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© Oakdene Hollins Ltd May 2007

Environmentally Beneficial Nanotechnologies

Appendices

A report for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

May 2007

OAKDENE HOLLINS


This report has been prepared by: Ben Walsh

Checked as a final copy by: Jo Pearson

Reviewed by: Nick Morley

Date: May 2007

Contact: [email protected]

File reference number: DEFR01 098 Appendix.doc

Oakdene Hollins provides clients with technical and economic studies concerned with:● the management of wastes, both hazardous and non hazardous● business development projects associated with the remanufacturing of equipment● statistical analysis and interpretation● in-depth market studies.

For more information visit www.oakdenehollins.co.uk


Contents

APPENDIX 1 Survey of environmentally beneficial nanotechnologies....3A 1.1 Energy generation and storage.................................................3A 1.2 Water, air and land quality.....................................................11A 1.3 Energy saving..........................................................................16A 1.4 Transport.................................................................................18A 1.5 New materials.........................................................................20

APPENDIX 2 Justification of the ranking of EBNT................................22APPENDIX 3 UK and EU Policies..........................................................29

A 3.1 Innovation and Nanotechnology policy...................................29A 3.2 Current UK policy relevant to EBNT.......................................30A 3.3 Research Funding...................................................................34A 3.4 Demonstration and Diffusion..................................................36A 3.5 Procurement............................................................................36A 3.6 Communication and Awareness..............................................37

APPENDIX 4 National initiatives on nanotechnology............................40APPENDIX 5 Further information on nanotechnology in photovoltaics 44

A 5.1 Nanoparticle silicon systems:.................................................44A 5.2 Mimicking photosynthesis.......................................................44A 5.3 Nanoparticle encapsulation....................................................45A 5.4 Improved conversion efficiencies:...........................................45A 5.5 Alternative materials...............................................................45A 5.6 Flexible film technology..........................................................48A 5.7 Reduced manufacturing equipment costs...............................48A 5.8 General structural developments............................................48

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APPENDIX 1

Survey of environmentally beneficial nanotechnologies

This section details the EBNTs highlighted from the initial survey of nanotechnologies from which candidate technologies were investigated further.

A 1.1 Energy Generation and Storage

A 1.1.1Electricity storage

Overview

The continual diversification of portable consumer electronics is driving demand for lightweight, high powered, high power-density batteries. The main issues with current batteries are that they are expensive, difficult to dispose of, have low charge density, are toxic, spontaneously combust and have limited lifespans and power output. Nanotechnology is being utilised to build more efficient batteries.

The development of high power low cost batteries will widen the market for using these materials. One area of environmental interest is in the development of electric or hybrid cars. At present the cost of lightweight and high performance batteries is suppressing demand for this environmentally beneficial alternative.

Relevance to nanotechnology

There are several different research institutions incorporating nanostructured materials into the design of current and novel battery technology.

The incorporation of nanoporous catalysts into battery electrodes is helping increase catalyst performance and the power output of the batteries. Nanocrystalline metal oxides are being developed for high powered large scale Li-ion batteries. This should significantly reduce the cost to produce these batteries.

Supercapacitors are being developed using carbon nanotubes. Batteries generate electricity from a chemical reaction whereas capacitors store electricity on charged plates. Recharge times are significantly reduced and, in theory, the capacitors do not

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degrade. The major problem with supercapacitors is that the charge density is significantly less than a corresponding Li-ion battery. Most capacitors are made using porous carbon. To increase charge density, single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) are being used.

Potential benefits

Lightweight batteries themselves are unlikely to deliver significant environmental savings. However, the wide scale use of batteries is likely to lead to environmental benefits:

A reduction in battery charge times improves recharge efficiency, which reduces energy wasted.

The development of novel materials can replace hazardous substances in the battery.

Incorporation of batteries into transport will improve town driving efficiency and increase town air quality. However, overall carbon reduction will be dependant on the efficiency of supply and method of electricity generation.

Hybrid vehicles will improve the fuel efficiency of city driving, while the development of cheap lightweight batteries will encourage more wide scale adoption of this technology.

Current risks

The development and use of novel materials in batteries could potentially increase problems of disposal.

Batteries are not seen as a realistic option for large scale storage of power (compared to hydrogen), although trials of a hybrid battery/fuel cell system, Regenesys, showed promise for large scale energy storage.

Without a clear way to generate clean electricity, batteries do not directly address the issue of the carbon impact of electricity generation.

A 1.1.2Hydrogen storage

If high levels of renewable energy generation are to be achieved, there is likely to be a need for an efficient energy storage medium. The generation of renewable energy, especially wind, wave and solar, is not constant and cannot be easily tuned to match demand. The National Grid has the ability to dampen the fluctuations in energy production but this effect probably cannot be maintained when high levels of renewable energy are generated. If renewable energy is to become a major part of the UK’s energy generation portfolio then there is a need to store surplus energy from renewable sources for use during peak times. Hydrogen is touted as a potential energy store, whereby excess electricity is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This is then stored for reaction back to water and electricity using a fuel cell.

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Although light, hydrogen is not easy to compress and liquefy, therefore current storage methods use high pressure cylinders and cryogenics which are energy intensive. This has the effect that comparatively large volume high pressure vessels are required to store hydrogen, which has implications for public safety. However, of greater concern is the storage of hydrogen for mobile applications, namely transport. One of the major obstacles facing the commercialisation of hydrogen-powered cars is the storage of enough fuel to allow the vehicle to have a practical range. This can be overcome to some extent in large commercial vehicles, for example in buses, where small scale trials are occurring throughout Europe with hydrogen stored in overhead compartments. However, innovative new storage media are required for hydrogen-powered cars.


The problems with storage of hydrogen need to be addressed on the extreme nano/molecular scale. Simple compression of the gas is not energy efficient or practical. In nanotechnology, several different strategies are being developed. They all centre on the premise of absorbing hydrogen onto the surface of a compound. This, in essence, condenses the gas with only minor changes in pressure allowing efficient storage. If a satisfactory solution is to be found, nanotechnology will probably be a major contributor to developing a viable hydrogen storage method.

Nanocrystalline magnesium powder and other nanocrystalline hydrides use the large surface area of the particles to absorb hydrogen and therefore represent a possible solution.

Zeolites (3 dimensional porous materials) are potentially well suited for hydrogen storage. Their sponge-like structure and huge surface area enables the zeolites to absorb large quantities of hydrogen.

In a similar process, the large surface area of carbon nanotubes and fullerene makes these novel carbon compounds ideal candidates for hydrogen storage.

Potential benefits

Hydrogen is a good medium for the long term storage and transportation of energy. Hydrogen storage is seen as one of the main barriers to wide use of hydrogen-powered fuel cells. Developing hydrogen storing devices will significantly reduce the energy cost of compression.

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Potential risks

Hydrogen storage by itself will not have significant environmental benefits but is a key component in the development of the hydrogen economy. As there are no significant reservoirs of molecular hydrogen on earth, hydrogen is only as clean as its production method. Current commercial hydrogen production is via steam reforming of methane, a non-renewable fossil fuel, which generates CO2 at source. Whether the hydrogen economy of any size will ever materialise is uncertain. Therefore, large investment into hydrogen storage could ultimately be wasted. Alternative hydrogen sources, such as methanol, which is more practical to control, may prove more popular. Hydrogen is highly flammable and readily forms explosive mixtures with air, which has significant safety implications. Also specialist metal alloys are required to prevent hydrogen embrittling steel pipes.

A 1.1.3Photovoltaics

Overview

Photovoltaics is the science of turning light directly into electricity. The outcome of work to date has been to incorporate solar cells in applications as diverse as calculators to satellites. The majority of current commercial activities focus on producing solar cells using silicon wafers. Indeed, recent demand for solar cells has resulted in record silicon prices as demand outstrips supply for sufficiently pure silicon. However this is an issue to do with processing and not with availability of raw silicon. This commercial technology is over 40 years old and is well proven under real life conditions. The major drawback of this technology is the cost of the raw materials (especially silicon), but also the efficiency of commercial systems is limited to around 8% - 12%.


Cutting edge research into photovoltaics is trying to move away from using traditional p-n junction semiconductors. Several avenues of approach which are relevant to nanotechnology are:

Organic solar cell (Graetzel cell). These devices use organic molecules to produce electricity and nanocrystalline titanium dioxide as an electron conductor. These cells are extremely cheap and easy to make but there are issues with lifetime of the cell and overall efficiencies.

Nanocrystalline solar cells. These incorporate cadmium selenide and cadmium telluride nanoparticles onto a conducting glass layer. Although in the early stages of research, this technology has advantages that the quantities of material used are very low, processing costs are minimised

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and, because the materials are ceramic, light and heat degradation of the materials should be minimised.

Related to nanocrystalline solar cells is the use of fullerenes and SW/MW carbon nanotubes (CNT) as photon absorbers. However, these materials may suffer from degradation under real world conditions.

