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Development Geography

Development: The use of resources and technology to bring about positive change, generally involves the improvement in quality of life (healthy) and standard of living (luxuries) in a country.

Development from different contexts – local, regional and global Local – refers to development in the area in which you are living.

municipality (small-scale) Regiona l – refers to development in an area that has similar characteristics which

distinguish it from other areas : such as a, province (e.g. Gauteng) or group of countries ( e.g. SADEC, BRICS)

Global – refers to development worldwide. E.g. The Millennium Development Goals.

Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger

Achieving universal primary education

Promoting gender equality Reducing child mortality

Improving maternal health Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other

diseases Ensuring environmental sustainability Developing a global partnership for

development

Top-down development- development initiated from the top – global groups, government, municipalityBottom- up development- development initiated from the bottom- e.g. individual, local community group, Volunteer groups.

Development indicatorsDevelopment Indicators: Are used to measure the level of development with regard to a country’s economic, social and institutional growth. There are three main types’ economic indicators: - Economic Indicators (Show how well off a country is economically) Social Indicators (Show level of human development, welfare and quality of life) Demographic Indicators (Statistics of a country’s population)

Economic indicators Gross National Income (GNI) – the amount of money the average person in a

country can expect to have. (Low income / middle-income countries= developing high-income countries =developed).

Gross National Product (GNP) – Total value of all goods and services produced by a country in one year including foreign earnings. Include imports/exports

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – Shows the total value of all goods and services produced by a country in one year. NO IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.

Human Development Index (HDI) – This indicator is a combination of GDP per capita, life expectancy and literacy rate. Zero (0) = worst quality of life one (1) =almost perfect place.

GINI co-efficient: Distribution of wealth in a countryZero (0) = complete equality one (1) =complete inequality in wealth/income

NB! All of the above indicators are often given as per capita or per person. To calculate this amount you take the GNI, GNP or GDP and divide by the country’s total population.

Development Geogrpahy (T. Seedat) Gr 11 Pg 1

It is therefore an average amount that is available to each person in that country and is not a true reflection.

Social Indicators Social Indicators may include things like:

The percentage of the population living in urban areas Education levels and level of literacy Availability of services such as water, electricity and healthcare Food and nutrition

Gender Inequality Index (GII): Gender inequality measured on health of girls and women, political representation, education and job opportunities. zero =maximum equality one = maximum inequality between genders.

NOTE THE DIFFERENCEStandard of living is the value of their possessions and savings, the type of home they live in and whether they own items such as a washing machine, television, car, telephone and computer.Quality of life is the general well-being of a person. It includes standard of living, but it is also affected by education, health care, services, utilities, environment, and social, political and religious freedom.

Demographic Indicators Birth rate - the number of births per 1000s of the population Death rate – the number of deaths per 1000s of the population Infant mortality rate -The number of children who die (in their first year) because of

childhood related and other diseases. Life expectancy -The average number of years a person can expect to live. Maternal Mortality rate- the number of mothers who dies during childbirth Population growth rate -the percentage by which a country’s population grows each

year Fertility rate -the expected number of children the average women in a country has

Brandt Line: The line dividing the world into the developed and developing world.

The Brandt Line The Brandt Line may also be referred to as the North-South divide. It is important to remember that the Brandt line is not the same as the equator.

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES DEVELOPING COUNTRIESFirst world Third WorldRich world Poor WorldThe haves The have not’sMore economically developed countries (MEDCs) Less economically developed countries (LEDCs)

Industrialised Non-industrialised/ IndustrialisingThe North The SouthHigh income Low incomeHigh human development index (HDI Low human development index (HDI 0,5 and less)


0.8+)E.g. United States of America, France, Japan , Australia E.g. India, Ethiopia, Brazil, China

Factors that Affect Development POLITICAL FACTORS /History Colonisation led to the extraction of resources by developed countries. No laws govern the use/exploitation of resources. Large multinational companies and investors exploit natural resources, especially in

developing countries. Labour is exploited and foreign expertise is used. Local labour is not skilled.

