written
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How to Write Effective EnglishTRANSCRIPT
Copyright: Griffith Institute for Higher Education, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Australia, 2004.
Purpose of this Toolkit The Toolkits developed by members of the Griffith Graduate Project are intended primarily for academic staff. They offer an overview of some of the main issues related to developing students’ graduate skills during their degree studies. They draw heavily on existing literature and current practice in universities around the world and include numerous references and links to useful web resources. They are not comprehensive ‘guides’ or ‘how to’ booklets. Rather, they incorporate the perspectives of academic staff, students, graduates and employers on the graduate skills adopted by Griffith University in its Strategic Plan, 2003-2007 in the Griffith Graduate Statement: http://www.griffith.edu.au/ua/aa/plans/docs/strategicplan2003-2007.pdf
This toolkit, Written Communication Skills, focuses on how you can help students to write not only academic papers, but material for a range of different audiences and contexts.
This toolkit, together with others in the series including: Analysis and Critical Evaluation; Information Literacy; Oral Communication; Professional Skills; Problem Solving; and Teamwork;
can also be accessed on the Web at: http://www.griffith.edu.au/centre/gihe/griffith_graduate
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able of contents
Table of contents
Why your students need effective written communication skills ............................ 1
Definition............................................................................................................................................. 1
The need for written communication skills..................................................................................... 1
The six ‘C’s of effective writing ........................................................................................................ 1
Griffith Online Writing Skills Course .............................................................................................. 2
What employers, graduates and students say about written communication skills................................................................................................................................ 3
Employers’ comments........................................................................................................................ 3
Graduates’ and students’ comments ................................................................................................ 4
Research findings ................................................................................................................................ 4
Teaching tips—How to develop your students’ written communication skills................................................................................................................................ 5
How to develop students’ writing skills ........................................................................................... 5
Structuring the writing task ............................................................................................................... 6
Structuring the writing process ......................................................................................................... 7
Writing skills ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Inclusive language............................................................................................................................. 10
Assessing written communication ............................................................................ 11
Provide clear criteria......................................................................................................................... 11
Criteria sheets .................................................................................................................................... 12
Peer review......................................................................................................................................... 13
The terminology................................................................................................................................ 15
When assessing student writing ...................................................................................................... 16
Principles of effective written communication skills............................................... 18
Writing Skills...................................................................................................................................... 18
Where to go for help.................................................................................................... 19
Contact ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Additional resources................................................................................................... 21
Print resources................................................................................................................................... 21
Web resources ................................................................................................................................... 22
Student handouts ........................................................................................................ 23
What employers, graduates and students say about written communication skills.............................................................................................................................. 25
Checklists for reviewing and monitoring your writing ............................................ 27
Understanding the terminology used in assignments ............................................ 29
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Referencing.................................................................................................................. 31
A sample criteria sheet for assessing students’ written work ............................... 33
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hy students need effective comm
unication skills
Why your students need effective written
communication skills
Definition
Written communication is the ability to use the conventions of disciplinary discourse to communicate effectively in writing with a range of audiences, in a variety of modes (e.g., persuasion, argument, exposition), as context requires, using a number of different means (e.g., graphical, statistical, audio-visual and technological).
The need for written communication skills
Students need to write effectively to communicate with their peers, lecturers, professional colleagues and employers. They are not always experienced writers when they enter university and they don’t always receive formal teaching in written communication while doing their undergraduate degrees.
This Toolkit is intended to provide some useful suggestions, strategies and checklists to help your students improve their writing skills.
Good communication skills are at the top of the list of what potential employers look for in graduates. The vast majority of business transactions involve written communication of some kind. Employers of graduates often express concern that students graduate with inadequate basic written communication skills. It is generally expected that university graduates have good literacy skills that can transfer into various work contexts, but research shows that this is not always the case.
The six ‘C’s of effective writing
“Effective business correspondence yields results because it achieves two basic objectives.
First, it conveys a clear and unambiguous message to the reader and second, it produces goodwill in that reader. To achieve these two objectives, the writer must write:
clearly:
coherently;
concisely;
correctly; with
courtesy; and
confidence.
These characteristics are the result of careful planning, writing in plain English, and critical editing.”
Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook, (3rd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall, p.186.
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Griffith Online Writing Skills Course
This online course was developed by Dr Marilyn Ford to improve students’ writing skills.
The course is broken into three self-paced components, which cover basic grammar and writing skills.
Some disciplines use this course as a zero credit point requirement, either prior to graduation, or as a pre-requisite for other subjects.
The resource consists of:
lessons;
examples of errors from student writing with suggested revisions;
pdf files that contain the information from the lessons; and
quizzes.
Visit:
http://www.cit.griffith.edu.au/~mf/wrsk/wrsk.html
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mployers, graduates and students
What employers, graduates and students
say about written communication skills
Employers’ comments
“Our biggest issue is writing skills. Graduates need to be able to write a report. All of our outputs are written. [They] also need good oral communication skills and fundamental confidence in their ability to be able to support what is being written. However, an academic writing style is completely different from [what] we need in practice. It is the largest failing, without question, from our point of view. What the university can do to improve that is to give the opportunity for the practical application of ‘real world’ writing skills during course work. Not necessarily in a work placement environment, but actually as part of the course work. There is a big difference between the way you write a report compared with a discussion paper on criminological theory.”
(Employer of Griffith Criminology and Criminal Justice Graduates, 2001)
“At the risk of making a generalisation, many science graduates are not as strong in the written area as they could be. With competition for jobs so strong in the science industry, graduates cannot afford to lose ground in any area and poor spelling and grammar [are areas] where it is easy to lose ground. If you send in a poorly written/spelt resumé (to us or any potential employer), you are going to be behind the eight-ball from the start.”
