---

What we have learned about developingtransformational leaders

E. Kevin KellowayDepartment of Management, Saint Mary's University, Nova Scotia, CanadaJulian BarlingSchool of Business, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Keywords Think of the best leader you ever had It could own expectations. They do so by using storiesTraining. Leadership. be a supervisor, a teacher, a sports coach or and symbols to communicate their vision andIndividual behaviour, Motivation anyone that stands out in your mind as a their message. Intellectual stimulation

leader. Take a few minutes and note down involves engaging the rationality ofAbstract what it is that this individual did that made bo d . t tting th t hall th .This article reviews an approach. .,," su r ma es, ge em 0 c enge eIrto training transformational him/her a truly effective leader. Pl;lease assumptions and to think about old problemsleaders that has been used for the don't tell us how the~ made you fee .rather, in new ways. Leaders who engage inpast five years Data assessing focus on what they did to make you feel that. t llectual t . ulati I allhe ff .. fthe h me S 1m on no onger answert e ectrveness 0 approac way. .". .are reviewed and the key elements their employees questions, InStead, they nowof the training program are If you are like the thousands of individuals help their employees to answer all their owndescribed. Concludes with an that we have had complete this exercise over questions. Finally, individualizedassessment andh~entifjcation of the pas t several years, it is likely that the consideration deals with treating employeesongOIng researc Issues. behaviors that you identify as bemg as mdivlduals, by beL'lg compaSSIonate,

characteristic of effective leadership fall into appreciating and responding to their needs,the four dimensions that comprise the and recognizing and celebrating theircentral tenets of transformational leadership achievements.

(Bass,I998).Bass (1990, p. 2) defines transformational

leadership as a superior form of leadership that occurs when leaders "broaden and I Does tra.nsfonnatlonal leadership

elevate the interests of their employees, when make a difference?

they generate awareness and acceptance of The idea that the dimensions comprisingthe purposes and the mission of the group transformational leadership affect criticaland when they stir their employees to look organizational attitudes and outcomes is nowbeyond their own self-interest for the good of well established in the leadership literaturethe group" (see Bass (1998) or Avolio (1999) (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1985; 1990; 1998; Congerfor an extended discussion of and Kanungo, 1987; House, 1977). Althoughtransformational leadership). Bass goes several authors have identified difficulties in

I Preoaration of UJis further to suggest that there are four. the measurement of transformational~-= :sUl~pported dimensi~ns that ~mprise ~O~tIonal leadership (e.g., Bycio et al., 1995; Carless,

by Social Sciences and leadershIp .beh~Vlo.rs, namel.y Id:aJized 1998), there has been substantial empiricalHumanities Research influence, lllSI?lratIO~al motI,,:,a~o~,. support for the effects of transformationalCounCIl of Canada Research intellectual stimulatIon and mdlvldualized leadership on both productivity and morale-Grants to botiI authors.. consideration.Conoespondence regardIng .. h id related outcomes.Ulis article may be sent to Idealized influence occurs w en ~ ers Meta-analyses have reported moderate toUIe first author at engender the trust and respect of their tro links between aspects of

kevin.kelloway@sbnasys.cafollowersbydoingtherightthingratherthantranss ng

fi t. nal leadershi p and work. th d th o . ght Wh th orma 10ensurmg ey 0 mgs rl .en ey

rfi (Low e et aL 1996).. th igh th o th as pe ormance ,focus on domg e r t mg, ~y serve Transformational leadership has also beenrole models. Leaders who engage m linked with employee attitudes such asinspirational motivation "raise the bar" for affect' commitment to the organizationthei;r employees, encouraging them to .(Bar~ et at, 1996; Bycio et at, 19.95;.Koh et

Leadership & Organization achieve levels of performance beyond their L 1995) and a sense of fairness Wlthm theDevelopment Journal a , .,

L 1999) trust in the21/7 (~) 355-362 .organization (Pillai et a , ,

"(C MCB University Press 1M amid ~ n" ~ ~ of ~ p.u 5 ~ at ~ leader (Pillai et al., 1999; Podsakoff et aI., .