CULTURAL & SOCIAL FACTORS Population Growth

The world’s population is increasing at a rapid rate. This puts pressure on resources such as wood, water and soil. These resources are becoming depleted or degraded.

Education and Training An educated labour force is essential for transfer or technology from developed

and developing countries. High illiteracy rates hamper educational progress in a country.

ECONOMIC FACTORS Trade Imbalances Globalisation has made it easy for countries to trade and exchange goods. World Trade Organisation has introduced a free market trade system in an effort to

attempt to integrate developing countries into the world’s trading and economic systems.

Developing countries often have to export to developed countries and suffer when orders for their goods are cut back.

Energy More than half the world’s population does not have access to clean, cheap energy. The high use of biomass fuel in developing countries means a lack of energy for

domestic use. This slows down development. Developed countries contribute to the world’s rising CO2 levels from the use of

fossils fuels for energy production.

NATURAL RESOURCES Natural Resources & Environmental Degradation Carrying capacity (the maximum population that resources in a given environment

can support) is exceeded. Large populations put pressure on natural resources. There is a lack of environmental education, government policy and effective pollution

control. There is an objective of profit at all costs. Access to resources There is an uneven distribution of the world’s natural resources. Developed countries need more resources than developing countries.


There is a lack of access to water, electricity and sanitation in many developing countries.

Land ownership is prevented in some countries. There is a lack of opportunities in business owing to government policies.

Economic Models of Development A model is a representation of an aspect of the real world, a simplified or generalised version of reality

Rostow’s Model

Rostow’s model is a very modern model that has been purely based on economic development. Development took place over time as a result of free trade, industrialisation and exports. It includes five main stages.

1. Traditional society: All societies begin underdeveloped, focusing on subsistence agriculture, little technology and a balance between population and available resources.

2. Preconditions for take off: Formal economy starts to grow, commercial agriculture, technology and infrastructure improve, export of natural resources.

3. Take off: Industries develop, sustained economic growth, economy develops further

4. Drive to maturity: economic growth spreads though country and industrialisation and urbanisation.

5. High mass consumption: Highly developed, advanced industrial economy, tertiary sector grows.

Criticisms Model was mainly based on European countries with little relevance for

developing countries.


Many countries remained in stage 1(traditional society) despite huge amounts of money and time.

The focus is on economic growth only. The conditions facing LEDCs today are very different from those which MEDCs

faced in the past.

Core Periphery Model (Friedmans model)

Economic growth is mainly concentrated in the core. The periphery is dependent on the core. Over time development should spread from the core to the periphery and in this way the whole area becomes developed. The core periphery model can be applied at different scales, local and global.

Criticisms Economic growth and development are rarely even. Economic activity, including the level of industrialisation and intensity of farming,

decreases rapidly with distance from the core regions and towards the periphery or outer regions.

Sustainable Development Models

Sustainability models are the newest type of development models. These models focus on economic, social and environmental elements of development. The emphasis is on well - being, justice, human resources and environmental sustainability.


Sustainable development can only occur if there is a balance between the three components.

Criticisms Prioritizing of Basics needs can go ignore. Increase in cost to develop using sustainable, eco-friendly methods. Cost implications for the change to eco friendly industries.

Community based development Community based development programmes are designed to improve the quality of life within specific communities. They take into account local conditions, culture and history. By evolving the community in the planning, execution and on-going maintenance of the programme, the people are more likely to buy into the idea. Community based development can be divided into rural development and urban development.

The most important aspects of community-driven projects for development are: Bottom-up approach to development Community driven Build local economies Alleviate poverty and vulnerability Sustainable development

Capacity building Long-term economic development Community empowerment Increase access to market Focus on disaster preparedness

Trade and development Trade can be described as the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. In its simplest form trade is a process where people or entities barter – one side provides goods or services, while the other side pays with money, goods or services.