Advanced deposition techniques are being used to reduce material costs of silicon by reducing the layer thickness of the semiconductor to produce ultra-thin films of silicon. However, these cells have low efficiencies compared to traditional silicon solar cells. There is research into using nanoparticles to enhance their efficiencies through a ‘plasmon’ effect.

Potential benefits

Solar energy has the potential to completely decouple energy from carbon dioxide emissions. Even at the current 8-12% efficiency, only a small proportion of the earth surface would need to be covered to supply the world’s energy needs.

Current risks

Cloudy Western Europe is not the ideal location for the implementation of this technology, although some European countries, notably Germany, are making very large investments in PV capacity. High intensity sunlight in equatorial regions is ideal for deployment of large scale solar installations. However this brings several technical and political barriers:

Energy storage and transport from these equatorial regions are significant technical challenges.

Our sensitivity to reliance on other nations for our energy supply is an important issue.

Cost of delivering large scale solar installations is prohibitive.

The alternative, and probably more favourable approach for the UK, will be micro generation incorporating PV into suitable roofing tiles and industrial facilities. As already expressed in the energy review, solar is likely to be one of a portfolio of renewable energies to reduce our carbon impact of electricity generation and distributed generation appears to be a suitable solution.

Technical issues include:

Storage of excess energy for cloudy-day or night time use Longevity of new solar cells Efficiencies of new solar cells.

Appendix 1 Page 7


A 1.1.4Thermovoltaics

Overview

A potential is generated when a thermal gradient is applied to a circuit containing dissimilar metals. This effect is most well known in reverse: the Peltier Effect in which passing a current through dissimilar metals cools one metal while heating the other. Peltier coolers are used in specialist cooling applications where traditional refrigerants are not viable. By applying a heat gradient between the two metals a simple electricity generator can be made. The technology is nearly 200 years old but the relative inefficiency and high expense of the components has prevented wide scale adoption. However, the technology could be used for microgeneration of electricity using waste heat from combustion.


Advances in nanotechnology have reinvigorated research in this area. These advances have produced material which is more than twice as efficient as current thermovoltaic materials. Techniques involving thin films, nanowires and nanorods, although in early stage development, are yielding promising results.

Potential benefits

This technology could greatly increase energy efficiency of combustion engines by generating power from wasted heat. A 10% conversion of the heat generated from an internal combustion engine will result in a 25% emissions reduction in transport use. Other applications could involve the replacement of batteries in personal devices. By removing the requirement to replace batteries, there could be significant material and energy savings, eliminating issues with disposal. There are reports of prototype watches which are powered using thermovoltaics, but this could easily be expanded to other devices and ‘wearable electronics’.

Potential risks

The technology is still in relatively early stage development. Costs of production are currently prohibitively high (this technology is only used to any extent in space exploration and military applications). The efficiencies are very low. On its own, it is unlikely that this product will contribute significantly to electricity generation.

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A 1.1.5Fuel cells

Overview

Fuel cells are electrochemical engines that directly convert chemical energy into electrical energy. A controlled reaction between two chemicals separated by an ionic barrier is used to generate electricity. In practice, this is a considerably more efficient method of electricity generation than conventional electricity generation, which uses chemical reactions (combustion) to generate heat then mechanical energy and finally electricity.

These devices are seen as a potential replacement for batteries and small to medium electricity generation and storage. Applications range from use in mobile phones and laptops, powering electric cars to combined heat and power generation for buildings.


The chemical reaction used to generate electricity is controlled through a metal catalyst particles (usually platinum), which are attached to a semi-permeable membrane. To complete the circuit and generate current, one of the chemical reactants becomes charged by the platinum catalyst, travels through the membrane and reacts with the second chemical reactant. Nanotechnology has the potential to address two issues with this technology: catalyst particle size and membrane composition.

Platinum is a rare metal. The quantity of metals used can be significantly reduced by decreasing the size of the particles. This reduction in particle size increases the efficiency of the catalyst. It is therefore a challenge for material scientists to develop nanofabrication techniques to produce well defined nanoscale platinum particles. There are also attempts to address this situation by using alternative catalysts.

There is a significant opportunity to develop more reliable and cheaper membranes. There are problems with pollutants in the chemical fuel sources degrading the efficiency of the fuel cells. Advanced membranes could be used to remove these impurities. These membranes could be tailored to more efficiently transport the reactants through the fuel cell. There have been claims that SW/MW CNTs or fullerenes could efficiently perform this role.

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Potential benefits

Fuel cells may lead to an increase in the battery life of electronic devices.

Potential applications in vehicles include:

Greater efficiency than internal combustion engine. Zero harmful emissions are generated using these devices

which will lead to improved air quality in cities. CHP is a potential method for improved energy efficient

generation in distributed systems.

Current risks

Compared to conventional combustion or batteries, fuel cells are prohibitively expensive.

One of the main uses for fuel cells is in hydrogen-powered cars. Development of the hydrogen economy has a significant list of problems. Although hydrogen fuel cells only emit water, currently the only commercially available method of producing hydrogen is from non-renewable resources.

Other fuels for use in fuel cells generate CO2, therefore unless the fuel sources are renewable there will be an environmental impact of using these devices.

There are concerns that there are not enough platinum reserves to satisfy a large scale adoption of fuel cells.

Fuel cells are sensitive to degradation through poisoning, therefore effective methods of prolonging their life are required.

A 1.1.6Hydrogen generation

Overview

Current hydrogen generation methods are limited to either water splitting using electrolysis which is inefficient and requires electricity from either renewable or non-renewable sources or natural gas steam reformation which generates CO2 and uses non-renewable feedstocks. To be a renewable and clean feedstock, it is likely that hydrogen generation will need to be achieved using electrolysis with electricity from a renewable source. Systems using solar power are being developed, however attention to the electrodes is also prudent to improve overall efficiencies.


In a similar theme to fuel cell research, the use of nanostructured components is effective at catalysing water electrolysis to form hydrogen and oxygen. The high surface area and reactivity of nanostructured materials improves the electrolysis process and therefore the overall efficiency of

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hydrogen generation. In addition to platinum, several other nanostructured metals and alloys are being developed to effectively split water into hydrogen and oxygen.

Potential benefits

The generation of renewable hydrogen could reduce issues with energy storage and remove our reliance on fossil fuel powered cars. If implemented on a large scale this technology, combined with fuel cells, could significantly contribute to solving the UK energy demand problem. There are small integrated solar units being developed to provide hydrogen for small applications, such as remote farms. There have been studies investigating the generation of hydrogen from wind power which generates significantly less CO2 than steam reformation.

Current risks

In general, implementation of this technology must compete with the (currently) relatively low cost process of methane gas steam reformation. Significant environmental savings will only be realised if the electricity used for the electrolysis of water originates from a sustainable source. In the UK, this is likely to be from wind generators. Large scale storage of excess energy from renewable sources is not currently required because the National Grid can absorb fluctuations in energy generation from these sources. Therefore in the medium term this technology will only be useful in delivering hydrogen to remote small and medium scale fuel cells such as CHP and fuel cell vehicles, which themselves are not in widespread use.

A 1.2 Water, Air and Land Quality

A 1.2.1Environmental Sensors

Overview

Intelligent response to environmental impact must be based upon accurate environmental data. Gaining representative environmental data on air or water quality requires the deployment of large numbers of autonomous sensors to collate data. The sensitivity of these devices dictates the overall accuracy of the collected data. Improved detection levels and the variety of compounds which can be collected will improve the quality of the data collected.

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Nanoparticles and nanoporous materials as components within a sensor would significantly improve the sensitivity of the devices. Smaller particles are more sensitive to changes in the environment and can therefore sense compounds at lower concentrations. Also, the ability to form parallel arrays of these particles can significantly increase the possibilities of detection.

Potential benefits

More sensitive sensors should allow more accurate modelling of the environment and environmental issues. Earlier detection of pollutants would enable faster and more flexible responses to problems, for example identifying water contaminants and finding the source.

The development of cheap nanosensors will allow their use in the agriculture sector which may help to reduce the use of agrochemicals in farming.

Potential risks

Nanotechnology is currently being incorporated into environmental sensors. It is likely that incorporation will continue into the foreseeable future despite several technical challenges to fully integrating nanotechnology into sensors. With large scale production, end of life disposal issues may need to be addressed.

A 1.2.2Remediation

Overview

Effective decontamination of land, water and air using current technology is difficult. Chlorinated waste, heavy metals and volatile organic materials cause acute damage to the environment and the health of the population. Although prevention of toxic discharge should be sought preferentially, inevitably, there will always be cases where toxic substances are released into the environment. Therefore there must be processes in place to address discharges as they occur.


Generally, nanotechnology is ideally suited to removal of toxic compounds from the environment. The catalytic properties of iron nanoparticles are being developed to catalytically destroy chlorinated organics in ground water. Titanium oxide has shown promise to photo-catalytically decompose chlorinated organics. Removal of dissolved heavy metals from water using dendrimers is proving to be a successful use of nanotechnology. These macromolecules can be tailored to target and bind specific metal

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ions. Once bound to the ions, they can then be filtered out of water using ultrafiltration techniques.