(ISSN 0143-7'739) ~J' 8Id-IIIr.-y.com V 1995), enhanced satisfaction with both the job

./"

Kevin KellO;ay and (Hater and Bass, 1988) and the leader (Hater data are of limited utility unless individualsJulian Barling and Bass, 1988; Koh et at, 1995), and lower can enhance their transformationalWhat we have learned about I I f both . b (So ik d God halk I d h. ddeveloping transformational eve s 0 JO sans , 2000) ea ers Ip an such enhancements result inleaders and role stress (Podsakoff et at, 1996). meaningful changes in valued outcomes. Weleadership & Organization Importantly, the associations between now engage in a discussion of these issues,Oeveloprnent Journal transformational leadership and after which we focus on a different source21/7 [2000) 355-362 organizational outcomes have been through which individuals might learn abouT

substantiated in both laboratory studies (e.g. transformational leadership, namely theirHowell and Frost, 1989; Kirkpatrick and parents.Locke, 1996) and field studies (e.g. Harling etaL, 1996; Howell and Avolio, 1993) that gobeyond the traditional correlational fmdings. Can you train transformational leaders?

While there is little doubt that leaders' use We believe that the answer to this question i~of a transformational leadership stYle results an unequivocal yes! There is now consistentin positive organizational outcomes, there evidence that transformational leadershipremains the question of how organizations can be taught. In two published studiescan use this knowledge. Bamberger and (Barling et at, 1996; Kelloway et at, 2000) weMesh~~ (2000) h.ave argued tha~ have used rigorous research designs to assessOrganIzations can eIther make (train! the effectiveness of leadership training indevelop) or buy (recruiUselect) the two different Orgarnza.tions In both cat .th eed .ses, wecompe en~I.es ey n .have found statistically significant changes

RecognIZIng that most o.rganizations.do not in transformationalleadershi resultinhave the luxury of replacIng all of their ..p g

t . ti all d .th from the trainIng. Moreover, we havecurren organIza on ea ers WI hta ' ed . ilar ul (.."transformational" leaders we would suggest Ou m SIm res ts I.e. lDlprovementsthat the training and deveiopment of in ~fo.rmati~nallead~rshi~) in ~umeroustransformational leaders is the most viable organizational mterventIons m WhICh aroute for organizations to pursue. rigoro~s design was not possibl~. .

Whether such training is a viable option Bar~.et a:L (~996~ worked WIth a majorfor organizations remains an open question. ~man~ial mstitutio~ m Canada. We fIrStMost reviews have concluded that although Identified 20 bank (I.e. branch) managersorganizations spend a great deal on operating within the same geographic region-leadership training (Saari et at, 1988), the Manage~ were randomly assigned to eithertraining itself is of questionable value an experImental group or a control group.(Fiedler, 1996). In particular, reviewers have Members of the experimental group initiallysuggested that: participated in a one-day workshop on.we know little about the processes transformational leadership, and

involved in training leaders (Burke and subsequently attended four individualDay, 1986; Gordon, 1985) and counseling sessions in which subordinate

.such training has been rarely evaluated ratings of transformational leadership wereagainst organizational criteria (Burke and presented for each leader, and specific goalsDay, 1986). were developed and monitored. Members of

.the control group received neither theThus, .~bly the central questions for training nor the counseling sessions.Organizations are: Consistent with our goals the effectiveness.Can you train transformational leaders? of the training interventio~ was assessed.If so, ~ow do you. do it? with two types of measures. First, we thought.Does ~t ~e a difference to that the intervention could only be judged a

organizational outcomes? success if the subordinates saw an increase

In KirkPatrick's (1967) terms we were asking in the transformational leadership be.haviorsthe questions related to level 3 and level 4 displayed by their leaders. As shown intraining evaluations -can we change leaders' Figure 1, the subordinates of trained leadersbehavior Oevel3) and, if we do, does it result reported significantly more positivein a change in outcomes of importance to the perceptions of their behaviors than didorganization Oevel 4)? These questions are subordinates of the untrained managers.particularly salient given persistent Second, while these data speak to thesuggestions that leadership is poorly defmed ability of training to increase leadershipand/or unteachable (e.g. Barker, 1997). behavior, we were also interested in whetherDespite a wealth of correlational and increasing leadership behaviors resulted inexperimental evidence linking increases in outcomes of interest to thetransformational leadership to organization. Our results suggest thatorganizational outcomes, we hold that these subordinates of trained leaders became more

