Only bodywork, painting and reparations needing specialised tools areoutsourced.

However its possible to work with external workshop if service quality isacceptable and if the workshop has enough equipment.

In addition to mechanics and possible assistants, the logistician mustforecast:1. A workshop with an inspection pit2. A workshop table3. A secure storage space for tools and spare parts4. Good tools and materials, see annex5. Generator if the office power supply is not sufficiant

The mechanic main responsibilities are:1. Carrying on maintenance and reparations of vehicles2. Planning maintenance of vehicles3. Managing the workshop and assistants4. Purchasing spare parts and managing cash advances5. Following Action contre la Faim procedures.

The mechanic is responsible for inventory and following up of materials andspare parts in the workshop. He can have additional responsibilities such astraining of drivers, organisation of movement planning of the base, car costreporting, fuel stock management etc.

The exact definition of the position depends on the capacity of theindividual and on the workload.On a small base one person may have several functions while in a capitalAction contre la Faim may hire several employees:

- Logistician- Fleet manager- Vehicles mechanic

- Assistant mechanic for generator, compressor, motorbikes etc.



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8. Fleet of vehicles

8.1. The role of the Logistics Coordinator

The Logistics Coordinator is the ultimate responsible for the organisation ofthe mission fleet. He/she has to define the specification of vehicles, theirnumber, defines rental contracts modalities and sometimes purchasesvehicles.

This work is done in collaboration with the mission Administrator to define aglobal forecast of the fleet according to needs and funding.

Action contre la Faim typical fleets on the missions are composed of:- 2x4, 4x4 and light trucks

- Heavy trucks- Motorbikes- Boats (less frequently)

The role of the logistician is to organise the right maintenance and the rightuse of his/her fleet of vehicles. A preventive maintenance and carefulinspection should prevent breakdowns. Preventive maintenance reducesreparations cost and extends the vehicle lifetime.

The logistician must follow the manufacturer maintenance protocol; he/shecan go above these requirements when road conditions are extreme.

The maintenance periodicity is usually set in kilometres, but in countrieswith bad road conditions time spent on the road is more relevant: thelogistician can decide a monthly periodicity.

Refer to vehicles procedures for administrative tools andprocedures for fleet management.

8.2. Vehicles characteristics

The Logistic Coordinator defines vehicles specifications according to theprojects needs and to the environment.

1. Load and passenger capacity2. Type of fuel, availability of this fuel in the operating area.3. General road condition for the vehicle 2x4 or 4x4

If 4x4, what are the crossing capacities required: good conditions,difficult conditions or extreme

4. Left hand drive or right hand drive

Frequent options or characteristics:- Extra fuel tank



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- Raised air intake (river crossing)- Bush bar and winch (mechanical or electrical)- Roof rack- Type of tyres- Differential locks

8.3. Which 4x4 to choose?

Every vehicle has its specific strengths and weaknesses and a specificmaintenance protocol.

Following are some general considerations regarding the 4x4 vehiclesmostly used by Action contre la Faim

Vehicles Positive NegativeLand RoversDefender

Good engineExcellent off road capacities

Body problems after 3yearsHigh maintenance costSpare parts are difficult tofind in Central Africa andcentral Asia

Toyota HZJ75/78/79

Strongly buildGood off road abilitiesSpare parts are easilyavailable

Not as good as a Defenderin extreme off roadconditions

Toyota Hilux Low fuel consumption To consider as a light

vehicle with off roadabilities but not for extremeuse

Lada Niva The cheapest 4x4Good off road abilities

Mediocre passengercapacityDevelops quickly majorbreakdowns

Action contre la Faim recommends the purchase of Toyota LandCruiser HZJ 78 or 79

Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 78 Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 79



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HardtopPicture from Toyota Gibraltar

Service

Pick-upPicture from Toyota Gibraltar Service



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9. Vehicle fleet management

9.1. Rental or purchase

Normally, Action contre la Faim considers that:- Rented vehicles answer to a particular or temporary need.

Example: vehicles for a food aid distribution, 4x4 dumping truck- Vehicles owned by Action contre la Faim answer to structuralneeds.