Ultrafiltration techniques are being developed to filter contaminants from water and air. Spun nanofibres are being used to entrap nanoparticles for use as an air filer.

Potential benefits

Improved remediation techniques will result in more efficient, cheaper and faster clean-up of toxins from the environment. This will result in lower occurrences in the population of chronic disease from poisoning through exposure to harmful chemicals. It will also reduce damage to wildlife and the wider environment.

Potential risks

Some of these applications are in commercial use and with others laboratory trials are proceeding well. Issues remain with retrieval and regeneration of nanoparticles in water streams. The lifetime of these treatments can also be very short, requiring large concentrations of nanoparticles.

A 1.2.3Agriculture

Overview

Reducing pollution from agriculture is a significant goal. Eutrophication resulting from over-fertilisation of agricultural land is evident in large numbers of rivers and lakes. The widespread use of pesticides and fungicides is resulting in a potentially dangerous accumulation of chemicals in wildlife and humans. There is a constant need for more effective control, safer delivery and safer agrochemicals.1


There have been proposals for using nanosensors monitor the soil conditions for small areas of arable crops. This will allow targeted dosing of agrochemicals to the crops.

Inspired by the pharmaceutical sector, new nanocapsules are being developed to release agrochemicals under controlled conditions. Examples such as capsules for insecticides which only release their payload when they enter the stomach of the insect are being developed. Slow release capsules are available which provide the plants with nutrients over a sustained period.

Potential benefits

Nanotechnology should help to reduce the quantities of chemicals used on arable land. This will reduce ecological

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damage to the local environment and should improve biodiversity.

Risks

There maybe problems of bioaccumulation of the nanocapsules. There are technical challenges in developing nanocapsules which release their payload at the correct time. However, these problems are being addressed and there are several mainstream products already using nanocapsules to deliver pesticides.

An LCA analysis of Australian maize production considered where the CO2E emissions originated from. The CO2E impact of pesticide and herbicide production was identified as relatively low (< 3% total), while fertiliser production required approximately 8%. Including fuel production, the total carbon impact of pre-farm production ran at around 14%. During the growing phase small CO2E contributions resulted from machinery use and land disturbance, with a more significant contribution from water being pumped. However by far the biggest contributor to climate change was nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, contributing nearly 60% of the total. N2O emissions are caused by biological breakdown of excess fertiliser. Current methods of farming lead to only half of the nitrogen in fertiliser added onto the land being incorporated into the crop. Almost identical values have also been found for British grown products.2 N2O emissions from human activity account to 5-7% of our total global warming emissions of which approximately 15% is from arable farming.

The scope of nanotechnology to reduce these emissions is relatively limited. Improvements in the CO2E production levels of pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser resulting from nanotechnology are likely to be small. Nanoenabled monitoring devices may facilitate the application of less fertiliser through more accurate monitoring of a soil’s condition and targeted application, which will reduce run-off and N2O release into the atmosphere, although no obvious examples are in development. However, the level of emission reduction is difficult to estimate as the release of N2O is a parallel reaction to fertiliser uptake and cannot be completely eliminated. Current methods for determining nitrogen levels in soil use either aerial photography or chlorophyll sensors on the ground and have shown a reduction in the quantity of nitrogen required of approximately 10%. These are simple and relatively cheap methods of precision farming. Whether nanotechnology will improve on this is unknown. One of the key arguments for using nanoenabled devices is that they will significantly reduce the cost of monitoring. However, it seems likely that the infrastructure which is required to support any sensors (computers, Wifi etc) is likely to greatly exceed the cost of the sensors. With respect to nano-enabled herbicides and pesticides, nanotechnologies may reduce bioaccumulation of potential toxins but will have less impact on reduction in CO2E.

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A 1.2.4Drinking water purification

Overview

Approximately 25% of the world’s population does not have access to clean drinking water. The development of clean, energy efficient filters to purify drinking water could reduce the impact of human activity on the limited supply of fresh water.


Reverse osmosis uses nanoporous membranes to desalinate water. Sea water is passed at high pressure through the membrane, which selectively filters out salt leaving pure potable water.

Nanofilters are also being developed and used to remove water-borne bacteria and viruses.

Potential benefits

This technology has been used on a commercial scale for several decades. It could be used to reduce the high burden on limited water resources in the south east of England. The treatment of contaminated fresh water can be achieved without using harsh water decontaminants such as chlorate and ozone.

Risks

Although more energy efficient than distillation, both reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are energy intensive. It may therefore be more prudent to consider alternative water saving schemes and improvements to the distribution network.

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A 1.3 Energy Saving

A 1.3.1Insulation

Overview

Water- and space-heating are responsible for approximately 80% of all energy use in the home. Properly installed heating insulation could significantly reduce the energy loss from homes. Most insulation uses entrapped air to prevent convection of heat. This is achieved using highly porous low heat conducting materials.


Several different avenues of research are being explored to develop nanomaterial based insulation. Aerogels (silica matrices which are 99% air) are highly thermally insulating. Although cost is the overriding barrier to commercial use as insulators, steady development in this field may yet develop a product which is cost competitive. Development of transparent aerogels is proceeding so they can be incorporated into glass to thermally insulate windows. Nanoporous foams are being developed to improve insulation properties for inclusion into cavity walls.

Thin film technology has been developed to reduce loss of heat through windows. Light and heat reactive nanoparticles and thin films are being developed to coat glass. These coatings react to the strength of sunlight reflecting more heat on hot days and so can help to reduce air conditioning use. Although use of air conditioning is not yet widespread, this technology could be used to pre-empt the expected increased use of domestic air conditioning which serves to increase summertime energy consumption.

Risks

Cost is the overriding concern of using nanotechnology in thermal insulation for homes. Current technologies are cheap, field tested, easy to use and (relatively) non-hazardous. Would the potential cost and effort required to bring a new insulating material to market be justified by potential energy savings? The permanency of installation may compound potential health concerns surrounding nanotechnology.

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Benefits

This could be an elegant way to significantly reduce domestic energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. If a suitable solution could be developed to thermally insulate walls which do not contain a cavity then this could improve energy efficiencies in older buildings which invariably have poorer insulation.

A 1.3.2Domestic and commercial lighting: Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs)

Overview

Domestic and commercial lighting accounts for around 20% of the UK’s electricity consumption. Unlike incandescent light bulbs which use electricity to generate heat through resistivity, LEDs convert electricity directly into light which is considerably (up to ten times) more efficient. In fact, LEDs are approximately twice as efficient as the ‘energy saving’ compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) light bulbs currently on the market. Until recently, LEDs produced light which was either red, yellow or green, which made wide scale use as the main light source in homes and businesses un-viable. However, recent advances have produced commercially viable ‘white light’ LEDs, which are beginning to appear on the market.

LEDs comprise two doped inorganic semiconductors sandwiched together. Recently, LEDs comprising polymer or organic molecules have been developed. Termed Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs), these are significantly easier and cheaper to produce than the corresponding inorganic LEDs.


Several different strategies using nanotechnology are being developed to improve the luminescence of the LEDs. Reductions in size and defects of the crystals used in LEDs are leading to higher light output for smaller quantities of material. Several nanoscale phosphorescent coatings are being developed to improve the quality of the white light generated. Lithography techniques are being developed to improve the efficiency of the LEDs

OLEDs use nanometre scale layers of semi-conducting polymers. This requires advanced nanoprocessing techniques such as chemical deposition and inkjet printing. Advances in this area will lower production costs of these devices. Life time of current blue OLEDs is preventing large scale use although there are current applications for use in small displays.

Risks

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It is unclear whether LEDs are as energy efficient as claimed. Therefore careful LCA is required to determine the most energy efficient method of lighting. Current white light LEDs use an optical effect to generate white light which is harsher than incandescent lighting. It is yet to be seen if the public will use this light source over current lighting technologies.

Benefits

Compared to both incandescent and CFL lighting, LEDs are potentially more energy efficient and are longer lasting. Although the semiconductors themselves are hazardous and there is a need for careful life cycle assessment of the manufacturing process, current CFLs contain significant quantities of mercury which is obviously a problem for disposal. Approximately 20% of the UK electricity demand is through lighting, therefore a saving in this sector will have a significant impact on the UK carbon emissions.

A 1.4 Transport

A 1.4.1Engine efficiency

Overview

Transportation contributes significantly to the UK’s carbon emissions. It is clear that in the short to medium term, oil based internal combustion engines will dominate land and sea based transport and oil based turbines will dominate air transport. Therefore, any near term improvement to engine efficiency will reduce the UK’s environmental burden.


Inorganic nanoparticles have been developed as fuel additives to catalyse fuel burn. This additive has increased fuel efficiency by approximately 7%.