--

-

Kevin Kelloway and committed (i.e. loyal) to the organization those branches where themanager wasJulIan Barring than were subordmates of untraIned leaders tramed (see Figure 3). These resul

tWhat we have learned about ...s aredeveloping transformational (see Figure 2). partIcularly Important because:leaders Perhaps more importantly, branch-level .the,! ~how the impact of leadershipleadership & Organization credit card sales and personal loan sales traInIng on bottom line outcomes. and

~~(~~ ~;~~~2 (adjusted for branch size) increased only in .~e individuals we had direct contact with(I.e. the leaders) were not personallyengaged in credit card and personal loan

Figure 2. sales.Leadership scores by group .

ThIS latter observation shows that an3 increase in transformational leadership

2.9 -"trickles down" through the organization,raising the level of performance at all levels.

2.8 Similarly, Kelloway et at. (2000) used an

2.7 experimental design to assess the2.6 effectiveness of leadership training.

-Extending the training model established by2.S .; .Barling et at. (1996), we randomly assigned 40

2.4 :: -r- -:- leaders to one of four groups. One group2.3 .Il -participated in a day-long workshop, one

Trained Control group received a 3O-minute feedback!10 Leadersbip! counseling session, one group received bothSoun:e: Barling el al. (1996) training and feedback, and a iillal control

group received neither training norfeedback. The results of our study shown in

Figure 2 Figure 4 suggest that both training andSubordinates' commitment by group counseling are effective means of behavioral

change.6 Both of these studies incorporate the use of

5.9 control groups, manipulation of the5.8 treatment and the use of criteria that go5.7 beyond traditional self-report measures. In

doing so, they substantially enhance our5.6 confidence in the conclusion that leaders can55 be taught to use transformational leadership5.4 behaviors. Perhaps most importantly, the

5.3 results of these studies suggest thatS.2 .subordinates do indeed notice changes in

Trained Control the behavior of leaders participating in(BColDIDitmentl the ~ing interve.ntion; and .So B fl . t 1996) .the attitudes/behaVlors of subordinatesun:e: a mgela ( .

change ill response to leaders' enhanced'-- transformational leadership skills.

Figure 3Branch level financial outcomes by group

Figure 41.2 Leadership scores by group

I 3

0.8 2.5

0.6 2

0.4I.

0.2I

0Trained Control o.

ICCredilCard /I- PenoaallAanl CO8trol Tralalng Feedback Both

Note: Financial data are weighted by branch I. LeadenbIp/SIzeSoun:e: Barlinge/ at (1996) Soan:e: Kellowayet al (2000)

[357]

-~ '.~~ ~ ~." " ~-

~inKeliow-ayand""" Although not focussed strictly on training, implemented but not sustained. We believeJulian Barling the results of Hochman et al. (2000) show that a key reason for this state of affairs isWhat we have learned about. il Its I th o d h d I th t I d h. th . h beedevelo ng transformational slm ar resu .n IS stu y we a a samp e a ea ers Ip eorlsts ave nleader: of university undergraduates participate in a proposing large scale, unsustainable change.Leadership & Organization binding task (see Kirkpatrick and Locke, The simple fact is, if we find that theDevelopment Journal 1996). Trained actor-confederates played the behavior or leadership style to be21/7 (2000) 355-362 role of "leaders" for each group and, in doing Implemented IS overwhelmIng, or It does not

so, followed a script that emulated either a "fit" with our view of ourselves or our"charismatic" (i.e. idealized influence and workplace, we soon drop the new behavior (ifinspirational motivation) or an we even had decided to implement it in the"intellectually stimulating" leadership style. fIrst instan~e). As a result, our. subordinatesManipulation checks revealed that become cYnical and merely walt out the newparticipants in the study could clearly detect :flavor o! the ~on~" until things get ~ck to

d diffi t . t betw th t I d h .normal -whIch IS not always the desIredan eren Ia e een e wo ea ers Ip . tuat .

t I R ults h th t rod t ..Sl Ion anyway.

