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AP Human Geography- Unit 7: Cities and Urban Land Use

When and Why Did People Start Living in Cities?The Six Hearths of Urbanization

1.2.3.4.5.6.

Urbanizationo Earliest Urban Settlements

Prehistoric Urban Settlements Earliest urban settlements were probably in the

___________________ of Southwest Asia and North Africa.• The remains of Ur, in present-day Iraq, provide evidence of early

urban civilization. Ancient Ur was compact, perhaps covering -_____________________________________________________

• The most prominent building, the stepped temple, called a ______________, was originally constructed around 4,000 years ago. The ziggurat was originally a three-story structure with a base that was 64 by 46 meters (210 by 150 feet) and the upper stories stepped back. Four more stories were added in the sixth century B.C.

• Surrounding the ziggurat was a dense network of small residences built around _______________________ and opening onto narrow passageways. The excavation site was damaged during the two wars in Iraq.

Ancient Urban Settlements Settlements first established in eastern Mediterranean about

2,500 B.C.ooo

Aforementioned urban settlements were primarily trading centers and organized into city-states-

o ____________was the largest city-state in Greece

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o ____________was believed to have grown to a population between 250,000 and 1 million.

Greek Cities•• Network of more than 500 cities and towns• Athens- • Acropolis=

– Built most impressive structures/religious buildings– ___________________- Designed by Phidias (447 BCE)

• Agora= – Market and focus of commercial activity

• Theaters•

Roman Cities

• Capital Rome- served as the apex of a hierarchy of settlements from small villages to large cities

•• Layout of the city- rectangular grid pattern• Functional zonation-

– Forum- –

Medieval Urban Settlements Dense network of _______________________ serving the needs of particular

lords covered much of Europe. Largest medieval European settlements served as power centers for the lords,

church leaders, and as major market centers. Tallest and most elaborate structures were usually ______________.

Stages of Cities in Developing Countries Precolonial Cities

Before the Europeans established colonies, most people lived in rural settlements.

There were but a few principal cities in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Examples

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In present-day Mexico, the Aztecs built the city

Colonial Citieso When European colonization gained control of Latin America, Asia,

and Africa, they expanded the existing cities to provide colonial services.

o Examples include: Military Command Housing for European Settlers

o Cities Since Independenceo Following independence, cities have become the focal points of

change. Millions of migrants have arrived to them in search of work.

o In some cities, such as Mexico City, previous social patterns from the previous century were reinforced.

Urbanizationo Rapid Growth of Urban Settlements

The process by which the population of urban settlements grows, known as _______________________n, has two dimensions.

1. An increase in the number of people living in urban settlements.

2. An increase in the __________________ of people living in urban settlements.

Percentage of people living in the urban settlements has increased from 3% in 1800 to 6% in 1850, 14% in 1900, 30% in 1950, and _________ in 2000.

Developed Countries: Developing Countries:

o Defining Urban Settlementso Several definitions have been created to characterize cities and their suburbs.

1. The term _______defines an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit.

o In the U.S., these urban settlements are sometimes known as a-

2. An urban area consists of a dense core of census tracts, densely settled suburbs, and low-density land that links the dense suburbs with the core. The census recognizes two types of urban areas:

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o An urbanized area -o An urban cluster is an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000

inhabitants.

3. The U.S. Bureau of the Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of a city, known as the ___________________________________). It includes:

An urbanized area with a population of at least _____________ The county within which the city is located Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large

percentage of residents working in the central city’s county.

Where Are Services Distributed? Three Types of Services1. Principal purpose is to provide services to individual consumers who desire them

and can afford to pay for them. Subdivided into four main types of consumer services:

1.2. Education Services3. Health and Social Services4. Leisure and Hospitality

2. Principal purpose is to facilitate other businesses. Constitutes ¼ of all jobs in the U.S. Subdivided into three main types of business services:

1. Professional Services2.3. Transportation Services

3. Purpose is to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses. Constitutes about _________ of all jobs in the U.S.