New powder coatings are being developed for the aerospace industry. When turbines are coated with these materials it allows the engines to burn hotter and therefore more efficiently. Such materials could help curb the rising CO2 emissions from airline travel.

The high surface areas offered by nanoparticles have resulted in their wide scale adoption for use in catalytic converters. This reduces NOx, hydrocarbon and CO emissions which improves local air quality.

Potential benefits

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The potential efficiency improvements through implementing these technologies are modest (less than 10%). However, this technology is grounded in current applications and therefore there is little risk of these technologies failing to deliver. Also, the infrastructure and enabling technologies are available, which will result in relatively small barriers to wide scale incorporation of these advances.

Risks

There may be public resistance to exposure to airborne nanoparticles once they have been added to fuel. Such an issue would need to be addressed through communication outlining the safety data on the materials used and the potential benefits through reductions in other airborne nanoparticulates such as soot.

A 1.4.2Light-weighting

Overview

A lighter vehicle and cargo results in higher transport fuel efficiency. The development of lightweight nanocomposite materials which are as strong as conventional materials but lighter and thinner could significantly reduce the amount of fuel required for a specific function. These materials could also be used to reduce packaging weight which could also reduce fuel consumption.


Near-term developments in sintering nanopowders are producing metals with enhanced physical properties such as improved strength, elasticity and ductility, which allows the manufacturers to use less material but provide similar performance.

Metal matrix composites incorporate nanorods or particles into a bulk material. Similar to steel reinforcing concrete or carbon fibre, nanomaterials are incorporated into plastics or metal. This increases the strength and flexibility of the composite materials. These materials are being incorporated into high value goods such as golf clubs, but as the technology and cost improve these materials are likely to be incorporated into automotive and aerospace sectors.

The incorporation of nanoclays into polymers can significantly increase their strength and durability. Such materials could reduce packaging weight which in turn will reduce transportation energy costs of goods.

Potential benefits

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Light weighting reduces fuel consumption which will reduce the UK’s carbon emissions from transport. Light weighting uses less material which reduces consumption of mineral resources and potentially reduces energy consumption in production.

Potential risks

As with all composite materials, recycling and reuse can be a major barrier. This is already proving a major obstacle in carbon fibre recycling and is likely to become even more acute with novel nanocomposite materials. Cost of production and cost of equipment for producing nano-powders is limiting large scale use of these materials.

A 1.5 New Materials

A 1.5.1Construction and engineering materials

Nanotechnology has the potential to deliver a large number of novel materials beyond the development of light weight and strong materials for use in transport. It is difficult to predict which materials and which end uses are likely to deliver significant environmental benefit. However, for illustration, the MNT has described a case study which incorporates nanotechnology into a wind turbine. It is likely that the majority of renewable energy in the UK will be produced from wind power. Issues such as ice build-up on the rotor blades can reduce turbine efficiency and cause premature failing of the plant. New ultra-hydrophobic paints improve water run-off which can prevent ice build-up. At the nacelle, developments in nanolubricants which reduce wear resistance and increase the lifetime and efficiency of gear boxes could reduce energy losses from operation. Also developing strong lightweight nanocomposite rotor blades will reduce loads on bearings and increase efficiency.

Developments to harden cutting materials, such as tungsten carbide, may result in only modest material savings in cutting bits. However, large material savings may be possible if the resultant bits produce less wastage or fewer scrapped parts are produced.

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A 1.5.2Materials for transporting electricity

The development of nanotubes capable of conducting electricity without loss is much discussed. Although significant technical challenges remain with their production, such systems represent a possible way to dramatically reduce electricity wastage from the National Grid and may eventually make the harnessing of remote renewable energy sources more practical.

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APPENDIX 2

Justification of the ranking of EBNT

Below is a list of the environmentally beneficial nanotechnologies described in Appendix 1. Each technology has been ranked 1 to 5 (1 low 5 high), a short justification has also been included and, where possible, an order of magnitude calculation has been presented.

A 2.1.1Electricity Storage (Batteries)

Feasibility (3)

Distance to market (3)

A small proportion of hybrid cars are currently on sale. Therefore incremental or step change improvements to battery technology are likely to be readily incorporated into these vehicles. Further off, ultra high powered capacitors may replace batteries, again in direct replacement.

Competition with alternative technologies (3)

With respect to alternate methods of fuelling transport the method is in competition with fuel cells. It may be the case that both systems are appropriate for different sections of this industry.

Infrastructural changes (3)

The initial role out of electric/hybrid vehicles can use current infrastructure. Further development will require large infrastructural changes to build a recharging infrastructure.

CO2E impact (2)

Based on EPA energy saving statistics for hybrid cars, a 15% fuel efficiency is achievable for domestic transport (10Mt). However, the saving enabled by nanotechnology is undefined. Electric vehicles could save 40Mt.

Appendix 2 Page 22


A 2.1.2Engine efficiency

Feasibility (5)


Some fuel and lubricant additives and advances in catalytic converters are already commercial available. Further advances in all areas may reasonably be expected in the next 2-5 years.


If nano-incorporating advances can demonstrate increased efficiency with no damaging effects, then it is highly likely they will be widespread adoption.


Implementation of this technology should be relatively facile: fuel additives can be added without modification to the engine, therefore step changes are likely to be less severe and more widespread than the changes from leaded fuel.

CO2E impact (3)

Looking at the impact of incorporating fuel additives into diesel for commercial use with a 9% saving on fuel across the UK fleet results in 7.7Mt p.a. saving. Likely to get 0.2Mt saving by using higher temperatures in aircraft engines. There are few feasible alternatives which would offer similar benefits.

A 2.1.3Hydrogen economy

Feasibility (1)


Intensive research into all aspect of the hydrogen economy is currently underway. Realistic projections are that a true H2 economy is approximately 50 years away.


The main alternatives for low emission technologies are electric vehicles and bio-fuels.


There are enormous infrastructural and technical barriers to develop a sustainable H2 economy.

CO2E impact (5)

In the short term, there is likely to be an increase in CO2 from gas reformation. Long term sustainable production of hydrogen (likely from hydrolysis) could completely decouple CO2 from transportation. Estimate 50% CO2 reduction or 50Mt. The contribution of nanotechnology is likely to be significant, including the development of novel nanoparticles as catalysts and to assist storage.

Appendix 2 Page 23


A 2.1.4Photovoltaics

Feasibility (2)


Nano-enabled PV is beginning to be commercialised in California. Advances in thin film silicon solar cells and the relatively low-grade sun from the UK will most likely result in PV being used in distributed networks, specifically on rooftops.


Nanotechnology appears to be a front runner. Wind is likely to give a more significant contribution to the UK’s energy mix.


Current difficulties with integration to the national grid. Microgeneration may be a more simple route.

CO2E impact (3)

The Energy Saving Trust has estimated that PV could contribute 3.8% of our electricity demands by 2050. This equates to 6.47Mt of CO2. However, the contribution of nanotechnology to this is unknown.

A 2.1.5Insulation

Feasibility (3)


Small scale commercial operations using nanoenabled paints as insulators are unlikely to offer large enough heat savings over traditional materials to justify wide scale use in current applications. It is more likely that these materials will find use where current insulation techniques are inadequate, or inconvenient such as insulation of solid walled buildings.


It is unlikely that nano-insulates will replace standard insulation products in the short to mid term. Their application may be better directed at solving issues unaddressed by current insulation products.


Were nano-insulates to provide dramatically enhanced insulation properties then building practices may need to be adapted to exploit these benefits. Otherwise, minimal infrastructural changes will be required.

CO2E impact (3)

If a paint on insulation can be developed, which has similar insulation properties to current insulation, there is a potential savings in the region of 3Mt p.a. by insulating of non-cavity walled dwellings in the UK. A similar saving can be achieved by using nanoenabled window insulation.

Appendix 2 Page 24


A 2.1.6Thermovoltaics

Feasibility (1)


Very early stage research. Enabled by nanotechnology therefore any savings are likely to be attributed to the use of nanotechnology.


Currently this area is unexploited therefore little competition exists at the moment.


As a supplementary energy generating technology at power plants significant infrastructure would need to be built, the cost of which could be expected to be offset by gains in power generation long term.

CO2E impact (4)

A 10% retrieval of heat from automotive transport will result in 12.5Mte CO2 saving.

A 2.1.7Fuel cells

Feasibility (2)


Large scale development of non-H2 fuel cells is at least 10 years away for transport applications. While the vast majority of fuel cells chemical reactions convert H2 to water, the feed stocks are different.


With respect to alternate methods of fuelling transport the method is in competition with electricity storage. It may be the case that both systems are appropriate for different sections of the transport industry.


In terms of transport significant redesign of vehicles and fuel supplies would be required. Social acceptance of the change in risk associated with the change of fuel source would need to be achieved.

CO2E impact(3)

Difficult to estimate. In transport direct methanol and ethanol fuel cells could provide a user friendly approach to transport, although sourcing of sustainable fuels is still unclear. If cheap, sustainable sources of ethanol could be found there is an argument to use this fuel in lean burn engines. Methanol fuel cells can be twice as efficient as internal combustion engine, therefore assuming that the fuel is from non-renewable resources, 10Mt of CO2 could be saved. Nanotechnology is likely to play a key role in achieving this.