s yes. es s ow a p uc IVlty was In k h bee d ,. ..our wor we ave n a VISIngmc~sed ,!,hen. the leader was.elther. trainees to invest in only those changes thatcharlsm~tIc or Intellectually stImulatIng. can be worked into their daily routine. OurParadoxIcally, when the leader was both logic for this suggestion is as follows: everycharismatic and intellectually stimulating, February, Canadians are inundated withproductivity did not differ from the control advertisements inducing them to contributegroup. Post hoc analyses suggested that trust to a registered retirement savings programin the leader declined in this condition. (RRSP). Most of these ads stress the value ofperhaps suggesting that the combination of making small, consistent contributions toboth leadership styles was "too much of a our retirement savings over a lifetime rathergood thing". While this question certainly than one large contribution toward the end ofbears closer scrutiny, these results confIrm a working career.the imdings of field studies suggesting that In the same way, we suggest that makingsubordinates can: small changes and maintaining those.detect the leadership style used by changes over time will have a large effect on

leaders' and subordinates. In contrast, just making a few,.alter fueir behavior (Le. performance) in major but infrequent changes will have less

response to leaders' behavior. of an impact over the long term. Just ascompound interest substantially enhances

Since obtaining these encouraging results, our retirement savings, our experience iswe have been conducting leadership training that the "payoff" for making small consistentfor a diverse array of Canadian private and changes in behavior is much greater than wepublic sector organizations. Although we might initially believe.could not always obtain a "clean" What kind of small changes? Well, toexperimental design, we have consistently enhance idealized influence, we often suggestbeen able to document increases in that leaders do what is right, rather thanleadership behavior as a result of training. what is expedient or the most cost-effective.Importantly, these changes are reported by We also suggest that leaders take some timetheir subordinates. Moreover we have to make their decision making morecontinually refmed our app~ch to trans~nt and to be consiste:nt in their

developing enhanced leadership skills, ~nmg a~~ss ~ple. ConsIStentl.y .has .. th . I tat ' f small makmg decIsIons usmg the same cnterlaemp lZmg e Imp emen Ion 0 -

b ilds t d trust, I I., u respec an as emp oyees earnscale and sustamable behavIoral changes tl h t th t fr th . .", exac y w a ey can expec om elrthat have a hIgh payoff'. leader. Leaders who are seen by their

employees as people who can be counted onto "do the right thing" epitomize idealized

How do you do It? influence, and in return are justly rewardedMost major bookstores now carry racks and with their employees' trust.racks of books on leadership. Academics, Leaders who display inspirationalconsultants, executives and HR practitioners motivation display enthusiasm andare all eager to share their particular slant on optimism. Communicating the message that

.';; organizational leadership. Most of these "I know you can do it" is a powerful act of'-\ books undoubtedly contain some valuable leadership that raises the employee's sense of

insights. Sadly, most of the strategies self -efficacy and inspires individuals to try

advanced in these works are bought but not harder. Certainly, the famous Pygmalion, read, read but not implemented, studies conducted by Robert Rosenthal (1968)

Kevin Kell<?Way and provide ample evidence for this. Recently, These leaders frequently block off time iJulian Barllng Parker (1998) has expanded on the notion of their day Planner to talk wI . th th .n

What we have learned about If d eIrdeveloping transformational se -efficacy to efine a new construct, subordinates on a daily basis Thleaders namely role breadth self-efficacy. In her pe rsonall y tha nk theI.

r bo d ..ey

.su r mates for the.leadership & Organization words, role breadth self-efficacy IS sense of efforts at work either. IrDevelopment Journal confidence individuals have in their ability .." m personal21/7 [2000) 355-362 to " t b d d .commUnIcatIon, thank you" cards or both

carry ou a roa er an more proactIve Indeed h bee tru k ' .