However some other essential considerations will determine a generalpolicy on the mission:

- Security situation: risk of looting = low input policy, no purchases- Criminal context, insurance effectiveness

- Legislation and customs: owning a vehicle is an administrativenightmare in some countries where Action contre la Faim isoperating

- Funding opportunities

9.2. Rental

Before signing a rental contract, the logistician must always verify:- The general mechanical condition of the vehicle- The administrative documentation, ownership of the vehicle- The history of the vehicle, signs of a former belonging to an

NGO/IO (radio mountings, remaining sticker glue) risk of a stolenor looted vehicle

A contract must be signed with the owner or authorised representativeonly.The contract will mention:

Standard information: name of parties, duration, rental cost permonth, and end of contract

+ Exact identification of the vehicle: (plate and chassis number)

+ General condition of the vehicle+ Responsibilities in case of theft, looting+ Responsibility for maintenance, reparation+ Responsibility for the driver (salary), authorised additional drivers+ Deduction for days of immobilisation

The Kit Log V 2.0 provides an example of a rental contract but there is nostandard form as it depends on the rules and legislation of the country.

The Logistic Coordinator must define a standard contract for the mission;the advice of a lawyer is always useful as civil obligations may already exist

in the legislation.



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9.3. Rental tips

9.3.1. Maintenance and reparation

An axiom could be: The less Action contre la Faim is involved in the

maintenance and reparation of a rented vehicle, the better.

Involving Action contre la Faim in maintenance and reparation workrequires complicated contracts and a strict follow-up. The risk is that if amajor breakdown occurs the owner holds Action contre la Faim responsibledue to poor maintenance.

9.3.2. Driver

Ideally the driver must be employed by the owner of the vehicle andapproved by Action contre la Faim. When a driver is hired by Action contrela Faim and is driving a rented vehicle, the vehicle's owner can hold Actioncontre la Faim responsible of misuse of the vehicle to request change ofexpensive parts or complete reparation in case of accident.

The driver must respect Action contre la Faim internal regulations and jobdescription. In case of difficulties Action contre la Faim can terminate therental contract or request a change of driver.

If it appears that the owner of the vehicle doesnt pay the driver

decently, Action contre la Faim must terminate immediately thecontract.

Another solution is to hire drivers who own their vehicles. It is usuallypossible in countries where rental cost is low compared to labour cost.

In addition the logistician must be aware that the recruitment of a driver fora rented vehicle is problematic when Action contre la Faim ends the rentalcontract. There will be an excess of drivers compare to the fleet, thereforethe driver will be dismissed. According to national labour legislation and

internal employment agreement, severance indemnities may exist.

9.4. Ideal rental from Action contre la Faims point ofview

What should be included in the rental cost?

- Use and immobilisation of vehicle- Maintenance and reparation charges

- Salary and charges relating to driver- Wear of the vehicle



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When feasible, in cities for example, even fuel should be included as a flatrate in the contract.What Action contre la Faim may lose in cash will be saved in terms ofmanagement.

9.5. Purchasing

Most 4x4 are purchased through Action contre la Faim headquarters. Thispolicy guarantees good prices, high quality services and a standardisationof the fleet.

On the other hand, 2x4, trucks and second hand vehicles are frequentlybought at the mission level.

When ordering or purchasing a vehicle the Logistic Coordinator must definethe characteristics. (Paragraph 8.2).

The Logistics Coordinator must also verify:- Availability of spare parts in the country or neighbouring country- Availability of this model in the country: mechanical knowledge- Importation fees, registration, taxes.

9.6. Insurance

When to subscribe insurances for the vehicles on a mission?


Is insurance effective?

YES NO

Is insuranceThe Logistics

Coordinator will lookfor an insurance policyfor all vehicles, YES NO

The LogisticsCoordinator will look

will look for the

No insurance for ACFvehicles in this

country


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10. Annexes

10.1. Vehicle tool box for field missions

Based on Facom "Overland" kit 2030.M. www.facom.net

Qty Designation English Designation French9 Open-end wrenches 6x7 - 8x9 - 10x11

- 12x13 - 14x15 - 16x17 - 18x19 -20x21 - 22x24 mm

Cls fourches de 6x7 - 8x9 - 10x11 -12x13 - 14x15 - 16x17 - 18x19 - 20x21- 22x24 mm