Appendix 2 Page 25


A 2.1.8Lighting

Feasibility (5)


Current LED and OLED technologies are being commercialised.


Switching to LED or OLEDs will deliver a relatively modest benefit over the use of standard incandescent or CFL light sources.


A major barrier will be installation of the correct light fittings in both domestic and commercial applications.

CO2E impact (2)

An MTP study suggested that if LEDs replaced the current domestic lighting mix 5.5Mt of carbon could be saved. However, if CFLs were installed, potential savings of LED lighting fall to approximately 1.8Mt.

A 2.1.9Lightweighting

Feasibility (3)


Some products already exist, but in niche markets due to cost restrictions. A reduction in cost may bring such products into main stream industries. Further products are under development and may reach the market in the mid term.


In terms of packaging most producers already strive to minimise the amount of packaging and the weight of such packaging. There are a significant number of alternative technologies which do not employ nanotechnology.


Minimal infrastructural changes would be required as most likely this will impact upon packaging or transport vehicles and be introduced at the manufacture stage, reducing transport costs due to weight minimisation. There maybe issues with end of life treatment and disposal.

CO2E impact (2)

Potentially significant CO2 gains due to a reduction in fuel consumption of vehicles and a further reduction in freight weight. Note that light-weighting does not necessarily lead to lighter vehicles. Also, it is difficult to estimate savings over other methods of light-weighing.

Appendix 2 Page 26


A 2.1.10 Agriculture Pollution Reduction

Feasibility (4)


Some products are already on the market. The technology is still in its early stages and being driven by the nano-biotechnology area. It seems that the greatest developments are still to come in this area.


Most likely standard technologies will continue to improve and remain a cheaper option than nano. However nanotechnology offers the possibility of highly targeted solutions rather than generic applications which may use significantly more agrochemicals.


Other than slight differences in quantities in delivery, there appears to be very little difference in the application of the agrochemicals, therefore there are few barriers to wide scale adoption. Public acceptance and bioaccumulation of the nanocapsules maybe an issue. Use of new agrochemicals is likely to fall under regulatory enforcement.

CO2E impact (1)

Small (<1Mt), there are likely to be some savings on transport, agricultural vehicle use and manufacture.

A 2.1.11 Water purification

Feasibility (4)


Reverse osmosis is an available commercial technology.


This technology may not be best suited for use in the UK as it is relatively CO2 intensive, although it may be appropriate during severe water shortages after all avenues of water saving have been pursued.


High capital expense, but the technology is mature.

CO2E impact (1)

Likely to have a negative CO2 impact due to the high pressures of operation of desalination facilities.

A 2.1.12 Environmental Sensors

Feasibility(3)


Nanotechnology is being incorporated into sensors. The use of nanoenabled devices will increase the sensitivity, therefore market acceptance and use should be relatively straightforward.


There a several cheap alternatives.

Infrastructural changes

The sensor will only represent a small portion of the cost of operation. The infrastructure will add

Appendix 2 Page 27


(3) significant cost. CO2E impact (1) Very low

A 2.1.13 Remediation

Feasibility (3)


Most of the advanced technologies are still at an experimental stage. Simple filtration technologies are available. Using them on a bespoke basis suggests that the technology can be phased in slowly. Experimental tests on the technologies will be required to prevent release of nanotechnology.


Nanotechnology incorporating solutions will be adopted only if they deliver improved results compared to standard techniques. It will be necessary to ensure no detrimental nanoparticles remain after treatment.


Any advances incorporating nanotechnology will most likely be adopted. Due to the application changes in infrastructure are likely to be legislative.

CO2E impact (1)

Very little impact other than indirectly through transport or processing costs.

Appendix 2 Page 28


APPENDIX 3

UK and EU Policies

A 3.1 Innovation and Nanotechnology PolicyAs a preface to describing relevant UK policies for EBNTs, it is important to consider:

linear models of innovation leading from invention to technology diffusion are generally regarded as over-simplistic. Therefore innovation systems models, with significant interplay and feedback between the different stages of innovation and the actors involved have been proposed as more representational of the actual processa.

different levels of innovation that exist within different nanotechnology applications. These can be described in a hierarchyb which includes:

o Incremental innovations that occur continuously industry. An example might be the use of nanoparticulate, rather than microparticulate titanium dioxide in sunscreen

o Radical innovations through deliberate R&D. These can bring structural change in industries and society, but often only if groups of innovations are linked together, giving rise to new industries and services. An example might be flexible thin film PV systems based on nanotechnology

o Changes of “technology system”. These are far reaching changes in technology combined with organisational and managerial innovations. In nanotechnology terms, these might be self replicating models of molecular assembly replacing conventional manufacturing processes, with consequent requirements for replacement of complete sets of production assets

o Changes in “techno-economic paradigm” associated with fundamental changes in cost structure and production systems throughout the economy. An example would be the pervasive use of computers and ICT throughout the economy.

These two factors have led to proposals for the creation of “strategic niches”, for example through the use of public procurement and “strategic niche management” by government to enable more radical and systems-orientated innovations to become sufficiently deep rooted that they might in due course

a Foxon, T.J. “Inducing Innovation for a Low Carbon Future: Drivers, Barriers and Policies” Carbon Trust, July 2003b Freeman and Perez, 1988, quoted in (a)

Appendix 3 Page 29


challenge the dominant systems where organisations and consumers may be “locked in” to patterns of production and consumption with high environmental impact a. The creation of the Environmental Innovation Advisory Group (EIAG) and their advocacy of a procurement policy based on “Forward Commitment” (experimentally for a low carbon van for a range of public bodies, and for a zero waste mattress for HM Prison Service) illustrates this kind of strategic niche management approach.

A 3.2 Current UK Policy Relevant to EBNTGovernment policy is set either to achieve political objectives or to overcome failures of the market to provide appropriate solutions. For example, political objectives in the energy sectorb

include: Security of energy supply Adequate heating of every home Cutting CO2 emissions Promoting competitive markets.

Policy objectives in the area of nanotechnology include achieving scientific excellence and moving the UK towards a “knowledge-based” economyc.

Hence relevant policies may be focused on nanotechnologies with environmental relevance (from innovation policy), or on environmental issues with relevance to nanotechnologies (from environmental policy). A previous criticism of innovation policy was that it was only weakly linked to environmental objectivesd. Whilst this may be true of basic science processes, there is greater movement in applied science towards these objectives. For example the appraisal process of all projects within the DTI Technology Programme now includes sustainability assessment. In addition environmental funding has been one of the largest areas funded within the programme, by means of the Business Resource Efficiency Programme (BREW) which has committed around £25m over 3 years.

a Foxon, ibidb “Our Energy Future – Creating a Low Carbon Economy” Energy White Paper, DTI, 2003c “Excellence and Opportunity: A Science and Innovation Policy for the 21st Century” Science and Innovation White Paper, DTI, July 2000.d Foxon, ibid

Appendix 3 Page 30


Market failures relevant to EBNTs mainly relate to:

Informational failures associated with the risks of research and development.

Informational failures concerning the development of appropriate markets, or niches for EBNTs or the systems in which they are embedded.

Costing of the environmental externalities associated with competitive systems.

Instruments that government can use in response to these can be placed into one of seven categories:

Direct regulation to promote or to discourage particular activities or products.

Use of economic instruments (e.g. markets for tradable permits, changes in taxation) to incorporate environmental externalities into costs of existing systems (e.g. taxation) or to overcome the costs of market deployment of environmentally beneficial nanotechnologies.

State funding of fundamental or applied research by universities, companies or other research organizations, including capital grants.

State funding of demonstration or commercialisation/diffusion projects aiming to bridge the gap between development and large scale commercialisation, including the creation of niches for new systems approaches.

Use of public sector procurement to specify certain types of products or services.

Encouragement of voluntary standards and performance targets for market transformation.

Raising of awareness and communication of issues concerning uptake of new products and services.

Each of these is considered in turn at least, primarily focusing on UK legislation, but with a consideration of EU activity.

Below is a table summarising the policy interventions for environmentally beneficial nanotechnologies.