International Trade International Trade involves the movement of goods and services across borders between countries. Trade between two countries is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two countries is referred to as multinational trade.

Commodities Commodities are items that countries trade. They can either be raw materials or finished products LEDC’s export mainly raw materials and unfinished goods, so their share of global trade is very small. LEDCs also earn less for their exports than MEDCs, because processed commodities fetch higher prices than raw materials do.

Terms of Trade Terms of trade is a term used by economists to describe the relationship between the prices a country sells its exports for and the prices it pays for its imports. It makes economic sense to try and get more for what you sell, and pay less for what you buy.

Balance of Trade The balance of trade is another important term to understand. It is the relationship between the value of a country’s exports and it imports. It can either be positive or negative.


NEGATIVE BALANCE OF TRADE = imports are greater than exports POSITIVE BALANCE OF TRADE = exports are greater than imports

Trade Relationships Free Trade It is trade that occurs without any restrictions. When there is free trade, nations open their borders to one another, and goods and services move freely between them.

There are no tariffs or customs duties that might increase the process. Free trade is meant to benefit all trading partners. Trade Bloc- group of countries that agree to trade e.g.. EU, SADEC, NAFTA

Trade Barriers This occurs in order to protect local manufacturers; governments might introduce measures to make imported goods more expensive. These include:

Protectionism- control restricting, restraining or supporting trade to look after the interest of a country or a group of countries.

Import tariffs and taxes (taxes placed on imported goods making them more expensive than local goods)

Subsidies for local industries (a subsidy is financial assistance paid to a business to help support that business, to create employment, stimulate business and reduce imports)

Quotas (limits that governments set to the amount of imported goods that can enter a country within a particular time frame)

Trade barriers are also used in order to protect jobs in a country, protect local products from foreign competition and to encourage local industries.

Fair Trade Trade that supports farmers in developing countries by paying fair prices, workers enjoy better working conditions and are not exploited. This type of trade is closely linked to sustainable development. Fair trade organisations also improve infrastructure and social development (education and training) in developing countries.

Globalisation Globalisation is a process whereby the increased flow of goods, services, capital, technology, ideas, information and people between countries leads to an integrated global economy and society. Globalisation has resulted in some brands spreading across the globe.

Globalisation impacts development in different ways: Advantages Trade - it is now easier to trade and exchange goods with available technology Communication - countries are better linked therefore can share knowledge. Global Governance - international community is trying to regulate global economic

activities and minimise environmental damage. Open Borders – easier to move people, goods and ideas across borders Economic Growth - stimulated production, trade and economic growth.


Disadvantages Multinational Corporations - control world resources and operate globally. Migration – loss of family ties, loss of cultural identity Trading agreements in favour of MEDC- control quotas, price, tariffs, duties Subsidies protect farmers in MEDC and not LEDC Spread of diseases- HIV/Aids, SARS, Ebola.Export-Led Development e.g. China Export-led development is an economic strategy used by developing nations to

“catch-up” to developed nations. Their aim is to increase wealth (development) by increasing exports through:

Investing and concentrating on industry, manufacturing and education in order to create specialised export products, e.g. electronics, clothes, appliances

Re-investing the money earned in social and physical structureCountries such as China, Honk Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea have become more developed by using this approach.

The Role of Women in Development Men and women do different things in society. We call these different things gender roles. The roles are based on tradition and cultural or religious beliefs.

Gender issues are related to: Attitudes Women are predominantly seen as the caregivers and homemakers. In many cultures women are seen as belonging firstly to their fathers and after that

belonging to their husbands. Women are not encouraged to have an opinion or seek an education and many

accept their roles.