Workers divided among various levels of government. Federal Government: 1/6 of public sector employees State Government: ¼ of public sector employees Local Government: 3/5 of public sector employees

Where Are Services Distributed? Rising and Falling Service Employment

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Service sector of the economy has seen nearly all the growth in employment worldwide.

Service sector has also been most negatively impacted by the recession. Change in Number of Employees

Within business services, jobs expanded most rapidly in professional services e.g. engineering, management, and law.

Within consumer services,

Where Are Consumer Services Distributed? Geographers use _________________________ to help explain why consumers

services follow a regular pattern based on size of settlements, with larger settlements offering not only more consumer services but also more specialized ones.

o Geographer ____________________ proposed the concept of a central place in the 1930s.

Where Are Consumer Services Distributed? Market Area of A Service

o A central place –

o It is centrally located to maximize accessibility.o A market area, or hinterland, -

Range and Threshold of a Market Areao The range of a service-

o People travel short distances for everyday services. e.g. o People travel greater distances for services offered exclusively in specific

places. e.g. The threshold of a service –

o Service providers determine the suitability of a service center by overlaying the range of potential customers to its threshold.

Hierarchy of Consumer Services Only consumer services that have small thresholds, short ranges, and small

market areas are found in __________________. ____________________ provide consumer services that have larger thresholds,

ranges, and market areas. Developed countries have numerous small settlements with small thresholds and

ranges and far fewer large settlements with large thresholds and ranges.

Nesting of Services and Settlements

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o Central place theory posits that market areas across a developed country would be shaped as a series of _____________of various sizes, unless interrupted by physical features.

o Four different levels of market area exist:

Rank-Size Distribution of Settlements Ranking settlements from largest to smallest in many developed countries produces

a regular pattern or hierarchy. _______________ rule states that the country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the

population of the largest settlement. o

Exceptions include the presence of a primate city-

Market Area Analysiso Service providers believe that the location of a business is the most

important factor to its profitability.o Steps to Determine Profitability of a Location

1.o Survey local residents about willingness to travel a specific

amount of time to the potential site of a new store.2.

o Identify how many patrons are needed to meet expenses.3.

o Draw the range around potential location of new store, then identify whether or not the threshold is met within that radius.

The ____________________ predicts that the optimal location of a service is directly related to the number of people in the area and inversely related the distance people must travel to access it.

o

Where Are Business Services Distributed? Hierarchy of Business Services

All urban settlements provide consumer services, but not every settlement of a given size has the same number and types of business services.

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Urban settlements tend to specialize in one or a few specific business services. Geographers distinguish four levels of urban settlements according to their

importance as business services providers.

Business Services in Global Citiesoo Center of the flow of information and capital in the global economy.oo Global cities area divided into three levels: __________________________,

which, in turn, are further subdivided based on economic, political, cultural, and infrastructure factors.

Examples –

Business Services in Developing Countries Some businesses locate in developing countries, because they tend to offer

supportive laws, weak regulations, and low-wage workers. Primarily there are two main types of business services offered in developing

countries.1.

o Tax breaks include little to no taxes on income, profits, and capital

gains.o

Bank secrecy laws can help individuals and businesses evade disclosure in their home countries.

2.o Back-office functions, such as insurance claims processing, payroll

management, transcription work, and other routine clerical activities, can be performed at a lower cost, if they are performed by workers in developing countries.

Developing countries with a large labor force fluent in __________ are relatively more attractive to firms seeking a place to outsource some of their routine work.

Economic Base of Settlementso A settlement’s distinctive economic structure derives from its

_________________, which export primarily to consumers outside the settlement.

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o ___________________- are enterprises whose customers live in the same community-essentially, consumer services.

o A community's unique collection of basic industries defines its economic base.

Economic base of a postindustrial society, such as the U.S., are in ___________________________________

Ex. Computing and data processing services: Boston

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown? CBD Land Uses

o The ____________________________ takes up less than 1 percent of the urban land area, yet contains a large percentage of the services offered in the city.