(Employer of Griffith Science Graduates, 2001)
“Students need to realise that there are different forms of communication suited to different settings. I had a student who had done a Law degree and who came to work with me and was giving me the sorts of notes you would put down in a brief, but not a piece that would communicate with the audience. Different contexts require different types of written communication.”
(Employer of Griffith Law Graduates, 2003)
“As an employer, I expect to see graduates who can write, spell and put a report together that is literate, meaningful and properly researched. That is a fundamental skill but one that, we are disappointed to say, we don’t always see.”
(Employer of Griffith Engineering Graduates, 2003)
“Written communication skills are extremely important. People are becoming too familiar these days with email and text message communication. Graduates need to appreciate that we’re still looking for well-developed, formal, written communication skill.”
(Employer of Griffith Accounting Graduates, 2004)
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Graduates’ and students’ comments
“When you are writing at uni you tend to write in a format that lecturers expect. But when you get out in the workforce you are actually writing for a different kind of population and you can’t approach it [as if] you are writing a prac or an assignment.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2002)
“My written communication skills are constantly improving at uni because I receive feedback on my written assignments, which helps me to make improvements on my writing style. I find that my writing skills are very useful in my part-time work because I have to write lots of memos to my manager to express all sorts of details about the shift. I am able to write these in a concise and informative manner, which is appreciated by my manager.”
(Griffith student)
“In the courses I’ve done, we’ve been taught to always ask ourselves: ‘From what point of view am I writing this? Who is going to read this?’ ”
(Griffith student)
Research findings
“Literacy skills and written business communication skills were rated as being very important by the employers participating in an AC Nielsen research project conducted in Australia in 1999. It was found that job applicants who had poor skills in this area did not fare well when seeking positions.”
AC Nielsen Research Services. (1999). Employer Satisfaction with Graduate Skills. Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Canberra: AGPS. http://www.dest.gov.au/archive/highered/eippubs/eip99-7/eip99_7pdf.pdf
“Effectively, we are looking for people who can write in almost a bullet-point form. We are no longer really looking for people who can write wonderfully flowing twenty-five page documents, which take two hours to read.”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., and Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational Change and Student Attributes. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002: http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
“Employers want graduates who can write for a variety of audiences. Graduates may be experienced in producing academic texts such as essays, laboratory reports and dissertations, but they are not always proficient in other forms of written communication, especially business communication.”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., and Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational Change and Student Attributes. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002: http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
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eaching tips
Teaching tips—How to develop your
students’ written communication skills
How to develop students’ writing skills
Make writing enjoyable:
involve students in small group writing tasks in which everyone ‘has a voice,’ and ask them to analyse the differences in writing styles;
ask students to write for different audiences presenting similar material on the same topic, and ask them to analyse the differences;
invite guest lecturers to talk about writing in their fields or professions; and
use peer editing processes for formative assessment practice.
Do lots of writing:
introduce short writing tasks into lectures and tutorials and ask students to exchange work to check for clarity and understanding;
check students’ lecture notes from time to time to see whether they are getting the point;
ask students to write down their questions at the end of every lecture and collect – then answer the questions at the next lecture;
encourage students to write for ‘the hostile reader’–an imaginary person who will contest everything they say in their writing–this will help them consider and counter ideas from different perspectives; and
set writing assignments for the ‘real’ world and involve ‘real’ professionals in giving feedback on some sample assignments.
Vary the writing tasks:
introduce assignments that require students to write up interviews with practising professionals, or document field trips;
use reflective journals or diaries – ask students to use them as thinking aids (even if you don’t assess them, students learn how to analyse their own thoughts and experiences);
instead of formal essays, ask students to prepare an article for a disciplinary journal, using the journal’s formatting and referencing requirements; and
ask students to prepare written agendas and notes of meetings in teamwork projects.
Share examples of good student writing:
with students’ permission, circulate blind copies of good student writing and use peer review to analyse why it is good; and
involve students in setting criteria for written assignments.
Some relevant material is available at:
Teaching Students to Write Argumentative Essays: http://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/argueweb/frntpage.htm
Learning how to write more clearly: http://learnhowtowrite.com/
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Structuring the writing task
Setting the topic:
Do you set it? or
Do the students negotiate what they want to write about?
Narrowing it down:
Ask students to express in one sentence what their assignment is about (thesis statement);
And then another sentence on what they are going to say about the topic.
Gathering the evidence:
Suggest some useful sources;
Encourage students to follow leads in the lists of references they contain;
Show them how to evaluate resources on the basis of relevance and currency.
Writing:
Stress the importance of drafting, and re-drafting to clarify thinking;
Encourage peer review (it’s what happens in scholarly journals);
Use drafts to monitor logical flow of ideas and arguments.
Refining:
Give constructive feedback on drafts – it helps students refine their ideas and saves you time in the long run!
A good writing assignment:
Is set for a clear purpose that students understand; it has meaning for them; it’s relevant to their course or program; it has clearly defined criteria; it is focused on achieving a particular aim; it’s manageable in the time available; it lends itself to peer review before final submission; and it allows for incremental development of writing skills.
Encourage students to ask themselves, when starting to write an assignment:
Who am I writing this for?
Why am I writing it?
How will I write it?
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eaching tips
Structuring the writing process
This checklist will help students to monitor their own writing.
Checklist 1. In the essay introduction have you:
a. taken account of the interests of your reader and identified possible sources of resistance?
b. analysed what the question requires you to do?
c. defined the scope of your topic without being apologetic?
d. attracted the reader’s attention early, either using a thesis statement or in some other way?
e. included a clear, arresting thesis statement, or planned one to use later in the essay?
f. orientated your reader, either using a forecasting statement or another method?