I be d d .. al ..,we ave n s c by thero e, yon tra Ition ,prescrIbed technIcal .requirements" (Parker, 1998, p. 835). ~tentIallY ~werful mo~iv~tional effects ofEspecially in organizations struggling with thank you and other sImIlar c.ards: we arede-regulation, globalization, restructuring stru~k by th~ number of executIves whoand escalating competitive pressures, the admIt to havIng kept thank you cards thatability of a leader to communicate optimism they themselves received, sometimes manyand enhance role-breadth self-efficacy is years ago.critical to enhanced organizational Our research (Kelloway et aI., 2000)outcomes. suggests that transformational leadership

Intellectual stimulation is enhanced by a can be enhanced by both training (i.e.leader's ability to get employees to think participation in a workshop) and counselingabout work-related problems in new ways. (i.e. feedback of subordinate ratings), but thatResponding to employee questions by asking combining these two approaches does not"what do you think we should do?" or "what enhance leadership beyond that obtainedwould you advise if you were me?" engages from either approach alone. In trying toemployees' minds in the workplace -the understand why both approaches seemdefinition of intellectual stimulation. equally effective, we have reached theAlthough we often describe intellectual conclusion that the key element in trainingstimulation as the forgotten child of transformational leaders is the developmentleadership theory because of the extent to of specific action plans based on thewhich it is ignored in popular leadership substantive theory of transformationaltheories, the role of this aspect of leadership leadership.becomes more important with the increased Specifically, in both the workshop and theemphasis on knowledge work in today's feedback sessions we encourage leaders to seteconomy (Kelloway and Barling, 2000). Based challenging, specific, and achievable (Lockeon their study of 30 organizations, Davenport and Latham, 1990) goals for exhibitinget aI. (1996) identify f"mding, creating, specific leadership behaviors. We focus onpackaging and using knowledge as critical small behavioral changes (such as describeddimensions of knowledge work. By above) and emphasize the implementation ofdisplaying intellectually stimulating only those changes that can be sustained overbehaviors, leaders enhance these behaviors, time. Typically, leaders are encouraged toand quietly provide their employees with develop a list of five such goals to implement.opportunities for development that are Our consistent experience is that, based onpermanent. subordinate perceptions, individuals will be

seen as exhibiting more transformational

c... in both the worksho,n nd thefi~~..1 back .leadership within three or four months as a¥ a ~ sesswns we encourage ult f. I ling th oals Th.

leaders to set challenging, specifIC, and achievable goals for resb o ti lInp' emen. t t es.ethg th ' taIS

exhibiti ngsnori"zc leade h . heha ., 0 serva on IS COnsIS en WI e me -

¥~'J" rs zp vwrs... analytic f"mding that goal-setting and

feedback programs typically result insubstantial and meaningful effect sizes

~y, individualized conside~tio~.is the (Guzzo et aI., 1985).abilIty of a leader to respond to IndIVIdual A key element in implementing thisneeds by "acting as a coach, mentor, teacher, program is the use of a training programfacilitator, confidant, and counselor" (Avolio, design that extends beyond the actual1999, p. 47). Making time to pay attention to "training" .Thus, approximately one monthindividual concerns is one of the key prior to each leader-training session webehaviors that results in leaders exhibiting collect subordinate ratings of leaders'individualized consideration. Indeed, the transformational leadership style and, whereleaders that we have worked with regularly appropriate, outcomes thought to bethat are rated highest on this dimension are associated with transformational leadership,typified by the "scheduling" of time to spend e.g., affective commitment (Barling et aL,in management by walking around They do 1996). These data are used to providenot resort solely to formal recognition feedback to leaders on their current use of athrough "employee of the month" awards. transformational leadership style and to

[359]

Kevin Kelloway and attitudes and motivation. Data are now Referen-Julian Barfing emerging that support this suggestion. .cesWhat we have learned about .AvoliO, B.J. (1999), Full Leadership Development.developing transformational For example, BarlIng et al. (2000) found that Buildi ng the Vital r;o . 0 '. .

, ..rorces In rganzzatlOnsleaders employees affective commitment to the Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks C .

leadership & Organization organization, trust in management and sense Bamberger, P. and Meshoulam I (2000') ~.Development Journal '" .' ..uman

21/7 (2000) 355-362 of group cohesIon medIated the relationships Resource Strategy: Formulation,

between perceptions of supervisors' Implementation and Impact, Sagetransformational leadership and group Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.performance. In a sample of university Bandura, A. (1977), A Social Learning Theory,

Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJathletes, Charbonneau et al. (2000) noted that Bark R A (1997) "H '. ' .er, ..,ow can we tram leaders if

athletes' intrinsic motivation mediated the we do not know what leadersh l' p IS.?" H., umanrelationship between coaches' Relations, Vol. SO, pp. 343-62.transformational leadership and athletic Barling, J- and Mendelson, M.B. (1999), "Parents'performance. These results suggest that job insecurity affects children's gradetransformational leaders are successful to performance through the indirect effects ofthe extent that they foster critical employee beliefs in an unjust world and negativeattitudes. mood", Journal of Occuptional Health