Services offered in the CBD can be divided into three types:1. _____________________

Examples: city hall, courts, county and state agencies, and libraries.. Centrally located for ease of accessibility to all residents Sports centers and conventions centers are often downtown to stimulate

commerce in the CBD.2. Business Services

Examples: Proximity to other service providers for businesses promotes collaboration

and face-to-face meetings.

3. Consumer Services Historically, three types of retail services clustered in a CBD.

ooo Retailers that served people who worked in the CBD

Changing shopping habits and a shift of the more affluent to the suburbs have _______________the importance of retail services in the CBD.

Competition for Land in the CBDo High demand for the limited space in the CBD has encouraged

_____________development. Underground CBD

Inadequate space exists above ground for the needed dense network of telephone, electric, and broadband cables, thus they are placed underground and out of sight.

Underground passages can segregate pedestrians from motor vehicles and shield them from harsh winter weather.

______________________

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Demand for space in CBDs has made high-rise structures economically feasible.

Where Are People Distributed Within Urban Areas? Models of Urban Structure

o First model to explain the distribution of different social groups within

urban areas Model suggests that a city grows outward from a central area in a

series of concentric rings. CBD: A Zone in Transition: area eventually consumed by CBD Zone of Working-Class Homes: Zone of Better Residence:

Commuter Zone:

ooo Model that posits a city develops in a series of -o As a city grows, activities expand outward in a wedge, or sector, from

the center.

o Multiple Nuclei Modeloo Model posits that a city is a complex structure that includes more

than one center around which activities revolve. Examples

Geographic Applications of the Modelso The models of urban structure help us understand where people with different

social characteristics tend to live and why.

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o Critics point out that the models are ___________________________ to explain contemporary urban patterns in the U.S. or in other countries.

o Combining the models help geographers explain where different types of people live in a city.

They suggest that most people prefer to live near others who have similar characteristics.

Exampleso Concentric Zone Model

o Families in newer houses tend to live in an outer ringo Families in older houses tend to live in an inner ring

o Sector Modelo Given two families who own their homes, the family with the higher

income will not live in the same sector as the family with a lower income.

o Nuclei Modelo

Applying the Models Outside North Americao Applying the Models in Europe

o Sectors In Europe, the wealthy still live in the inner portions of the

upper-class sector, not just in the suburbs like most of the affluent in the U.S.

o Concentric Zones

o Applying the Models in Developing Countriesoo The wealthy live near the center of the city, as well as in a sector

extending from the center.

___________________________/Edge City Modelo Edge cities:

o Types of Edge Citieso _________________ – The most common type, having developed

incrementally around a shopping mall or highway interchangeo _________________ – Having been master-planned as new towns,

generally on the suburban fringe. o __________________– Historic activity centers built over an older

city or town (sometimes a satellite city).

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For example, within Northern Virginia, Tysons Corner is a Boomer, Reston Town Center is a Greenfield, and the Rosslyn–Ballston Corridor is an Uptown.

Modeling the Cities of the Global Periphery and Semiperiphery

Primate cities in developing countries are called _______________ when the city has a large population, a vast territorial extent, rapid in-migration, and a strained,

South American City ___________________

o South American cities blend traditional elements of South American culture with globalization forces that are reshaping the urban scene, combining radial sectors and concentric zones.

o The thriving CBD anchors the model. ______________ are unplanned groups of crude dwellings and shelters made of scrap

wood, iron, and pieces of cardboard that develop around cities.

Field Note

“February 1, 2003. A long-held hope came true today: thanks to a Brazilian intermediary I was allowed to enter and spend a day in two of Rio de Janeiro’s hillslope ______________, an eight-hour walk through one into the other. Here live millions of the city’s poor, in areas often ruled by drug lords and their gangs, with minimal or no public services, amid squalor and stench, in discomfort and danger.