2. In the body of your essay have you:
a. considered using an organising framework for your paragraphs?
b. ensured that each paragraph has one central idea?
c. ensured your paragraphs support the essay’s main idea or relate to it in some other way?
d. used appropriate evidence, illustrations and arguments to support each paragraph’s main ideas?
e. made links between preceding and following paragraphs and from the paragraphs to the essay’s main idea?
f. included a final statement that either sums up the central idea of each paragraph, suggests implications, or provides one or more of the linkages mentioned in the previous point.
3. In your conclusion have you:
a. summarised the main evidence in the essay?
b. linked ideas and evidence back to the main ideas?
c. provided rounding off, or evaluative comments, or pointed to implications or possible further developments?
d. dealt with any possible objections on the part of the reader?
e. avoided introducing unrelated material?
4. In the essay as a whole have you:
a. established and maintained an appropriate style and tone?
b. provided signposts for your reader through the essay’s structure, headings and transition words?
c. avoided overly complex words and used acronyms and jargon judiciously?
d. made conscious decisions about the use of first, second or third person pronouns, contractions, direct questions, run-on expressions and quotations?
e. used an appropriate level of grammatical correctness?
f. proofread your work several times for clarity, brevity, spelling and typographical errors?
Baker, E., Barrett, M. & Roberts, L. (2002). Working Communication. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons Australia, pp. 211-212.
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Encourage students to monitor their own writing by asking themselves:
Is it to the point?
Is the most important point obvious?
Have I used simple language?
Will my reader understand?
Is it brief?
Have I used the right tone?
Have I eliminated unnecessary jargon?
Are my paragraphs short?
Are the spelling and punctuation correct?
Will my reader know what to do next?
Adapted from: Alexander Communications: Style Guide: http://www.alexcommunications.com/style_guide.htm
Writing skills
Emphasise to students that it’s important to:
Use short sentences
Short sentences force you to break your ideas into simple understandable statements. Sentences should not be more than 20 words.
Use common words
Use words readers understand.
Use subject-verb-object constructions
It is easier to read sentences with simple subject –verb-object construction. For example it is easier to read ‘The man gave the ball to the boy’, than ‘The ball was given to the boy by a man.’
Use active verbs Active verbs are easy to read. Passive verbs are more difficult to understand. You can eliminate many passive verbs and shorten your sentences by avoiding ‘is, am, are, was, were, be, been and being.’
Make lists Use lists when you have several items you want to include in one sentence or paragraph such as:
‘My company gives me the following benefits:
Undercover parking
4 weeks paid vacation each year
Free day-care services.’
Reduce Remove all words which do not add meaning to your writing.
Edit and proof Read your writing to find errors. Eliminate unnecessary words and repetition. Read backwards to find spelling errors. Use a ruler beneath each line.
Adapted from: McCracken, M. (1998)
http:// www.LearnHowToWrite.com
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eaching tips
Idea generators
Idea generators can stimulate the writing process by helping the writer to:
Discover more ideas;
Discover new paths or slants;
‘Kick-start’ your brain;
Prevent or dissolve writer’s block; and
Manage time more effectively.
Idea generators include:
Brainstorming – write down all ideas about a topic. Do not censor or edit any idea.
Freewriting – just start writing anything about the topic without any regard to structure, spelling, or grammar.
Flow Charting – construct a formal chart with major points and arrows signifying flow of information.
Mapping – write topic in centre of page, and box it. Put other boxes around page and draw lines to link ideas to topic.
Fishboning – use a sequence of lines instead of mapping boxes. Use main line as subject, and draw branches, or bones, to show how other ideas link to main topic.
Petelin, R., & Durham, M. (1994). The Professional Writing Guide. Sydney: Longham Professional, pp. 35-41.
Thesis statement
“A thesis statement puts forward the point of view or organising idea for an essay.”
Davis, L., & McKay, S. (1996). Structures and Strategies: An Introduction to Academic Writing. South Melbourne: Macmillan, p. 76.
A thesis statement can be true or false, but must be able to be supported by evidence. Give students lots of practice in summarising an entire essay or written assignment into one thesis statement which is unambiguous, controversial and above all, ‘provable.’
Referencing
“Referencing is the familiar scholarly practice of referring to the works of other writers, where they have supplied you with source material or particular arguments or ideas. This may not be necessary when the same ideas are written about by many authors in the field, but when you are expressing an idea or argument in the words of a particular author you must acknowledge him/her as your source. Failure to do so is a form of plagiarism (passing off someone else’s work as your own) and it incurs heavy penalties.”
Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers.: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and Reports. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, p. 123.
Source material is documented for three main reasons:
To give credit to the original author;
To indicate the writer’s own research credibility; and
To enable others to locate the original work, or actual words.
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Conventions for referencing vary between disciplines, journals and publishing houses. The social sciences, for example, uses the American Psychological Association (APA), or Harvard conventions; while medicine, health science and the sciences use the Vancouver system; and the humanities uses the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) system. Examples of these systems can be found as follows:
Griffith University’s Library Research Tutorial provides valuable information for students and academic staff on all aspects of research and referencing: http://www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/library/home_lrt.html
Referencing: http://www.allenandunwin.com/estudy/referencing.asp
Library On-Line Tutorials: How to Acknowledge What You’ve Read: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/citecon.htm
Harvard Referencing Guide: http://www.shef.ac.uk/library/libdocs/hsl-dvc1.html
Harvard System of Referencing: http://www.lmu.ac.uk/lss/ls/docs/Harvard/Harvard.htm
Vancouver System of Referencing: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/medvex.htm
MLA System of Referencing: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/mlaex.htm
There are numerous electronic tools for managing research and information. Some of the more well-known are:
Procite: http://www.procite.com
Www.Biblioscape.com: http://www.griffith.edu.au/instraining/library/home_lrt.html
EndNote: http://www.EndNote.com
Inclusive language
Students should not use inappropriate words or expressions that exclude certain people, or groups of people, demean them either intentionally or unintentionally, or which rely on stereotyping.