10 Jeu de cls combines 10-19 mm (clsmixtes)

Combined wrenches 10-19 mm

1 Blade handle Poigne porte-lame9 Reversible blades : Torx 10x15 -

20x25 - 30x40, Slotted head 4x6.5,

Pozidriv 1x2, Phillips 1x2, Hexagonal4-5-6

Lames rversibles : Torx 10x15 -20x25 - 30x40, Plat 4x6,5, PZ 1x2, PH

1X2, 6 pans 4-5-61 Sheathed multigrip pliers Pince multiprise gaine1 Sheathed straight half-round nose

pliersPince gaine becs demi-ronds droits

1 Sheathed diagonal cutters Pince coupante diagonale gaine1 Lock-grip pliers Pince tau1 Adjustable wrench 10" Cl molette 10"1 Hammer 30 mm Marteau de 30 mm1 Precision chisel Burin de prcision1 Drift punch 4 mm Chasse-goupille de 4 mm1 3/8" "palm control" ratchet Cliquet paume de main 3/8"4 3/8" socket accessories: 2 extensions,

universal joint, sliding tee

Accessoires pour douilles 3/8" : 2

rallonges, cardan, poigne coulissante13 3/8" rack socket-set 8 to 19 and 21 Douilles mtriques 3/8" sur rack de 8

19 et 211 Box wrench for spark-plugs Cl en tube pour bougies1 Feeler gauge 19 blades Jauge d'paisseur 19 lames1 Monkey wrench for drain plugs Levier d'effort1 Filter wrench Cl filtre1 Air pump (hand or foot) Pompe air (manuelle ou pied)1 Wire brush Brosse mtallique1 Hacksaw and spare blade Scie mtaux et lame de rechange

1 Box of glue Bote de colle

1 Box of fuses Bote de fusibles2 Headlight bulbs Ampoules de phare1 Can of brake fluid Bote de liquide freins4 Litres of engine oil Litres d'huile moteur

3.5 Litres of gearbox and differential oil Litres d'huile pour bote et diffrentiel1 Grease gun Pistolet graisse1 Roll of metallic wire Rouleau de fil mtallique1 kg heavy grease kg de graisse paisse

25 m of strong rope m de corde resistante1 Tin of power steering fluid Bote de liquide pour servo-direction

15 m of tubing for refilling fuel tank. m de tube pour remplissage rservoir.1 Second spare wheel Deuxime roue de secours

http://www.facom.net/http://www.facom.net/


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10.2. List of tools for the workshop

Based on Facom general mechanic tools selection CM.120A.www.facom.net

Note that this list has to be considered as the minimal equipment for amaintenance workshop. Other tools are required for advanced operationson vehicles.

Qty

Designation English Designation French

14 Combination wrenches 7 to 24 mm Cls mixtes de 7 24 mm

12 Open-end wrenches 6 to 32 mmCls fourches (ouvertes) de 6 32mm

1 Adjustable wrench 10" Cl molette 10"

54 " and " sockets and accessories 5.5 to32 mm

Douilles et " et accessoires 5.5 32 mm

13 Set of hexagonal keys 1.5 to 14 mm "Allen" Cls mles coudes de 1,5 14 mm

3Screwdrivers slotted heads 3.5x75 - 4x100 -5.5x100

Tournevis plat: 3,5x75 - 4x100 -5,5x100

2Screwdrivers for slotted heads 6.5x150 -8x200 mm

Tournevis plat de 6,5x150 - 8x200 mm

3 Screwdrivers for Phillips heads no. 0 - 1 - 2Tournevis pour empreinte Phillips PH 0-1-2

3 Screwdrivers for Pozidriv heads no. 0 - 1 - 2Tournevis pour empreinte Pozidriv PZ 0-1-2

1 1000V insulated screwdriver for slottedheads 4 mm

Tournevis plat isol 1000 V - 4 mm

11000V insulated screwdriver for Phillipsheads N 1

Tournevis isol 1000 V - PH1

1 Set of shock screwdrivers Jeu de tournevis frapper1 Sheathed combination pliers Pince universelle gaine

1 Sheathed "piano wire" diagonal cuttersPince coupante diagonale "corde piano"

1 Sheathed multigrip pliers Pince multiprise gaine1 Sheathed straight half-round nose pliers Pince gaine becs demi-ronds droits1 Sheathed flat-nose pliers Pince gaine becs plats1 Large-capacity lock-grip pliers Pince-tau becs longs1 Inside-circlip pliers Pince pour circlips intrieurs1 Outside-circlip pliers Pince pour circlips extrieurs1 Tape measure 2m Mtre ruban 2 m1 Hacksaw frame Monture de scie mtaux10 Bimetal saw blades Lames de scie "bimtal"5 File set Limes1 Square punch Pointe carre1 Pop riveter Pince riveter1 Plastic-tip mallet Massette embouts plastique

2 Hammers, 1 and 1.5 kg Marteaux, 1 et 1.5 kg2 Mallets (metal), big and small Maillets (mtal), gros et petit2 Chisels (flat and point) Burins (plat et pointu)