The African Cityo The imprint of European colonialism can still be seen in many African cities.o During colonialism, Europeans laid out prominent urban centers.o The centers of South Africa’s major cities (Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban)

remain essentially Western.o Studies of African cities indicate that the central city often consists of not one but

three CBDs:

The Southeast Asian City

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The Islamic City

Why Are Urban Areas Expanding?

Overlapping Metropolitan Areas o Some adjacent MSAs overlap so that they now form one continuous urban

complex. Example: Extending north of Boston to South of Washington D.C.,

geographer Jean Gottmann named this region ___________________, a Greek word meaning “great city”.

o Local Government Fragmentation Most U.S. metropolitan areas have a

______________________________, which is a cooperative agency consisting of various local government representatives.

Purpose may be to do some overall planning for the area that cannot be performed by a single local government.

Annexation The process of legally adding land area to a city is annexation.

Many U.S. cities grew rapidly in the 19th century, because they offered better services than available in the rural countryside (e.g. water supply, sewage disposal, etc.)

Density Gradient

; this phenomenon is known as the density gradient.

The Cost of Suburban Sprawlo A flattening of the density gradient for a metropolitan area means that its people

and services are spread out over a larger area. U.S. suburbs are characterized by –

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o Suburban Segregation

The modern residential suburb is segregated in two ways:1. Similarly priced houses are typically built in close proximity to one

another, thus attracting a specific range of income earners.

2. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing

activities that are confined to compact, distinct areas. ___________ ordinances enacted in the early 20th

century have contributed most notably to the segregation of land uses associated with suburban areas.

Epochs of Urban Transportation-o _________________________ recognized four epochs in the evolution of the

American metropolis based on the impact of transportation & communication:

o __________________ (1790-1830) – associated with low technologyo ___________________ (1830-70); steam-powered locomotive &

spreading railso ____________________ (1870-1920); full impact of Ind. Rev. (steel),

hinterlands expando ______________________ (1920-70); gas-powered internal

combustion engineo _____________________ (1970-today ); expansion of service &

information industries

Urban Transportation Motor Vehicles

_______________ permitted large-scale development of suburbs at greater distances from the city center.

Motor vehicles use a considerable amount of space in U.S. cities. An average city allocated about _______of its land to roads

and parking lots. Multilane freeways cut a 23-meter (75-foot) path through the

heart of a city, and elaborate interchanges consume even more space.

Valuable land in the central city is devoted to ______________ and trucks.

The Car of the Future

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Motor vehicles are one of the greatest challenges to reducing pollution in congested urban areas.

Automakers are scrambling to bring alternative-fuel vehicles to the market.

Diesel engines burn fuel more efficiently. Biodiesel fuel can be produced partly with

vegetable oils or recycled restaurant grease.

Energy that would be otherwise wasted when coasting and braking is reduced, because an electric engine takes over during those instances.

Ethanol Fuel made by distilling crops,

Critics question whether the amount of energy put into growing the crops is not equal to, if not more than, the amount of energy derived from them as fuel.

Plug-In Hybrid Electric motor supplies the power at all speeds. Gas engine can recharge the battery, as well as

plugging the car into an electrical outlet.

Hydrogen forced through a PEM (polymer electrolyte membrane or proton exchange membrane) combines with oxygen from the air, producing an electric charge.

Public Transit Benefits

In larger cities, public transit is better suited than motor vehicles to move large numbers of people, because each transit traveler takes up less space.

Emits relatively less pollutants than privately operated

vehicles More energy efficient than privately operated vehicles

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Limitations Most people in the U.S. overlook the benefits of public transit,

because they place higher value on the- Not offered in most U.S. cities

Why Do Cities Face Challenges? Changing Urban Physical Geography

o The Process of Deterioration

Large houses in older neighborhoods are subdivided into smaller dwellings for low-income families, through a process known as filtering.

Over time, landlords cease maintaining the properties when they are no longer economically feasible.