Access to Resources Traditionally women have very little access to resources (education, property and

employment). Developed countries now offer equal education but still have more men involved in

science and engineering. Meanwhile in developing countries educating boys is still given top priority. In many developing countries women are still not able to own land and therefore are

involved in subsistence agriculture. When they do find employment outside agriculture, they are offered the lowest

paying jobs or work in the informal sector.

Power In developing countries women are not involved in any decision making processes. Many laws do exist to prevent discrimination against women but are seldom upheld by governments. Some societies do offer their women equal rights but still may suffer different forms of discrimination. Girls and women suffer sexual abuse and violence.

The Gender Inequality Index (GII) The index indicating degree of equality/inequality between men and women. The following factors are used to determine the GII: health of girls and women,

political representation, education and job opportunities. A low GII closer to zero indicates maximum equality among males and females.


A higher GII closer to one means there is maximum inequality between genders. Generally speaking the MEDCs have scores that are close to zero while LEDCs

have scores close to one.

Ways that Government Assist Development

1. Central government - provinces and other state departments initiate development projects. These projects are large-scale, long-term and require large sums of money. A current example would be the NGP (New Growth Path). This is a state development policy for economic growth and equity. It plans to bring about development by creating jobs and reducing inequality and poverty.

2. Weak State Control -Where state control is weak, government often fails to satisfy basic conditions and carry out its responsibilities, such as to provide public services and to reduce widespread corruption and criminality. The characteristics of these states are:

an ineffective, weak central government little control over the states sharp economic decline

3. Public or Private Partnerships In any market-based economy, state owned, cooperative and private enterprises need to work together. State enterprises should be able to make more decisions with respect to pricing, production and distribution of products and services. The private should be expanded through privatisation (transfer of ownership from the public to the private sector). This is believed to improve output, profits and efficiency of the organisations.

The Role of Aid in Development In order to improve the standard of living, especially in developing countries, large sums of money are needed. International development aid is when the MEDCs help LEDCs with loans donations and assistance. The MEDCs are referred to as the donors as they are granting the aid and the LEDCs are referred to as the foreign aid recipients.

Aid is used to develop economies and improve services to better the quality of life for its population. Aid can also be given with or without conditions.

The following are a few examples of development aid: Bilateral – from one government/country to another Multilateral – from international organisations (UN, World Bank)

Non-governmental organisations & private organisations (Red Cross) Private banks Direct investors (MNCs, Apple, Sony)

The Impact of Aid on Development


ADVANTAGES OF AID DISADVANTAGES OF AIDEducation and skills training can be improved.

Government receiving aid may have secret bank accounts in which it hides the foreign aid money for private purposes.

A recipient country can receive a large sum of money to invest on the development of that country (power stations, harbours, bridges).

Food often ends up being sold privately on markets.

Money can be used to improve schools, health care and basic needs of people.

Aid sometimes has conditions attached e.g. governance and political reform.

Developing countries benefit from the expertise and modern technology of developed countries.

Some governments in LEDCs manipulate their indicators of development to make them appear poor and in this way receive extra aid payments.

Development projects create jobs, benefiting the local people and economy.

Aid is perceived as a hand-out, not to assist in economic development.Debt repayments can outweigh the aid received.Projects encouraged are often inappropriate to the needs of the people.Products made in MEDCs from the LEDCs natural resources are sold back to them at higher process.

Technical, conditional and humanitarian aid.

Technical Conditional Humanitarian Donor supplies

technology, machinery and equipment

Citizens in recipient country undergo training to use technology

Spares and maintained by donor

E.g. solar heating Hydro electricity Dam building Wind power

Aid granted to recipients on specific conditions

Long term binding contracts.

Seen as a business transaction and MEDC benefit making more money.

E.g. high interest rates Exclusivity to donor for

product

Donor countries assist after natural disasters e.g. floods, droughts, hurricanes

Aid also granted after wars, genocide

People-focussed, not country-focussed

Short term emergency aid Basic services- food, water,

clothing, shelters E.g. Red Cross, Gift of the

Givers. Doctors without Borders.


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