Appendix 3 Page 31


POLICY INTERVENTIONS RELEVANT TO ENVIRONMENTALLY BENEFICENT NANOTECHNOLOGIES

Policies relevant to nanotechnologyPolicies relevant to the environment

Regulation Research Funding Demonstration and Diffusion

Procurement Economic Instruments

Standards / Mkt Transformation

Awareness and Communication

Energy Generation and StorageHydrogen Economy EU Progressive

automotive emission targets

Technology Programme, (New & Renewable Energy)

HFCCAT demonstration programme

EIAG Forward Commitment

Renewables Obligation

Fuel Cell KTN

Carbon Trust LCIP Sus. Procurement Task Force

(ECA Scheme)

Cenex

(Low Carbon Vehicle Programme) Vehicle Excise DutyZero Fuel Duty

Electricity Storage EU Progressive automotive emission targets



(ECA Scheme)


(Low Carbon Vehicle Programme)

Photovoltaics Energy Act 2004 - Renewables targets


Low Carbon Blgs demonstration prog

Sus. Procurement Task Force


Planning policy PPS11 - encouraging renewables

Carbon Trust LCIP Reduced VAT

Thermovoltaics Renewables Obligation

Non H2 Fuel Cells EU Progressive automotive emission targets

Technology Programme (New & Renewable Energy)

HFCCAT demonstration programme



Fuel Cell KTN


(ECA Scheme)

Cenex

Low Carbon R&D Programme (DoT) Vehicle Excise Duty

(Low Carbon Vehicle Programme)

Environmental SensorsSensors

Water, Air, Land Quality

Appendix 3 Page 32


Regulation Research Funding Demonstration and Diffusion

Procurement Economic Instruments

Standards / Mkt Transformation

Awareness and Communication

Remediation Planning policy PPG3 - brownfield targets

Technology Programme (SPC) CLAIRE demonstration programme

Integrated Pollution Management KTN

CL:AIRE

Agriculture Groundwater pollution controls

Defra Sustainable Arable Farming LINK R&D

Drinking water purification

SQSs - Removal of endocrine disrupters etc.

Technology Programme (MNT)

Energy Saving

Insulation Sustainable Energy Act 2003 - energy efficiency commitment by energy suppliers

Technology Programme (SPC) Installation grants (Warm Front)


Council tax rebates

Energy Savings Trust

Carbon Trust LCIP Climate Change Programme 2006

Carbon Trust

LEDs Techology Programme (Electronics and Photonics)


Market Transformation Prog

Carbon Trust LCIP

Transport

Engine Efficiency EU Progressive automotive emission targets

R&D funding HFCCAT demonstration programme

(ECA Scheme)

Lightweighting Technology Programme (SPC) Materials KTN

New Materials Technology Programme (SPC)

Relevant to all themes:EPSRC responsive mode for nanotechnology; competition under the NanoSci Eranet; MNT regional network

Appendix 3 Page 33


A 3.3 Research Funding

A 3.3.1Carbon Trust

Nanotechnology was considered as a possible cross-cutting theme in the recent research landscape study, but it was concluded that it was such a broad topic, covering so many techniques and applications, that considering it as a whole was not helpful to the Carbon Trust’s purposes.

The Carbon Trust is aware of the importance of nanotechnology in, for instance, the development of the next generation of PV, but it is considered in the context of support for PV (in this case) rather than for nanotechnology as a whole.

The Carbon Trust has allocated around £13m to applied research in its Low Carbon Innovation Programme. Out of 113 projects currently publicized, only one appears to be based upon nanotechnology. None of the projects in the longer term Carbon Vision research programme involve nanotechnology.

A 3.3.2Research Councils

EPSRC expenditure on nanotechnology grew from around £10m in 1996 to approximately £36m in 2003. Some of the research is directed towards environmental applications such as fuel additives, photovoltaics and fuel cells, but much of the work underpins many possible applications, including those that are environmentally-related.

The EPSRC is a member of the NanoSci-ERA (see below).

A 3.3.3DTI Technology Programme

The Technology Programme is funding collaborative research with industry in the following relevant themes:

Sustainable Production and Consumption has held funding competitions on land remediation, sustainable product and process design.

Low Carbon Energy Technologies has allocated an indicative £40-50m of funding over the last five competitions for a variety of technologies that are related to nanotechnology including fuel cells, photovoltaics, hydrogen production and storage.

Micro and Nanotechnology allocated an indicative £15m to healthcare and energy-related nanotechnology manufacturing in the November 2004 competition. This was part of the £90m capital grant/applied R&D Nanotechnology Programme.

Appendix 3 Page 34


A 3.3.4Defra LINK Programmes

The Sustainable Arable LINK programme includes themes of: Novel pest, disease and weed control Diagnostics and monitoring Novel strategies for applying nutrients.All of which may have relevance to nanotechnologies.

A 3.3.5EU Framework Programmes (FP)

FP 5 (largely completed):

Four projects involving nanotechnology for explicit environmental or energy applications. These include fuel cells, wear resistant coatings (x2) and hydrogen storage.

FP6 (completed and in progress):

Just two nanotechnology projects out of around 60 in the programme specified the use of nanotechnology for environmental applications: nanotubes for electrocatalysts and fuel cells and a road mapping exercise for carbon nanotubes.

FP7(to be launched in 2007):

The Seventh Framework Programme contains explicitly the theme of “Nanosciences, Nanotechnologies, Materials and New Production Technologies”. The objective is framed in terms of improved competitiveness of European industry and the move towards a more knowledge-intensive rather than resource-intensive industry. The activities planned include generating new knowledge on nanotechnologies’ impact on human safety, health and the environment.

Nanosciences, Nanotechnologies: Themes include nanosystems and machines; tools for manipulation and characterization; impact on human health; safety and the environment; metrology; nomenclature and standards.

Materials: High performance and knowledge-based materials with tailored properties; environmental compatibility; integration into chemical and material processing industries

New Production: Conditions and assets for knowledge-intensive production; generic production assets; new engineering concepts to exploit convergence of technologies such as nanotechnology and bio- or info-sciences.

Integration of Technologies for Industrial Applications: Integrating new knowledge and technologies in sectoral and cross-sectoral applications, including environment.

Appendix 3 Page 35


FP7 also has an energy theme, which explicitly includes proposed activity in hydrogen and fuel cells, and renewable energy generation.

A 3.4 Demonstration and Diffusion

A 3.4.1Demonstration Schemes

The DTI has launched a £50m fund to support larger scale deployment of technologies in hydrogen, fuel cells and carbon abatement projects (HFCCAT). Abatement includes higher efficiency generation as well as carbon capture.

The DTI also supports the Low Carbon Buildings Programme, which has £80m of funding for microgeneration technologies, including PV.

A 3.5 ProcurementThe DTI/Defra Environmental Goods and Services (EGS) Support Group is aware of the potential interaction of nanotechnology and the EGS sector, either through using nanoscale properties in processes, or through the sector being involved in clearing up “nanopollution”.

To encourage environmental innovation the Environmental Innovations Advisory Group is pursuing a number of actions including:

Forward Commitment procurement to incentivise suppliers to the public sector to provide innovative solutions. One example promoted by the EIAG is the Low Carbon Van Project co-ordinated by Cenex, the centre of excellence for low carbon and fuel cell technologies. In this project a number of public sector van purchasers have issued an invitation to tender setting out performance specifications, with a promise to buy vehicles in bulk if demonstration trials are successful.

Promoting a regulatory framework with progressive, stretching targets; long lead times backed by the certainty of enforcement; a focus on outcomes rather than on prescriptive approaches; support from procurement and fiscal measures.

Addressing testing and certification issues, including better guidance and advice to innovators, and making the system more user-friendly and able to carry out low cost, rapid assessments of new environmental technologies.

Appendix 3 Page 36


Raising concerns about the implementation of EU State Aid guidelines, particularly with reference to demonstration projects.

A 3.6 Communication and AwarenessThe so-called “technology platforms” and “road maps” that are constructed at a national and international level for technology development are arguably devices for communication of priorities and methods for promoting awareness only, since they lack any formal status within regulatory regimes. At an EU level, the most important of these is the the Environmental Technology Action Plan.

A 3.6.1Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP):

The ETAP aims to:

achieve the full potential of environmental technologies for protecting the environment while contributing to competitiveness and economic growth.

ensure that over the coming years the EU takes a leading role in developing and applying environmental technologies.

mobilise all stakeholders in support of these objectives.

ETAP involves Technology Platforms, which as public/private partnerships orientated around a specific research topic. Technology Platforms aim to bring together interested stakeholders to build a long term vision to develop a specific technology or to solve a particular problem. Technology Platforms relevant to ETAP that include EBNT include:

Hydrogen and fuel cells: The European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform published their Strategic Research Agenda in July 2005. Nanostructured materials were explicitly targeted as a key research area for hydrogen storage, with a total research spend proposed of around 5% of the total SRA budget. There are likely to be nanotechnologies implicit in several other research areas, for example improved PEMS membranes, where nanotechnology companies such as Plug Power in the US are active.

Photovoltaics: A European PV Technology Platform is proposed in the report of the Photovoltaic Technology Research Advisory Councila. Sensitised-oxide-based and other nanostructured solar cells and modules are one of ten main subjects included in the tentative research areas to be covered by the Strategic Research Agenda. Nanotechnology is seen as one of the sectors from which the PV industry will obtain the technologies that will enable the continued

a “A Vision for Photovoltaic Technology” European Commission, DG Research, EUR 21242, 2005

Appendix 3 Page 37


reduction in cost of PV modules from approximately €3/W in 2005 to €1/W-peak in 2020 and €0.5/W in 2030.