Redlining Some banks engage in redlining-

Redlining is illegal but difficult to enforce Public Housing

During the mid-twentieth century, many substandard inner-city houses were demolished and replaced with ____________________- housing reserved for low-income households, who must pay

A housing authority, established by the local government, manages the buildings, and the federal government pays for all expenses not covered by rent.

Most of the high-rise public housing projects built in the U.S. and Europe at this time are now considered unsatisfactory for families with children.

o _____________________________ ____________________- is the process by which middle-class people

move into deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods and renovate the housing.

Most U.S. cities have at least one substantially renovated inner-city neighborhood where middle-class people live.

Middle class-families attracted by some of the following:o Houses may have more __________________________

than those in the suburbs.o Proximity to cultural and recreational activities

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o

Changing Urban Social Geographyo Underclass

Inner-city residents are frequently referred to as permanent underclass, because they are trapped in an unending cycle of

Suffers from relatively higher rates of –

Children often attend deteriorated schools Affordable housing is difficult to secure Tend to ignore good learning habits, regular school attendance, and

completion of homework; the tendencies needed to elevate one’s self out of the underclass.

Changing Urban Social Geographyo Culture of Poverty

Inner-city residents are trapped as a permanent underclass, because they live in a culture of poverty.

Characterized by: Relatively higher usage of drugs.

Urban Economic Challenges The Eroding Tax Base

o Low-income inner-city residents require public services, but they pay little of the taxes needed to fund the public services.

o Cities have two choices to close the gap between the cost of operating public services and the funding made available by taxing.

The Impact of the Recessiono Housing market collapse in 2008 was one of principal causes of the severe

recession.o Lower assessed values of houses led to lower tax revenues acquired from

property taxes.o When borrowers cease paying their mortgages, lenders can take over the

property in what is called a -

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New Urbanism

o What Spawned Suburbia Demographic transition Rampant disease infested cities Refuge in the suburbs for the more wealthy New clustering of skilled professionals Electric trolleys allow a way to city’s edges Seeing the wealthy escape spawns the _________________ desire for a

life in the suburbs

Excerpt from The Geography of Nowhere “American land law was predicated on the paramount principle that land was first and

foremost a commodity for capital gain. Speculation became the primary basis for land distribution--indeed, the commercial transfer of property would become the basis of American land-use planning, which is to say hardly any planning at all. Somebody would buy a large tract of land and subdivide it into smaller parcels at a profit--a process that continues in our time.”

More from The Geography of Nowhere “Other Old World values toppled before this novel system--for example, the idea of land as

the physical container for community values. Nearly eradicated in the rush to profit was the concept of stewardship, of land as a public trust: that we who are alive now are responsible for taking proper care of the landscape so that future generations can dwell in it in safety and happiness. As Sam Bass Warner put it, the genius of American land law and the fanatical support it engendered "lay in its identification of land as a civil liberty instead of as a social resource.“”

Kunstler – Geography of Nowhereo The shift in the US view about land and land use (from how it was seen in

Europe)oo What is good for the __________________ becomes paramounto So, what happens when someone has a lot of land – use it like you see fito So what if your neighbor puts a polluting factory on his land next to your house?

Sam Bass Warner “Land has become a civil liberty instead of a social resource.”

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What does this mean and how does this change urban dynamics?

What is Suburban Sprawl?ooo Limited accesso

New Urbanismoo Multi-use zoning to maximize efficient livingooo Reduce commute times, shopping time o Creates an atmosphere where the group is connected and larger society is

consideredo According to Dan Burden

Rejects that we build cities and neighborhoods for cars… Build cities for the use of people If transportation is built, it must add value to everything around it To hold onto jobs today, we must “build place” Places must be __________ and ____________with low car dependency for

users Places must be mixed use with people living downtown. People who live

there have a stake in what happens there.

Criticisms of New Urbanismo Housing costs are very high – o Limited social integrationo Ideal or fake landscapes – o For existing cities, it means a complete renovation of existing infrastructureo

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