Queensland University of Technology has a very useful website on the use of inclusive, non-discriminatory language, with suggestions for avoiding language that discriminates against people on the basis of race, gender, disability, ethnicity, etc.
http://www.qut.edu.au/pubs/equity/diversity/diversity.html
Other useful links are:
Writing: Inclusive Language – Grammatical Issues http://www.learnline.cdu.edu.au/studyskills/wr/wr_ws_pr_il_gi.html
Inclusive Language http://www.rhodes.edu/writingcenter/group_b/inclusive_language.html
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ssessing written com
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Assessing written communication
Provide clear criteria
General guidelines
Distinguish which features of the writing you need to assess
Are students expected to consider a topic? Generate ideas? Demonstrate understanding? Construct an argument? Ensure students know which elements are important in grading.
Make assignments and deadlines work for you
Structure and schedule writing tasks that won’t bury you. Assess students’ work in stages through drafts, peer review, group evaluation and self-assessment. Refuse to be the first human being to read their paper.
Expect excellence
Set high standards in advance. Ensure students are aware of grading criteria and can self-evaluate against those criteria. Set process deadlines for the assignment so students approach it as an on-going reflective experience and stay on task.
Assessing Writing. University Writing Centre, University of Central Florida http://www.uwc.ucf.edu/Faculty_Resources/fac_assessing_writing.html
Let students know criteria
Make sure students know the criteria you use to mark their written work. Ask students to hand in the criteria sheet with their assignment with their own grading of their work indicated on the sheet.
Let them see how their expectations and your expectations align.
Why not:
Use a ‘dummy’ assignment from the High Distinction and Fail ranges to illustrate strengths and weaknesses of student writing.
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Criteria sheets
Give students a criteria sheet like the one below to help them understand expected standards in written communication assignments.
HIGH DISTINCTION
Analysis and Conceptual
Clarity
Structure and Development
Research Base Grammar, Spelling,
Presentation
All content highly relevant to the topic and covers all key issues. Thorough and clear analysis. Demonstrates excellent understanding.
Assignment follows clear, logical sequence. Highly effective use of proportion and emphasis.
Extensive use of relevant research data and theory to support analysis. All sources referenced correctly.
Professional presentation throughout. No grammar or spelling mistakes.
DISTINCTION
Content consistently relevant to the topic and covers most key issues. Clear analysis demonstrates good understanding.
Assignment follows logical sequence. Demonstrates effective use of proportion and emphasis.
Evidence of extensive research. Some use of relevant research data and theory to support analysis. All sources referenced correctly.
Written style clear and effective. Consistent use of standard grammar and punctuation. Good presentation.
CREDIT
Majority of the content relevant to the topic but significant issues not covered. Analysis demonstrates limited understanding.
Structure and plan of assignment apparent but development and emphasis inconsistent.
Some evidence of research. Occasional use of relevant research data and theory to support findings. References mostly correct and in academic style.
Sentence construction generally correct. Some spelling and grammar errors. Written style wordy or repetitive. Acceptable presentation.
PASS
Less than half the content relevant to the topic. Major issues not covered at all. No analysis or demonstrates poor understanding.
Structure and plan only vaguely evident. Proportion and emphasis frequently inappropriate.
Demonstrates very limited research with very limited or no support material presented. No references or largely incorrect.
Frequent problems with sentence construction. Frequent spelling and grammar errors.
FAIL
Not relevant or only vaguely relevant to topic. No analysis.
No evidence of planned structure to the report. Proportion and emphasis consistently inappropriate.
Demonstrates minimal evidence of research. No use of research data or theoretical frameworks to support analysis. No references.
Written English so poor as to be barely understandable. Many spelling mistakes. Very poor presentation.
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Peer review
Devote at least one tutorial to peer review. Ask students to bring their ‘work in progress’ and in pairs or small groups, read their peers’ draft work and give constructive feedback on:
its ‘understandability’;
its structure;
its logic and flow;
its style (including paragraph and sentence construction, use of words, tone, consideration of the reader, etc.); and
its alignment with assignment criteria.
Benefits of peer review to students
Opportunities to improve drafts before it’s too late
The questions and comments from peers can prod a writer to deepen their approach to a subject.
Practice in reading for revision Talking constructively within the peer group about writing can strengthen students independent ability to read for revision.
Enhanced communication skills Talking with peers about their work can strengthen students’ ability to articulate specific reactions and suggestions, requiring a tricky balance of tact and clarity.
Increased confidence Students frequently believe classmates’ writing is much better than their own writing. When they see their peers’ first drafts they see it is safe to loosen up and take risks in developing ideas. They feel more confident in submitting their assignment for assessment.
Benefits of peer review to lecturers and tutors
Better writing and more time Students will all have been through one round of guided response leaving the instructor free to address higher-order issues such as idea development and direction.
High levels of student engagement Whether the workshops last five minutes or fifty, excitement is generated by peer activity. Students hold each other accountable and therefore invest more in their writing.
High evaluation ratings Students recognise the value of effectively conducted peer workshops.
Creating Effective Peer-Response Workshops. University of Minnesota. http://writing.umn.edu/tww/responding_grading/peer_workshop.htm
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Potential drawbacks of peer review
Careful pre-class planning.
Inadequate modelling, and an absence of modelling can cause groups to flounder, wasting valuable class time.