Sustainable chemistry: The European Technology Platform for Sustainable Chemistry (SUSCHEM) was initiated jointly by Cefic and EuropaBio in 2004 to help foster and focus European research in chemistry, chemical engineering and industrial biotechnology. After establishing a vision for 2025 SUSCHEM prepared a Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) outlining the future priorities for European research efforts. An Implementation Action Plan (IAP) published in 2006 outlined the necessary next steps to realise the proposals and the potential described in the SRA.

The SUSCHEM Implementation Action Plan identifies a number of relevant areas to EBNT:

Energy technologies

Alternative energy technologies: This includes nanoparticles as fuels, further development of the fuel cell and improvement of PV devices using nanocrystalline semiconductors. The fuel cell developments specifically identified include the introduction of inorganic nanoparticles with different functionalities that could improve water retention in the membrane and simultaneously contribute to cost reduction.

Energy conservation: This includes LEDs, nanostructured insulation for products such as refrigerators and buildings.

Energy storage: Batteries, particularly replacements for cobalt and increases in capacity in lithium ion batteries, through using nanomaterials. Also their use in NiNH and lead-acid batteries. Storage of hydrogen using inorganic, organic and hybrid nanomaterials. Development of supercapacitors .

Energy transportation: This includes polymeric conductors and printed electronics.

Nanotechnology Materials

Nanoparticles (synthesis, function). Nanostructured surfaces. Nanostructured materials (porous materials, mainly for

catalysis).

EBNT applications identified include eco-friendly antifouling coatings and self-cleaning surfaces.

ETAP’s View on Barriers to Uptake of Environmental Technologies

Appendix 3 Page 38


The ETAP describes, in its opinion, the most relevant barriers to the uptake of environmental technologies. These include:

Economic barriers:

Markets not reflecting the costs of environmental pollution Up front investment costs, particularly relevant to those

technologies requiring new infrastructure, such as hydrogen distribution networks

Cost reduction benefits from learning from doing, not necessarily accruing to first movers

The perception of environmental technologies as risky investments due to their reliance on legislation and hence changing political priorities, or because they fall outside the investor’s core business

A lack of adequate venture capital, in particular for SMEs and start-ups. This latter point is contested by the conclusions of the UK’s EIAG

Regulatory barriers:

Lack of clarity in regulation Legislation that is overly prescriptive, limiting the potential

for innovation

ERANET NanoSci-ERA: This is an EU co-ordination action on nanotechnology. EPSRC are the UK representatives within the ERANET. A common call is being implemented and has now closed to applicants, but is very general and has no specific focus within the area of nanotechnology. No scoping work has been done on the environmental potential.

Appendix 3 Page 39


APPENDIX 4

National initiatives on nano-technologyTable A4: Public nanotechnology funding worldwide

Country Focus Period Nano FundingUnited States

- Fundamental Nanoscale Phenomena and Processes - Nanomaterials- Nanoscale Devices and Systems- Instrumentation Research, Metrology and Standards for Nanotechnology - Nanomanufacturing- Major Research Facilities and Instrumentation Acquisition- Societal Dimensions

2006-2007(US Funding year by year i.e. President’s budget) through the National Nanotechnology Initiative

2006: US$1.05 billiona

2007(Proposed): US$1.3 billionb

EU (Seventh Framework Programme)

Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies, Materials and new Production Technologies (NMP)

2007-2013 (€45-50 billion total investment)

€3.5 billion. €300-400M estimated in 2007

Japan Nanotechnology related to IT, Bio and Environmentc.Nanotechnology Themes include: - Materials contributing to cost reduction in clean energy- To develop fuel cell vehicles with a travel distance of 400km and a durability of 3000 hours by 2010- Materials that overcomes the issue of natural resources

3rd Science and Technology Basic Plan 2006-2010 (Total R&D Investment of 25 trillion yen:US$208billion)de.

600billion Yen (US $5.2billion) approx.

a www.nano.gov/NNI_06Budget.pdfb www.nano.gov/NNI_07Budget.pdfc www.nanonet.go.jp/english/info/report/rep20060628.htmld www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/english/basic/3rd-BasicPlan_outline.pdfe www.oti.globalwatchonline.com/online_pdfs/36502X.pdf

Appendix 4 Page 40


Country Focus Period Nano Fundingexhaustion- To develop technologies alternating the functions of rare substances by around 2015- Super early diagnosis and minimally-invasive care- To develop diagnosis technology for 1mmcancers by 2011- X-ray free electron lasers

Germany - Nanoelectronics- Nanomaterials- Nanotechnology in optoelectronics- Production technologies- Optical science and engineering- Communications- Nanoelectronics- Nanobiology1. Small and leading edge-projects 2. Infrastructure build-up 3. Enhanced research ministry funding 4. Innovation and education 5. Greater info exchange and state involvement

2006-2009. Public funding, year by year; Projects generally 3 years

€300-330 million per annum (Current strategy is likely to be extended over 5-10 year period) Nano funding: BMBF €135million; Economic Ministry €25m; Defence Ministry €10-11m; Institutional funding (Max Planck, Fraunhofer) €165m.

Taiwan - Nanomaterials- ICT- Bio

2003-2008: National Science and TechnologyProgram for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.

US$630 million

China - NanoBio- Nanomaterials

2006-2010: 11th 5 Year Plan

US$2-2.5 billion

South Korea - NanoElectronics- Nanomaterials

2001-2010: 10 year nanotechnology plan

US$1.465 billion

Appendix 4 Page 41


Country Focus Period Nano FundingUK Micro and

Nanotechnology Network (Will become a Knowledge Transfer Network- KTN in Nanotechnology in April 2007)

2003-2009 (Original timescale for MNT Network) KTN Nanotechnology 2007-2010.

€ 50-75 million per annum

Australia - Life Sciences- Nanomaterials- Nanobio- Environmental

2002-2007; Aus$10 billion investment in science and innovation to 2010 called “Backing Australia’s ability”

Aus$85-100 million (National and State)

Ireland - NanoBio- NanoElectronics- Nanomaterials

2006-2007 €25-30 million per annum

Singapore - NanoBio- ITC

Public funding initiatives via A*Star year by year.

US$90 million per annum

Canada - Life science- ICT- Materials science - Energya

2006 (Yearly budget) mainly allocated by National Research Council.

US$20 million

Finland - Nanomaterials- Nanobio- Nanoelectronics

2006-2008 (FinNano Programme).

€79 million

France - Nanobiosciences- Nanomaterials - Nanoelectronics

2006-2007 (R3N Network).

€140 million

The Netherlands

- Bio Nano Technology- Nano Electronics- Nano Fluidics- Nano Photonics/Optics- Nano Instrumentation- Nano Link- Nano Lithography- Single Molecule Chemistry, Physics & Biology

Nanoned project 2003-2009Nanoimpuls project 2003-2007.

Approx. €45-60m per annumNanoned: €180mNanoimpuls: €45m

a http://es.epa.gov/ncer/publications/meetings/10_26_05/p2dufour.pdf

Appendix 4 Page 42


Country Focus Period Nano FundingSwitzerland - Nanomaterials

- NanoBio- Instrumentation

2004-2007: Micro and Nanotechnology Programme (Follow up to TOPNANO21 initiative).

€15m per annum

Source: Technology Transfer Centre, 2007.

Appendix 4 Page 43


APPENDIX 5

Further information on nanotechnology in photovoltaics

A 5.1 Nanoparticle Silicon Systems:The current achievable energy conversion efficiencies using amorphous silicon is limited to less than 10%, compared with about 15% for crystalline silicon. Improvements in this conversion rate may be achieved by using silicon nanoparticles, but nanoparticle photovoltaic systems have been shown to be very susceptible to degradation both by oxidation and photodegradation. This reduces both their operating efficiency and operational life expectancy of the solar cell. The causes and resolution of these issues needs to be completed, but one aspect of particular relevance is the development of improved methods for nanoparticle encapsulation. This could improve performance by reducing the effects of oxidation and degradation.

A 5.2 Mimicking Photosynthesis.The Grätzel cell is the nearest to a full commercial product of all nanotechnology based photovoltaics. The technology is often described as mimicking photosynthesis, which is strictly does not. Grätzel cells are made from films about 10μm thick and comprise titania (TiO2) nanoparticles and organic dyes which are adsorbed into the gaps between the titania particles. Both the particles and dye are in turn surrounded by a fluid electrolyte. The cell is completed with two electrically conducting electrodes and a catalyst. The efficiency of these cells is lower than commercial crystalline silicon cells, with typical conversion values of 7-8%, compared with about 15% for crystalline silicon. Attempts, such as the Nanomax project, have been made to improve this efficiency by coupling the photovoltaic process with others.