Our observations during and experience Psychology, Vol. 4, pp. 347-55.~~

tra .. d ~'eedb k' . I d Barling, J., DuPre, K.E. and Hepburn, C.G. (1998),

II urn, mmg an J.' ac sess:ons ea us "Effects of parents' job insecurity on

to speculate on a causal mechanISm through children's work beliefs and attitudes"which leadership training indirectly Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. &3,influences subordinate performance (see pp.I12-18.Figure 5). First, we posit that leadership Barling, J_, Kelloway, E.K. and Bremermann, E.H.training should convince leaders that they (1991), "Preemployment predictors of unioncan make a difference. This would raise attitudes: the role of family socialization andleaders' self-efficacy beliefs, which would work beliefs-, Journal of Applied Psychology,I d d .Vol. 76, pp. 725-31.ea to greater effort an persIStence Barling, J., Moutinho, S. and Kelloway, E.K.

(Bandura, 1977). In turn, subordinates' self (2000), "Transformational leadership andefficacy is enhanced by having a leader who group performance: the mediating role ofexemplifies the characteristics of affective commitment-, manuscripttransformational leadership. Similarly, submitted for publication.having a leader who behaves in a Barling, J., Weber, T. and Kelloway, E.K. (1996),tranformational manner will raise "Effects of transformational leadershipsubordinates' sense of group cohesion, training on attitudinal .and f~cial

",' outcomes: a field experIment , Journal ofmtrmsic motivation, and dllective Applied Psychology, Vol 81, pp. 827-32.commitment. It is these enhanced employee Barling, J., Zacharatos, A. and Hepburn, C.G.attitudes that lead to higher levels of (1999), "Parents' job insecurity affectsperformance. Although our investigations to children's academic performance throughdate support these suggestions, identifying cognitive abilities-, Journal of Appliedand confmning these critical paths remains a Psychology, Vol 84, pp. 437-44.task for future research. Our results and Bass, B.M. (1985), Leadership and Peiformanceexperience to date suggest that this is a task ~nd Expectations, Basic Books, New York,

well worth pursuing, and one which has Bass, B..M. (1990), "From transactional tosubstantial implications for organizations. transformational leadership: learning to

share the vision-, Organizational Dynamics,FIgure 5 Vol 18 No.3, pp. 19-36.Hypothesized links between leadership training and perfonnance Bass, B.M. (1998), Transformational Leadership:

Industry, Military and Educational Impact,Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

Burke, M.J. and Day, R.M. (1986), "A cumulativestudy of training-, Journal of AppliedPsychology, Vol 71, pp. 232-65.

Bycio, P., Hackett, R.D. and Allen. J.S. (1993),"Further assessment of Bass's (1985)conceptualization of transactional andtransformational leadership", Journal ofApplied psydwlogy, Vol 00, pp. 468-78.

Carless, SA (1900), "D1scrI~t validity oftransfOrmational_ as ~ by

~~~'-" -;,,~,~~ T~ [361.]

..T

_r the MLQ", Journal of Occupational and Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1967), "Evaluation of training",Ke~in Kell,:,way and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 71, pp. 353-8. in Craig, R.L. and Bittel, L.R. (Eds), Training

~~~ ~;r~~~e learned about Charbonneau, D., Harling, J. and Kelloway, E.K. and Development Handbook, McGraw.Hill,developing transformational (~), "Transfonnationalleadership and New York, NY, pp. 87-112.leaders sports perfonnance: the mediating role of Kirkpatrick, S.A. and Locke, E.A. (1996), "DirectLeadership & Organization intrinsic motivation", Journal of Applied and indirect effects of three core charismatic

~/~(~~~ ~~~2 Social Psychology, (in press). leadership components on performance andConger, J.A. and Kanungo, R.N. (1987), "Toward a attitudes", Journal of Applied Psychology,

behavioral theory of charismatic leadership Vol. 81, pp. 36-51.in organizational settings", Academy of Koh, W.L., Steers, R.M. and Terborg, J.R. (1995),Management Review, Vol. 12, pp. 637-47. "The effects oftransfonnationalleadership on

