Writing a Scientific Paper

There are two reasons why you should learn how to write good reports of your science projects.

1. by putting your work into words, you will gain a better understanding of your project.

2. knowing you are going to write a report of your project and what should be included in the report will help you plan and conduct the project. You will have to apply the same scientific method - the planned, orderly procedures - in writing, as you do in your science work.

A paper on a scientific or technical

subject necessarily consists of:

a) a report of facts

b) an interpretation of facts

c) a combination of a report and an

interpretation.

(1) The method of writing is governed by many

conditions, including the nature of the

subject, the purpose of the article, the

characteristics of the writer, and the interests

of the probable readers. No set method or

arrangement will be suited to all kinds of

papers.

(2) It is important that the plan of the

composition be made very clear to the

reader. The main topics and their

subdivisions should be plainly indicated. In

this respect scientific writing differs from

literary composition.

(3) A scientific paper is intended to be studied

and used as reference; it is not merely to be

read. Hence literary devices should be

subordinated if they interfere with clearness.

The plan should be self-evident throughout

the composition.

The TitleThe Title

A good title will distingush your project report

from all others which have to do with the

same general area of study. Titles of scinetific

reports should convey important information

rather than show off the author's cleverness.

AbstractAbstract• The abstract is a brief condensation of the

whole paper.

Abstract is a summary of the report that follows thetitle page (in geosciences, 300-500 words is rathercommon). This summary should include in oneparagraph a statement of the purpose of the project,general methods or procedures used, and principalfindings and conclusions. The purpose of an abstractis to give the reader enough information for him todecide whether or not to read the whole report.

Introduction Introduction (& background information)(& background information)

This section should give the reader enough

information to be able to understand the history

and the importance of your problem. It will often

include a review of other people's findings. If well

written, this section will explain your motives for

undertaking the project and will stimulate the

reader. In short, this section contains:

「寫作教學中心」預訂於 3/11（週五）辦理本學期第一場演講（訊息如下）。歡迎各位踴躍報名https://info2.ntu.edu.tw/register/flex/main.html?actID=20111260_01&sesID=1 。

時間： 2011年 3月 11日下午 2： 20 - 4： 20講題： The Beginning is Half of the Whole: Writing Great Introductions     講員：Marc Anthony（安馬克）地點：共同教室 204

◎演講摘要

This seminar examines approaches to writing the introduction for research.   It is widely recognized that writing introductions is slow, difficult and troublesome for both native as well as non-native speakers.  Indeed, apart from the abstract, the introduction is often delayed to the last stage of the writing process, so daunting it is for many researchers to write.

A key concern of writing a good introduction is that it serves to “sell” the rest of the article.  If readers do not understand what the writer is researching, they will not be very interested in reading further.  A good introduction clearly establishes the territory of the research and grabs the audience’s attention, encouraging them to read further.

A key area we will examine in this seminar is the “moves” or rhetorical explanations that are commonly found in introductions.  These include how to express the claim of centrality in the research, and the language of defining and occupying your niche, or the research gap, that exists in the particular area.

To understand all this, we will use several comparable examples from top-tier journals and learn how to master the introduction by examining the stylistic choices of several published researchers.

Additionally, we will take some time to clarify the use of tenses when citing the literature.

A. Nature of the problem; its state at the

beginning of the investigation.

B. Purpose, scope, and method of the

investigation.

C. Most significant outcome of the

investigation; the state of the problem at

the end of the investigation.

(this part is not always there)

The ProblemThe Problem

• If your report is based on the study of specific

problem, the problem should be clearly stated or

defined. You should tell whether you are searching

for or testing hypotheses, suggesting a theory, or

merely reporting some observations to be made

under clearly specified conditions.

• The best reports will include a discussion of the

relationship between the problem and existing

theories.

HyHypotheses to be testedpotheses to be tested

• If one or a series of experiments is being

reported, all hypotheses being tested should

be stated. This section may also include a

discussion of what the possible experimental

results will mean in terms of accepting or

rejecting the hypotheses.

Experimental Experimental proceduresprocedures

1. Anyone who reads your report should, with

the proper materials and facilities, be able

to repeat your experiment or observations

and obtain similar results. Therefore, you

must describe in detail all of the equipment

and conditions (T, P, etc.).

2. Photographs and drawings can be used as well as

words. Every step in your procedure should be

carefully explained. If you discover that some

method of doing something will not work, mention

it so that others will not repeat your mistake. In

brief:

(a) Description of the equipment and materials employed.

(b) Description of the experiments. Explanation of the way in which

the work was done. (Give sufficient detail to enable a competent

worker to repeat your experiments. Emphasize the features that are

new.)

Result (data) & ObservationsResult (data) & Observations

• Presentation and description of the results.

• Numerical data such as measurements and

other statistics are best presented in the

form of tables and figures.

Discussion of resultsDiscussion of results (Analysis and Interpretation of Data or Observations)

• In simple, short reports, this section may

sometimes be included with the preceding one. The

analysis of numerical data may include graphs and

scattergrams. Statistical methods may be used to

discover relationships. Non-mathematical

observations should be analyzed and interpreted in

terms of the hypotheses that were being tested. In

other words,

a. Main principles, causal relations, or generalisations that are shown by the results.

b. Evidence (as shown by your data) for each of the main conclusions.

c. Exceptions and opposing theories, and explanations of these.

d. Comparison of your results and interpretations with those of other workers.