Peer response requires class time.
Whether using a five-minute pair model or a full-period group workshop model, class time is required.
Peer workshops are student centred.
Instructors need to temporarily remove themselves from the centre of attention. Students need to depend on each other for useful responses without unnecessary intervention, otherwise they will possibly resent the process.
Some students believe they work best alone.
Generally speaking, the academic world rewards independent work. Often, strong students may initially feel that the peer workshop is not going to offer them anything they couldn’t do better alone. Once they participate however, they often realise the value of diverse responses to their work.
Negative attitudes.
If students or instructors have been part of badly run groups, they may have a negative attitude to peer review. Allow reservations to be voiced early in the semester so appropriate mechanisms can be established to ensure success.
Creating Effective Peer-Response Workshops. University of Minnesota. http://writing.umn.edu/faculty/responding/peer_workshop.htm
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The terminology
Students need to understand what the terms used in assessment items mean. For example:
Reference list of commonly used terms in writing assignments
Account for Give an explanation as to why
Analyse 1. Examine closely
2. Examine x in terms of its components and show how they interrelate
Assess Decide the value of
Compare Discuss x and y in terms of their similarities and differences
Contrast Discuss x and y in terms of their differences
Critically evaluate
Articulate the arguments on both sides of an issue by arguing for and against
Criticise Make judgments or show the relative merits of an argument
Define 1. Explain (make clear) what is meant by
2. Use a definition or definitions to explore the concept of
Describe Present an account of
Differentiate Discriminate between two or more factors
Discuss 1. Make x your subject
2. Consider and offer some interpretation or evaluation of
Enumerate Give an item-by-item account of
Evaluate Give a reasoned appraisal or assessment of the facts or argument presented
Examine Inspect and report on in detail
Explain 1. Make clear the details of
2. Show the reason for, or underlying cause of, or the means by which
Illustrate Offer an example or examples to
1. show how/that
2. make concrete the concept of
Indicate Focus attention on
Interpret Explain or bring out the particular meaning
Outline Go through the main features of
Prove Show by logical argument
Review 1. Report the chief facts about
2. Offer a critique about
Summarise Provide a brief account or an abridged version
Adapted from: Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and Reports. John Wiley & Sons Australia: Brisbane, p.23. and Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook, (3rd ed.) Prentice Hall, NY.
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When assessing student writing
Look for:
evidence of understanding of the material;
links and transitions between ideas, sections and paragraphs;
conclusions that emerge from the evidence presented;
relevant and current references; and
evidence of thorough research.
Has the student:
used simple, short sentences;
used only the words necessary to convey meaning;
used acceptable grammar and syntax (sentence construction); and
used inclusive language?
Why not:
Enlist the help of an employer or professional in your field to give feedback on one or two written assignments.
You could give them the criteria which students were given for the assignment, but also ask them to give feedback from their own professional perspective. What works? What doesn’t? Why? Then present a summary of the employer’s feedback in class and expand on it by addressing some of the more frequently made ‘mistakes’, or weaknesses in student writing in that particular assignment.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is knowingly presenting the work or property of another person as if it were one’s own. In some cultures, summarizing or quoting the words or ideas of respected scholars is acceptable, or even desirable. In Australian universities, however, all such source material must be fully documented in all forms of academic writing.
Griffith University treats instances of plagiarism in students’ written work very seriously and imposes harsh penalties.
Examples of plagiarism include:
word for word copying of sentences or paragraphs from one or more sources which are the work or data of other persons (including books, articles, theses, unpublished works, working papers, seminar and conference papers, internal reports, lecture notes or tapes) without clearly identifying their origin by appropriate referencing;
closely paraphrasing sentences or paragraphs from one or more sources without appropriate acknowledgement in the form of a reference to the original work or works;
using another person’s ideas, work or research data without appropriate acknowledgement;
17
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSA
ssessing written com
munication
submitting work which has been produced by someone else on the student’s behalf as if it were the work of the student;
copying computer files in whole or in part without indicating their origin; and
submitting work which has been wholly or partially derived from another student’s work by a process of mechanical transformation. For example, changing variable names in computer programs.
Griffith University’s Policy on Academic Misconduct: http://www62.griffith.edu.au/policylibrary.nsf/azcategory/352f26aa1a1011e64a256bbb0062fd5f?opendocument
Discourage plagiarism
Avoid having students simply find answers. Encourage students to do their own thinking, not paraphrase the thinking of someone else. What are their thoughts and ideas on a given topic?
Ask questions which require students to make an inquiry or investigate.
Have students compile and turn in working bibliographies well in advance of the assignment dates. This will require students to begin research at an early date, avoiding the temptation for last minute information downloads.
Have students maintain a research log. This will note the databases and indexes searched, search dates, keywords and subjects used, and a summary of search results.
Preventing and detecting plagiarism. Staley Library, Millikin University. http://www.millikin.edu/staley/plagiarism.html
Detecting plagiarism – some clues:
Essay is off-topic, with oddly placed ‘on-topic’ paragraphs;
References are from books not available in your University. Check your library catalogue;
References are all five or ten years old, showing it may have been lifted from the Internet;
The assignment is beyond, or does not reflect the normal level of the student’s written work;
Use search engines. Insert a four to eight word distinctive phrase in full text search engines such as Google, AltaVista, HotBot or Northern Light;
Look for vocabulary not commonly used in this particular class; and
Unusual formatting, or a change in fonts within the assignment.
Adapted from Preventing and Detecting Plagiarism. Staley Library, Millikin University. http://www.millikin.edu/staley/plagiarism.html
and Dead Giveaways, Plagiarized.com. http://www.plagiarized.com/deadgive.html
18
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS P
rinci
ples
of e
ffect
ive
writ
ten
com
mun
icat
ion
skill
s
Principles of effective written
communication skills
Writing Skills
Effective writing is clear, concise and economical.