Davenport, T .H., Jarvenpaa, S.L. and Beers, M.C. teacher attitudes and student perfonnance in(1996), "Improving knowledge work Singapore", Journal of Organizationalprocesses", Sloan Management Review, Behavior, Vol. 16, pp. 319-33.VoL 37, pp. 53-65. Locke, E.A., and Latham, G.P. (1990), A Theory of

Fiedler, F. (1996), "Research on leadership Goal Setting and Task Performance, Prentice-selection and training: one view of the Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.future", Administrative Science Quarterly, Lowe, K., Koreck, K.G. and Sivasusbranabiam, N.VoL 41, pp. 241-50. (1996), "Effectiveness correlates of

Gordon, J. (1985), "Games managers play", transfonnationalleadership: a meta-analyticTraining, July, pp. 30-45. review", Leadership Quarterly, VoL 7,

Guzzo, R.A, Jette, R.D. and Katzell, R.A. (1985), pp. 385-425."The effects of psychologically based Parker, S.K (1998), "Enhancing role breadthintervention programs on worker self-efficacy: the roles of job enrichment andproductivity: a meta.analysis", Personnel other organizational interventions", JournalPsychology, VoL 38, pp. 275-91. of Applied Psychology, Vol 83, pp. 835-52.

Hater, J.J. and Bass, BM. (1988), "Superio~' PinaL R, Schreisheim, C.A. and Williams, E.S.evaluations and subordinates' perceptions of (1999), "Fairness perceptions and trust astransformational and transactional mediators for transformational andleadership", Journal of Applied Psychology, transactional leadership: a two-sampleVol 73, pp. 695-702. .study", Journal of Management, VoL 25,

Hochman. B., Kelloway, E.K. and Harling, J. pp.897-933.(~), "The effect of charisma and Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B. andintellectual stimulation on task perfonn~ce: Bommer, W.H. (1996), "Transfonnationalan experimental investigation", manuscnpt leader behaviors and substitutes forin preparation. ..leadership as detenninants of employee

House, R.J. (1977), "A 1976 theory of charISmatIc satisfaction, continent, trust andleadership", in ~unt, J.G. ~d Larson, L.L. organizational citizenship behaviors",(Eds), LeadershIP: The Cuttmg Edge, Southern Journal of Management, Vol 22, pp. 259-98.illinois University Press, Carbondale, IL, RosenthaL R. (1968), Pygmalion in the Classroom:pp. 189-207. .Teacher Expectations and Pupils' Intellectual

Howell, J.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1993),. Development, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, NY."Transformational leadership, transactional Saari, L., Johnson, T.R., McLaughlin, S.D. andleadership, locus of ~ntrol, and sup~rt for Zimmerly, D.M. (1988), "A survey ofinnovation: key predictors of consolidated. management education practices in USbusiness-unit performance", Journal of companies", Personnel Psychology, VoL 41,Applied Psychology, VoL 78, pp. 891-902. 741.3

Howell, J .M. and .Fros~ P.J. (1989): ~ laboratory Sos:J.J. ~d Godshalk, V.M. (2000), "Leadershipstudy of charismatic l~dershiP , ..styles mentoring functions and job-relatedOrganizational Behavwr and Human DeclSwn stress~ a conceptual model and preliminaryProcesses, VoL 43, pp. 243-69. study" Journal of Organizational Behavior,

Kelloway, E.K an~ ~ling, J. (~),""Knowledge VoL 2{, pp. 365-00.work as organizational behavIor, .Whetten D A and Cameron, KS. (1995),International Journal of Management Reviews ' '.'

men! SkUls 3rd ed Developmg Manage ,.,(in press). ) Harper Collins, New York, NY.

Kelloway, E.K., Harling, J. and Helleur, J. ~~, Za h tog A Harling J and Kelloway, E.K."Enhancing transfonnationalleadershlp: the c ara ,., , .

d ftiA"'~ f.." The (2000), "Development an e ""'" 0~~:=g ~~=~i Development transfo~tionalleader:shiP in adolescents",Journal, VoL 21 No.3, pp. 145-9. Leadershlp Quarterly, (m press).

~-