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2 Sheathed nail sets 2 - 4 mm Chasse-clous gains : 2 - 4 mm2 Sheathed drift punches 2 - 4 mm Chasse-goupilles gains : 2 - 4 mm1 Precision centre punch 4 mm Pointeau de prcision 4 mm1 Electricians knife with wire stripper Couteau d'lectricien avec dnudeur1 Torque wrench Cl dynamomtrique1 Distributor wrench Cl de dmontage du distributeur

1 Filter wrench Cl de dmontage du filtre1 Wheel wrench Cl de dmontage de roue

1 Pipe grip pliers big and smallPinces serre-tube, une grosse et unepetite

3 Tyre levers Dmonte-pneu1 Tyre pressure gauge Vrificateur de pression des pneus1 Multi-meter Multi-mtre1 Acidity meter Acidimtre2 Funnels big and small Entonnoirs (grand et petit)1 Block and tackle Palan1 Grease gun Pistolet graisse

1 Callipers Compas1 Feeler gauge Jeu de cales1 Metal brush Brosse mtallique1 Set of paint brushes Jeu de pinceaux

1 Welding set (acetylene or electric)Ncessaire soudure (actylne oulectrique)

1 Grinding machine 230 mm Meuleuse d'angle 230 mm

1 Drilling set, electric or manualPerceuse et mches, manuelle oulectrique

1 Compressor Compresseur1 Vice Etau2 Jacks: 2 ton and 5 ton Crics (2 tonnes et 5 tonnes)1 Battery charger Chargeur de batterie



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10.3. Toyota Gibraltar Service glossary of 4x4 termsCopyright 1996 - 2004 Toyota Gibraltar Stockholdings Ltd.

www.toyota-gib.com

4 x 4 4 x 4

This general term is used to describe

a vehicle with four-wheel drive. Thefirst figure is the number of wheels,the second one is the number ofpowered wheels.

Ce terme gnrique dsigne un

vhicule quatre roues motrices. Lepremier chiffre indique le nombre deroues motrices, le second, le nombretotal de roues.

4 x 2 4 x 2 This term refers to a two-wheel drivevehicle with four wheels.Ce terme dsigne un vhicule deuxroues motrices.

Angle ofApproach

Angled'attaque

When viewed from the side, this isthe angle between the ground and aline running from the tyre to thefront bumper or other low-hangingcomponent. This angle gives anindication of how steep a ramp avehicle can negotiate without

damage. It gives a good indication ofa vehicles ability to climb over rocksand logs without hitting andpotentially damaging the front partof the vehicles body or chassis.

Vu de ct, c'est l'angle form par lesol et une ligne allant du pneu aupare-chocs avant, ou tout autrelment bas. L'angle indique lapente qu'un vhicule peut ngociersans dommages. C'est une bonneindication de la capacit d'un

vhicule franchir des terrainspierreux ou des obstacles sansrisquer de cogner et doncendommager l'avant du bas decaisse.

Angle ofdeparture

Angle desortie

In side view, this is the anglebetween the ground and a linerunning from the rear tyre to therear bumper or other low-hangingbody work. Similar to the approachangle, the departure angle indicatesa vehicles ability to drive off a rampor obstacle without damaging the

rear.

Vu de ct, c'est l'angle form par lesol et une ligne allant du pneuarrire au pare-chocs arrire ou toutautre lment bas. L'angle de sortieindique la capacit d'un vhicule descendre une pente ou franchir unobstacle sans endommager l'arrire

du bas de caisse.

Anti-LockBrakingSystem

(ABS)

SystmeAntibloqueur deScurit

(ABS)

This braking system senses anysignificant difference in wheel speed,from one wheel to another, when avehicle is braking hard. When any ofthe wheels begins to lock up(completely stop rotating), ABSautomatically reduces the brakingforces to that wheel or wheels inorder to keep all wheels rolling toprevent break-induced skidding. ABS

can control all four wheels (cars andmost 4x4s have this system) or anytwo wheels. The system can groupwheels together in "channels" ofoperation (i.e. a three-channel ABSsystem on a four-wheeled vehicle) orhave one channel for each wheel(four-channel ABS).

Ce systme peroit toute diffrencesignificative dans la vitesse desroues, d'une roue l'autre, lorsqu'unvhicule freine trs fortement.Lorsque l'une des roues commence se bloquer (ne tourne plus du tout),l'ABS module automatiquement lapuissance du freinage afin que laroue ou les roues restent toutes enmouvement afin d'empcher lepatinage. L'ABS peut contrler les

quatre roues (les voitures et laplupart des 4x4 sont quips de cesystme) ou l'une des paires deroues. Il peut aussi grouper les rouespar les voies de rpartition (par ex.un systme ABS trois voies sur unvhicule quatre roues motrices) ouavoir une voie par roue (ABS quatrevoies).