Students’ writing skills improve if they are provided with opportunities to:
understand the role of writing in the professions;
write often in a variety of formats;
share ideas of what makes good writing;
self-evaluate their writing in a structured manner; and
receive comprehensive feedback on their writing prior to submitting assignments.
Writing tasks
To ensure maximum benefit from written tasks, ensure that:
there is a wide variety of writing styles expected, not just essays;
assignments are relevant to students’ potential professions; and
students have access to methods of structuring the writing task.
Writing guidelines
Effective writing is a complex task. Make sure that students:
understand where to go for help with their writing;
take advantage of on-line writing courses such as http://www.cit.griffith.edu.au/~mf/wrsk/wrsk.html ;
understand how to write for the reader;
are well acquainted with referencing rules; and
have access to assistance for grammar, spelling and layout.
Assessing students’ written communication
When designing a writing assignment:
ensure that students understand the terminology you have used in creating the assignment;
consider which element of the writing is important in the assessment. Is it, for example, the generation of ideas, the ability to write a logical report?
give students the assessment criteria in advance;
make assignment deadlines work for you by expecting bibliographies, drafts, etc., prior to the final assignment date;
incorporate peer review into the process to improve the standard of writing;
design the task to make plagiarism difficult.
19
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSW
here to go for help
Where to go for help
Contact
The Griffith Graduate Project (Stage 6) Dr Gay Crebert Griffith Institute for Higher Education Griffith University Ph. (07) 3875 5981 Email: [email protected] Ms Carol-joy Patrick School of Microelectronic Engineering Griffith University Ph. (07) 3875 5007 Email: [email protected]
Learning Services Written communication is an area where the University has recognised that support is crucial. Learning Services has teams of learning advisers here to work with you. They can: advise you on teaching, learning and assessment strategies; and team teach with you in your lectures and tutorials. There are also services to which you can refer your students so that they can independently develop their written communication skills. These include: individual or small group consultations with a learning adviser; workshops; self-help resources. For more information on these services, visit: http://www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/
20
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS W
here
to g
o fo
r he
lp
Library Faculty Librarian Team Leaders Arts and Education Di Selzer [email protected] 338 21217 (Logan) 55528278 (Gold Coast) Business and Law Colette Smith-Strong [email protected] 387 57245 (Nathan) Health and Science Veronica Dawson [email protected] 387 57256 (Nathan)
Other academics Dr. Martin Bridgstock Senior Lecturer School of Science Griffith University Phone: (07) 3875 7549 Email: [email protected] Dr. Margaret Fletcher Researcher Centre for Applied Language, Literacy & Communication Studies Griffith University Phone: (07) 3875 6869 Email: [email protected]
21
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSA
dditional resources
Additional resources
This Toolkit draws on various print and web resources, which are acknowledged in text. Other useful resources are included in the following list.
Print resources
Baker, E., Barrett, M., and Roberts, L. (2002). Working Communication. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons Australia.
Burt, A. (2003). Write with Confidence: Solutions and Examples for Everyday Writing Needs. Oxford, UK: Howtobooks.
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks, S., and Yallop, C. (2000). Using Functional Grammar: An Explorers Guide. (2nd ed.). Macquarie University. National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Davis, L., and McKay, S. (1996). Structures and Strategies: An Introduction to Academic Writing. South Melbourne: Macmillan.
Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook (3rd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.
Field, M. (2003). Improve your Written English. Oxford, UK: Howtobooks.
Kane, T. S. (1983). The Oxford Guide to Writing: A Rhetoric and Handbook for College Students. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kohut, G., and Mcfarland Baxter, C. (1987). Business Communication: a Functional Perspective. Columbus: Merrill Pub. Co.
Lahiff, J., and Penrose, J. (1997). Business Communication: Strategies and Skills. N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Lehman, C., and DuFrene, D. (2002). Business Communication. Cincinnati, Ohio: South-Western.
McEvedy, R., and Wyatt, P. (1990). Developing Writing Skills. Melbourne: Nelson.
Oshima, A., and Hohue, A. (1997). Introduction to Academic Writing. (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Peacock, C. (1986). Teaching Writing. London: Croom Helm.
Petelin, R., and Durham, M. (1994). The Professional Writing Guide. Sydney: Longman Professional.
Peters, P. (1985) Strategies for Student Writers: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and Reports. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, Australia.
Thompson, N. (198 ). Written Communication. South Melbourne: Macmillan.
Thornton, G. (1980). Teaching Writing: The Development of Written Language Skills. London: Edward Arnold.
Treece, M. (1983). Communication for Business and the Professions. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.
White, E. (1985). Teaching and Assessing Writing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
22
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS A
dditi
onal
res
ourc
es
Web resources
Using Portfolios to Assess Student’s Writing http://www.berea.edu/cltcr/teaching_matters/tm_usingportfolios.htm
Peer Review of Writing http://www.berea.edu/cltcr/teaching_matters/lc_peer.htm
Teaching Writing in Engineering http://www.uic.edu/portfolio/writing/teachingportfolioforengineering.pdf
23
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSS
tudent handouts
Student handouts
A collection of ready to use resources associated with various aspects of facilitating, teaching and assessing written communication.