ConclusionsConclusions

• In this section, each hypothesis should be re-

examined and rejected if the data show it be wrong.

Hypotheses which are supported by the research can

be tentatively accepted for further testing. You will

seldom be able to fully accept a hypothesis.

• In earth science papers, this section is commonly

presented concisely and in a style of point-by-point.

It is sufficiently different from « abstract » in format.

Implications & RecommendationsImplications & Recommendations

• In this next-to-last section of your report, you should

discuss any meaning your research may have for a

better understanding of a broad area of science. You

should also include a discussion of any new

problems (or revision of hypothesis) that have been

suggested by your study. Never try to draw illogical

connections between your research results and

unrelated areas of interest and study.

• In earth sciences, this section is often included in

« Conclusions »

AcAcknowledgementsknowledgements

The order of acknowledgement generally follows this rule:

1. The persons who have helped you carry out this

research (help you in generating ideas through

discussion, producing data, etc.).

2. The persons who have reviewed your paper and

provided comments and suggestions.

3. The organisations which provided financial support

to your research.

4. Contribution number of your research institute.

Reference (or Bibliography)Reference (or Bibliography)

• You should strictly follow the style imposed by each individual journal.

• If you are a young researcher or student, I highly recommend you to use « EndNote » software to build up your own bibliography. This will save you a lot of time in the research and/or preparation of a scientific paper.

General Elements of Scientific WritingGeneral Elements of Scientific WritingContent Aim Application

TitleA short phrase that summarizes the entire topic for the convenience of reading, cataloguing, indexing and referencing

All kinds of papers and reports

Title pageThe page, contains the title of paper, its authors and their affiliations, and the name of the corresponding author and its addressees including e-mail

Long articles

Authorship and affiliation

Give the author his due credit and responsibility for the research, for the convenience of cataloguing, indexing and referencing

All kinds of papers and reports

Abstract

A shortened form of the article, giving only the most important facts or arguments to help reader understand and assess the paper, or help him decide whether the paper is the one he needs, and whether he should read it through.

Parts of papers, reports, especially

journal articles

KeywordsHelp computer system provide indexing functionality and abstracts of articles

Journal articles

Acknowledge-ments

A short paragraph in which the writer names people or other organizations that have helped in completing the research work and writing the paper

Generally required

ContentsThe list of items or parts contained in an article, with the number of the page they begin on

A longer article or paper should have an

index page

List of illustrations

Make separate lists for figures as well as tables and their corresponding page numbers for the convenience of referencing

Articles with many figures and tables

Glossary of terms and

abbreviations

Provide a list of specialized, technical, or abbreviated terms with their meanings which occurred in the paper for the convenience of referencing

Articles with many specialized terms,

symbols & abbreviations

IntroductionIntroduce the background of the paper, explain its theme and goal, and give information about its contents for the preparation of further reading

All kinds of papers and reports

Background

Background is often a part of Introduction, but some papers treat them separately. If Background is to be separated from Introduction, Introduction will focus on the unveiling of the organizational structure, whereas Background on the introduction of history and goal about the research. Additionally, the goal can also be put in another section.

Depends

Materials and methods

Introduce the basic elements of the research and experiment, as well as the methods and means to perform qualitative and quantitative analyses. It should be detailed enough so a skilled laboratory technician could duplicate the experiment through each step described. This section should enable a reader with suitable background to exercise judgment on the rationality and effectiveness of the experiment results.

Required in a paper or report. Some articles call this

"procedure".

ResultsIntroduce the information one gets from a scientific experiment or medical test

Necessary for most papers and reports

except for application forms and

feasibility reports

DiscussionExplain, conclude, analyze, compare and summarize the results of the experiment, then lift it to the theory level

It is necessary for most papers and

reports except for application forms and

feasibility reports

ConclusionProvide answers to the all questions from the introduction, get final results mainly from full texts discussed

Applicable to papers and reports

Suggestions for future research

Based on research subjects indicate issues needed for further study

Parts of papers, reports

List of references

To prevent from plagiarism, acknowledge correlations of your work and opinions with other researchers

Citations of other’s articles, directly or

indirectly

AppendicesList all relevant data, facilities, codes, and charts to enhance the fluency and readability of the articles

When there are many complicated

supportive materials of the papers and

reports

IndexList key words in alphabetical orders, also state their page

numbers for the convenience of referencingLong articles

Facts about the author

Provide study background of the authors for the assessment of their articles.

Distinguished journals, papers

In summary,

1. Correct organization of the content of your paper.

2. Clear statement of the research aims and related theoretical basis.

3. Detailed explanation of the analytical or experimental procedures.

4. Presentation of the data and pertinent observations.

5. Discussion – Brief introduction of the items to be discussed.

6. Interpretation of your data. Over-interpretation should be avoided.

7. Admonition or caution of the limitation of the research.

8. Explanation of any results not compatible with prediction.

9. Incorporation of the comments and suggestions provided by the reviewers if the paper has gone through a review process.

10. Conclusions

Bon appétit !Bon appétit !