Anti-RollBar

Barreantiroulis

This suspension element is a longtorsion bar (essentially a rod thatcan twist) mounted across thevehicle from one wheel to the wheel

on the opposite side. By transferringmovement and force from one sideof the vehicle to the other, an anti-

Cet lment de la suspension estune longue barre de torsion (en grosune tige supportant la torsion)installe entre deux roues opposes.

En transfrant le mouvement et laforce d'un ct l'autre du vhicule,une barre antiroulis peut limiter les

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roll bar can restrict body lean (orroll) during cornering. Vehicles mayhave anti-roll bars in the front, rearor both.

oscillations (ou roulis) dans lesvirages. La barre antiroulis peutquiper les vhicules l'avant ou l'arrire, ou les deux.

Arms,Links,Rods,Wishbones

Bras,

Tiges,Tringles,Fourchettes

These terms describe a variety ofsuspension components that"locate" the wheels or axles and

restrict their movements foroptimum handling and traction. Thecomplex relationship amongsuspension components as theymove is called the suspensiongeometry.

Ces termes dcrivent plusieurslments de la suspension qui"fixent" les roues ou les arbres etlimitent leurs mouvements pour unetenue de route et une tractionoptimales. La relation complexequ'entretiennent les lments de lasuspension lorsqu'ils sont enmouvement s'appelle la gomtriede la suspension.

AxleArticulation

Dbattement

This term indicates the ability of oneaxle to move relative to the otherleft wheel up, right wheel down. It isthe measure of the ease with whichwheels stay in contact with theground (and retain traction) on a

very bumpy uneven track.

Ce terme dcrit la capacit d'unessieu supporter les mouvementdes roues roue gauche haute, rouedroite basse. C'est la mesure de lafacilit pour les roues de rester encontact avec le sol (et donc d'tre

active dans la traction) sur un terrainingal.

Ball JointJoint rotule

A ball joint is a flexible jointconsisting of a ball in a socket. It ismost often used in suspensionsbecause it accommodates a widerange of motion in two directions.

Un joint rotule est un joint soupleconstitu d'une pice sphrique dansun logement creux. Il estgnralement utilis pour lessuspensions car il permet unegrande varit de mouvements dansdeux directions.

Beam AxleEssieurigide

A beam axle is a rigid axlesupporting non-driven wheels.

C'est un essieu reliant deux rouesnon-motrices

Brake

Fade

Perted'efficacitdes freins

As brakes heat up with hard orrepeated use, their effectivenessusually diminishes.

Les freins s'chauffent lorsqu'il sontsouvent ou fortement sollicits etleur efficacit s'en trouve amoindrie.

BrakeLockup

Blocagedes freins

In braking, lockup describes thepoint at which a tyre starts to skid inan emergency stopping situation. Atyres maximum braking force isdeveloped when it is on the verge oflock-up, so a cars shortest stoppingdistances are produced when itsfront and rear tyres are held justshort of lockup. Anti-lock brakes(ABS) prevent wheel lockup, givingthe advantage of simultaneoussteering and braking ability (a lockedwheel cannot be steered).

Le blocage dsigne le moment o lepneu commence patiner lors d'unfreinage d'urgence. La force defreinage maximum d'un pneus'exerce juste avant le blocage de laroue, la distance de freinageminimale d'une voiture est doncobtenue en maintenant les rouesavant et arrires au point prcdantle blocage. Le systme antibloqueurde scurit (ABS) empche le

blocage des roues, ce qui permetdonc de freiner au maximum tout enconservant le contrle de la direction(une roue bloque ne peut pastourner).

Bush Coussinet

A suspension bushing is a type ofbearing for suspension components.Typically made of rubber or asynthetic material, a bush can be"tuned" to affect ride quality andhandling, and minimise thetransmission of vibrations to the

passenger cabin.

Un coussinet de suspension est unesorte de joint entre composants dela suspension. Gnralement encaoutchouc ou en matriausynthtique, un coussinet participe la qualit de la tenue de route et auconfort de conduite, et limite latransmission des vibrations

l'habitacle.CadenceBraking

Freinagepar -

A method of braking with the footbrake to stimulate the action of ABS

Mthode de freinage par laquelle lepied active la pdale de frein par



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co