1. What employers, graduates and students say about written communication skills
2. Checklists for reviewing and monitoring your writing
3. Understanding the terminology used in assignments
4. Referencing
5. A sample criteria sheet for assessing written work
25
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSS
tudent handout—E
mployers, graduates and students
What employers, graduates and students say about written communication skills
Employers’ comments
“Our biggest issue is writing skills. Graduates need to be able to write a report. All of our outputs are written. [They] also need good oral communication skills and fundamental confidence in their ability to be able to support what is being written. However, an academic writing style is completely different from [what] we need in practice. It is the largest failing, without question, from our point of view. What the university can do to improve that is to give the opportunity for the practical application of ‘real world’ writing skills during course work. Not necessarily in a work placement environment, but actually as part of the course work. There is a big difference between the way you write a report compared with a discussion paper on criminological theory.”
(Employer of Griffith Criminology and Criminal Justice Graduates, 2001)
“At the risk of making a generalisation, many science graduates are not as strong in the written area as they could be. With competition for jobs so strong in the science industry, graduates cannot afford to lose ground in any area and poor spelling and grammar [are areas] where it is easy to lose ground. If you send in a poorly written/spelt resumé (to us or any potential employer), you are going to be behind the eight-ball from the start.”
(Employer of Griffith Science Graduates, 2001)
“Students need to realise that there are different forms of communication suited to different settings. I had a student who had done a Law degree and who came to work with me and was giving me the sorts of notes you would put down in a brief, but not a piece that would communicate with the audience. Different contexts require different types of written communication.”
(Employer of Griffith Law Graduates, 2003)
“As an employer, I expect to see graduates who can write, spell and put a report together that is literate, meaningful and properly researched. That is a fundamental skill but one that, we are disappointed to say, we don’t always see.”
(Employer of Griffith Engineering Graduates, 2003)
“Written communication skills are extremely important. People are becoming too familiar these days with email and text message communication. Graduates need to appreciate that we’re still looking for well-developed, formal, written communication skills.”
(Employer of Griffith Accounting Graduates, 2004)
26
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS S
tude
nt h
ando
ut—
Em
ploy
ers,
gra
duat
es a
nd s
tude
nts
Graduates’ and students’ comments “When you are writing at uni you tend to write in a format that lecturers expect. But when you get out in the workforce you are actually writing for a different kind of population and you can’t approach it [as if] you are writing a prac or an assignment.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2002)
“My written communication skills are constantly improving at uni because I receive feedback on my written assignments, which helps me to make improvements on my writing style. I find that my writing skills are very useful in my part-time work because I have to write lots of memos to my manager to express all sorts of details about the shift. I am able to write these in a concise and informative manner, which is appreciated by my manager.”
(Griffith student)
“In the courses I’ve done, we’ve been taught to always ask ourselves: ‘From what point of view am I writing this? Who is going to read this?’ ”
(Griffith student)
Research findings “Literacy skills and written business communication skills were rated as being very important by the employers participating in an AC Nielsen research project conducted in Australia in 1999. It was found that job applicants who had poor skills in this area did not fare well when seeking positions.”
AC Nielsen Research Services. (1999). Employer Satisfaction with Graduate Skills. Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Canberra: AGPS. http://www.dest.gov.au/archive/highered/eippubs/eip99-7/eip99_7pdf.pdf
“Effectively, we are looking for people who can write in almost a bullet-point form. We are no longer really looking for people who can write wonderfully flowing twenty-five page documents, which take two hours to read.”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., & Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational Change and Student Attributes. Accessed on the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002: http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
“Employers want graduates who can write for a variety of audiences. Graduates may be experienced in producing academic texts such as essays, laboratory reports and dissertations, but they are not always proficient in other forms of written communication, especially business communication…”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., & Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational Change and Student Attributes. Accessed on the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002: http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
27
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSS
tudent handout—C
hecklists
Checklists for reviewing and monitoring
your writing
Before you start, ask yourself:
1. For whom am I writing?
You need to consider your intended audience. Are you writing something for other students, lecturers/tutors, or a prospective employer? Once you have identified your audience you can tailor your writing to meet their expectations and background knowledge. This will enable you to decide what sort of information, what level of complexity, and how much detail is required. Is it worth doing?
2. Why am I writing?
What is the purpose of your writing? You may be explaining something, presenting an argument, an evaluation, a report, or merely a giving a description of some event or process. However, it is important to be clear about what you are doing and what impact you want it to have on the audience.
3. How am I going to write?
How will you go about organising your time in terms of planning, drafting and revising what you write? How will you structure material for maximum clarity and coherence?
Adapted from: Writing: Writing: Inclusive Language – Grammatical Issues http://www.learnline.cdu.edu.au/studyskills/wr/wr_ws_pr_il_gi.html
Checklist for reviewing and monitoring your writing 1. In the essay introduction have you: Tick taken account of the interests of your reader and identified possible sources of resistance?
analysed what the question requires you to do?
defined the scope of your topic without being apologetic?
attracted the reader’s attention early, either using a thesis statement or in some other way?
included a clear, arresting thesis statement, or planned one to use later in the essay?
orientated your reader, either using a forecasting statement or another method? 2. In the body of your essay have you: considered using an organising framework for your paragraphs?
ensured that each paragraph has one central idea?
ensured your paragraphs support the essay’s main idea or relate to it in some other way?
used appropriate evidence, illustrations and arguments to support each paragraph’s main ideas?
made links between preceding and following paragraphs and from the paragraphs to the essay’s main idea?
included a final statement that either sums up the central idea of each paragraph, suggests implications or provides one or more of the linkages mentioned in the previous point.
3. In your conclusion have you: summarised the main evidence in the essay?
linked ideas and evidence back to the main ideas?
provided rounding off or evaluative comments, or pointed to implications or possible further developments?
dealt with any possible objections on the part of the reader?
avoided introducing unrelated material? 4. In the essay as a whole have you: established and maintained an appropriate style and tone?
provided signposts for your reader through the essay’s structure, headings and transition words?
avoided overly complex words and used acronyms and jargon judiciously?
made conscious decisions about the use of first, second or third person pronouns, contractions, direct questions, run-on expressions and quotations?
used an appropriate level of grammatical correctness?
proofread your work several times for clarity, brevity, spelling and typographical errors?