Grätzel cells are already being exploited; for instance Greatcell Solar is a Swiss based company who market dye solar cells (DSC) based on titania nanoparticles that are printed and mounted on flexible substrates. The cells can be mounted onto buildings as tiles and are claimed to be robust. Another exploitation of Grätzel cells has been by the Australian Sustainable Energy Development Authority, which has invested US$368K in integrating about 200m2 of infrastructural Grätzel cells into the walls of the CSIRO Energy Centre in Newcastle, Australia.

Appendix 5 Page 44


A 5.3 Nanoparticle EncapsulationIt has been suggested that low cost photovoltaic systems using inorganic nanocrystals with carbonised (Buckminsterfullerenes) polymer entrapped cells could help reduce these costs. Furthermore, it has been suggested that such encapsulating systems or other nanotubes and nanospheres could help improve the performance and longevity, but this has not yet been proven.

A 5.4 Improved Conversion EfficienciesFurthermore, nanoparticles offer the opportunity by making available a greater surface area of photovoltaic material than conventional amorphous or crystalline materials. However, this increase in available surface area results in an increase in reactivity and susceptibility to chemical and photodegradation. This may be overcome by improved encapsulation technologies.

A 5.5 Alternative Materials

A 5.5.1Chalcopyrites

Chalcopyrites are a family of materials based on copper (Cu) and selenium (Se), although they can also include cadmium (Cd), indium (In) and gallium (Ga), as well as tellurium (Te) and sulphur (S). To date they have been accredited with achieving the highest efficiency levels of any thin film material, with levels as high as 19% being claimed. The technologically most advanced systems include those based on cadmium and tellurium, (CdTe) and cadmium-selenium (CdSe), although copper-indium-diselenide (CuInSe) systems are also showing great promise. One of the issues with cadmium based systems is the harmful nature of cadmium and its adverse impact to both the environment and humans, so this could limit its development potential

However, their success will be dependent on the development of nanoparticles technologies and by 2010 the potential share for these silicon alternatives could be as much as 5% for CuInSe and 4% for CdTe. These capacities will be equivalent to 65.5MW and 51MW respectively and is based on a predicted photovoltaic energy generation capability of 1,310MW. There is an increasing interest in using metallic III-V photovoltaic systems, that is using transition metals in conjunction with group V elements such as tellurium and selenium. These are currently being used in the aerospace industry.

A 5.5.2Hybrids

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There are also other technologies being developed using semiconductor hybrids, such as at Berkeley Laboratories in California, where all inorganic solar cells based on CdSe and CdTe are being developed. These are very thin, typically 100nm, and have initial conversion rates of about 3%; whilst this is significantly less than conventional silicon cells, they offer the advantages of not being as susceptible to impurities as conventional cells. Two types of structure are being developed, one being as a bi-layer and the other as a blend. Another advantage is that the manufacturing route is purely a solution process and temperatures not exceeding 400oC are used.

Other significant work is also being carried out on inorganic crystalline nanomaterials in an organic polymer matrix. These are potentially very inexpensive to manufacture, lightweight, robust and flexible; furthermore, the conversion rates can be about 4-5%, which is about 25% that of crystalline silicon. The technology claims that nanocrystalline semiconductors such as CdSe and CdTe and nanostructured carbon (e.g. Buckminsterfullerenes or “Buckyballs”) and single carbon nanotubes have produced the best results to date for a hybrid system. Part of their success has been by fine tuning the nanoparticles properties to particular applications such as exposure to sunlight.

This is possible because when the dimensions of the material become comparable with the special extent of the electrons that occupy it, the materials start to exhibit quantum confinement properties. As the particle size is reduced, the light being emitted shifts to a higher energy. This emitted light is characteristic of the semi conducting bandgap, or the wavelengths at which the crystal can absorb light. These materials are commonly referred to as “quantum dots” because they are quantum confined in three dimensions. The wavelength of the light is inversely related to the size of semiconductor nanoparticle. Much of this technology is still theoretical, but the potential for increasing possible maximum efficiencies leads to improved insights into the study of possible candidates that may promote the realisation of the first quantum solar cell devices.

Many of the materials being studied in hybrid systems actually serve multiple functions. Non hybrid devices must rely solely on the conversion of solar photons with energies above the conducting polymer energy bandgap (which is typically greater than 2eV and is not well suited to our solar spectrum) the nanomaterials used in the hybrid systems generally exhibit optical absorptions below the conducting polymer bandgap and therefore allow these composites to absorb a much larger proportion of the solar spectrum. In addition, the nanoparticles can play a role in liberating and transporting the potential charge carriers that are created through the absorption by the polymer host.

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Hybrid solar cells may also exploit some of the other results of quantum confinement that have been demonstrated in some semi conducting quantum dot systems; for instance some nanoparticles absorb photons in a lower energy region of the solar spectrum and convert the energy upwards, or add them together to produce photons with energies above the quantum gap. Conversely, other quantum dots can absorb one high energy photon and convert it to a number of lower energy conducting electrons rather than one electron with a lot of wasted heat.

It is hope to couple single walled carbon nanotubes or other forms of nanostructured carbon, to various semi conducting quantum dots to produce nanomaterials additives that can address the shortcomings associated with the basic polymeric solar cells

A 5.5.3Molecular organic solar cells

These are based on the use of organic molecules and have been studied for about 30 years. The most recent applications have been with fullerenes (“Buckyballs”) and have led to cells showing slightly greater than 1% conversion efficiencies, whilst the application of Schottky barriers based on doped pentacene molecules has increased this to about 2%. It is thought that further improvements can be made to these systems by developing nanoparticle systems based on organic molecules.

A 5.5.4III-V Nitride solar cells

There has been increased interest in the development of high efficiency solar cells based on elements in the Periodic Table groups III and V, where their application to high performance multi-junction solar cells is directly related to the potential of diminishing cell bandgaps, thereby enabling major absorption of the higher energy red part of the solar spectrum. To achoieve these benefits, nanotechnology is essential as it is a key function to the reduction of the cell bandgaps.

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A 5.6 Flexible Film TechnologyFlexible film photovoltaic systems can not only be more easily manufactured, but also allows them to be easily used on non-planar surfaces, as well as allowing for easy installation. This technology has been successfully demonstrated by NanSys Inc in the USA, who has used nanoparticle technology to produce photovoltaic systems that successfully combine the conversion efficiency, environmental stability and device lifetimes in inorganic solar cells with the lightweight flexibility and low costs of volume manufacturing using plastics. It is claimed that the outcome of their developments is the capability of manufacturing systems that generate solar power at less than $1/W. Much of this development has been driven by the needs of the American defence sector.

A 5.7 Reduced Manufacturing Equipment CostsConventional photovoltaic systems are based on brittle silicon materials. These are expensive and difficult to manufacture, resulting in high reject and scrap rates. Nanotechnology can offer alternative manufacturing routes that will not be as prone to material failures. For instance, thin film photovoltaics can be manufactured using many modern printing technologies and many of the principles of this have been already developed for the electronics sector. Nanotechnology will facilitate the development of multilayer systems that can be easily applied to flexible substrates. The combination of flexible substrates and printing technologies allows for roll-to-roll manufacturing techniques that are both fast, efficient and require lower capital investment.

A 5.8 General Structural Developments Reduce reflective losses; the use of photon-trapping layers to

prevent their reflectance will enhance the performance of PV structures. This can be done by generating nanostructures surfaces to the PV assembly.

Widen the response wavelengths of the PV systems. IR wavelengths have insufficient energy to raise electrons into the conducting bands of PV systems, but by using nanotechnology the wavelength can be altered by the structure to provide a more energetic wavelength. Reflective losses account for result in an efficiency limit of about 40% for most semiconductors and about 44% for single junction silicon solar cells.

The wavelength response of metallic nanostructures can be modified to cover a broad spectral range. This can be achieved by controlling and modifying the size of metallic

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nanostructures and could improve cell efficiencies by up to 10%.

Nanotechnology quantum wells and dots can be used to enhance absorption and increase the PV efficiencies. Quantum dots and wells enable the collection of more than one electron-hole pair per photon an can therefore increase the efficiency of solar energy collection.

Quantum dots can be used to create and utilise surface layers on G3 PV systems that convert solar power spectrum to suite the spectral distribution of the underlying devices.

The kinetic energy of photons can be utilised by developing impact ionisation techniques, but it is accepted this is difficult technology!

The development of “smart materials” that respond to changes of the source angle. About 20% of the available photons are lost in static PV assemblies by reflection and not tracking the energy source.

Self organising nanostructures that are mounted on glass substrates could increase performances by 10%.

Seeded or selective growth techniques could provide extremely small but high quality crystallites that could form the basis of nanodevices. This would result in a reduction in the material volume and uniformity in the device performance.

Self organising semiconducting polymer systems in multi-junction G3 structures could increase efficiencies to 50%.

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1 Environmental Impacts of Food and Consumption, December 2006. Report commissioned by Defra from Manchester Business School.2 Internal communication between FCRN and Oakdene Hollins Ltd.

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1randd.defra.gov.uk/document.aspx?document=cb0109… · web viewin-depth market studies. for more...

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