Baker, E., Barrett, M. & Roberts, L. (2002). Working Communication. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons Australia, pp. 211-212.
29
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSS
tudent handout—T
erminology
Understanding the terminology used in
assignments
Reference list of commonly used terms in writing assignments
Account for Give an explanation as to why
Analyse 1. Examine closely
2. Examine x in terms of its components and show how they interrelate
Assess Decide the value of
Compare Discuss x and y in terms of their similarities and differences
Contrast Discuss x and y in terms of their differences
Critically evaluate
Articulate the arguments on both sides of an issue by arguing for and against
Criticise Make judgments, or show the relative merits of an argument
Define 1. Explain (make clear) what is meant by
2. Use a definition or definitions to explore the concept of
Describe Present an account of
Differentiate Discriminate between two or more factors
Discuss 1. Make x your subject
2. Consider and offer some interpretation or evaluation of
Enumerate Give an item-by-item account of
Evaluate Give a reasoned appraisal or assessment of the facts or argument presented
Examine Inspect and report on in detail
Explain 1. Make clear the details of
2. Show the reason for, or underlying cause of, or the means by which
Illustrate Offer an example or examples to
1. show how/that
2. make concrete the concept of
Indicate Focus attention on
Interpret Explain or bring out the particular meaning
Outline Go through the main features of
Prove Show by logical argument
Review 1. Report the chief facts about
2. Offer a critique about
Summarise Provide a brief account or an abridged version
Adapted from: Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and Reports. John Wiley & Sons Australia: Brisbane, p.23 and Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook (3rd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.
31
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSS
tudent handout—R
eferencing
Referencing
“Referencing is the familiar scholarly practice of referring to the works of other writers, where they have supplied you with source material or particular arguments or ideas. This may not be necessary when the same ideas are written about by many authors in the field, but when you are expressing an idea or argument in the words of a particular author you must acknowledge him/her as your source. Failure to do so is a form of plagiarism (passing off someone else’s work as your own) and it incurs heavy penalties.”
Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers.: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and Reports. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, Australia, p. 123.
Source material is documented for three main reasons:
To give credit to the original author;
To indicate the writer’s own research credibility; and
To enable others to locate the original work, or actual words.
Conventions for referencing vary between disciplines, journals and publishing houses. The social sciences, for example, use the American Psychological Association (APA), or Harvard conventions; medicine, health science and the sciences use the Vancouver system; and the humanities use the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) system.
Examples of these systems can be found as follows:
Web sites
Griffith University’s Library Research Tutorial, which provides valuable information for students and academic staff on all aspects of research and referencing:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/library/home_lrt.html
Referencing:
http://www.allenandunwin.com/estudy/referencing.asp
Library On-Line Tutorials: How to Acknowledge What You’ve Read:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/citecon.htm
Harvard Referencing Guide:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/library/libdocs/hsl-dvc1.html
Harvard System of Referencing:
http://www.lmu.ac.uk/lss/ls/docs/Harvard/Harvard.htm
Vancouver System of Referencing:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/medvex.htm
MLA System of Referencing:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/mlaex.htm
32
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS S
tude
nt h
ando
ut—
Ref
eren
cing
Electronic referencing tools
There are numerous electronic tools for managing research and information. Some of the more well-known are:
Procite:
http://www.procite.com/
Www.Biblioscape.com:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/instraining/library/home_lrt.html
EndNote:
http://www.EndNote.com
33
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLSS
tudent handout—S
ample criteria sheet
A sample criteria sheet for assessing
students’ written work
HIGH DISTINCTION
Analysis and Conceptual
Clarity
Structure and Development
Research Base Grammar, Spelling,
Presentation
All content highly relevant to the topic and covers all key issues. Thorough and clear analysis. Demonstrates excellent understanding.
Assignment follows clear, logical sequence. Highly effective use of proportion and emphasis.
Extensive use of relevant research data and theory to support analysis. All sources referenced correctly.
Professional presentation throughout. No grammar or spelling mistakes.
DISTINCTION
Content consistently relevant to the topic and covers most key issues. Clear analysis demonstrates good understanding.
Assignment follows logical sequence. Demonstrates effective use of proportion and emphasis.
Evidence of extensive research. Some use of relevant research data and theory to support analysis. All sources referenced correctly.
Written style clear and effective. Consistent use of standard grammar and punctuation. Good presentation.
CREDIT
Majority of the content relevant to the topic but significant issues not covered. Analysis demonstrates limited understanding.
Structure and plan of assignment apparent, but development and emphasis inconsistent.
Some evidence of research. Occasional use of relevant research data and theory to support findings. References mostly correct and in academic style.
Sentence construction generally correct. Some spelling and grammar errors. Written style wordy or repetitive. Acceptable presentation.
PASS
Less than half the content relevant to the topic. Major issues not covered at all. No analysis or demonstrates poor understanding.
Structure and plan only vaguely evident. Proportion and emphasis frequently inappropriate.
Demonstrates very limited research with very limited or no support material presented. No references or largely incorrect.
Frequent problems with sentence construction. Frequent spelling and grammar errors.
FAIL
Not relevant or only vaguely relevant to topic. No analysis.
No evidence of planned structure to the report. Proportion and emphasis consistently inappropriate.
Demonstrates minimal evidence of research. No use of research data or theoretical frameworks to support analysis. No references.
Written English so poor as to be barely understandable. Many spelling mistakes. Very poor presentation.
COMMENTS