z educaion germany 1919 1945 - corby technical school revision... · key question two ... part...

AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook of 116 © ZigZag Education, 2015

Germany 1919–1945 GCSE AQA A e-textbook

Teacher’s Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 2

Part One: The Nazi Rise to Power ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Overview of: The Nazi Rise to Power .................................................................................................................. 3

1.2 What were the weaknesses and strengths of Weimar democracy? .................................................................. 5 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................... 8 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 13 Key Question Three .......................................................................................................................................................... 19 Key Question Four............................................................................................................................................................ 23

1.3 Key Issue: How was Hitler able to come to power? ......................................................................................... 28 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 29 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 30 Key Question Three .......................................................................................................................................................... 36

Part Two: Control and Opposition ...................................................................................................................... 41

2.1 Overview of: Control and Opposition................................................................................................................ 41

2.2 How did Hitler create a dictatorship? ................................................................................................................ 42 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 43

2.3 How effectively did the Nazis control Germany in the years 1933–1945? .................................................... 48 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 49 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 56 Key Question Three .......................................................................................................................................................... 58

Part Three: German Economy and Society ........................................................................................................ 67

3.1 Overview of: German Economy and Society ..................................................................................................... 67

3.2 How much change did the Nazis bring about in German society? ................................................................. 68 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 68 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 71

3.3 How successful were the Nazis in rebuilding the German economy? ............................................................ 74 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 75 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 78

Part Four: Race and Youth ..................................................................................................................................... 84

4.1 Overview of: Race and Youth .............................................................................................................................. 84

4.2 How successful were the Nazis in influencing young people? ........................................................................ 85 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 86 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 91

4.3 How important in Germany were Nazis’ ideas on race? ................................................................................. 93 Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 94 Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 99

Part Five: Culture and Propaganda.................................................................................................................... 107

5.1 How did the Nazis change the cultural climate of Weimar Germany? ....................................................... 107 Key Question One........................................................................................................................................................... 108 Key Question Two .......................................................................................................................................................... 113

Zagig

ZEducation


Student’s Introduction

This e-textbook is divided into five parts in line with specification requirements:

1. The Nazis’ Rise to Power

2. Control and Opposition

3. German Economy and Society

4. Race and Youth

5. Culture and Propaganda

These resources have been designed primarily to focus teaching and learning towards specific

examination-based criteria. Their aim is to improve pupils’ key content knowledge and provide a wider

understanding of a key historical period in depth – Germany, 1919–1945. They also intend to provide

pupils with the historical skills and confidence to undertake more detailed and precise examination

answers. Resources have been developed around key ‘examination-style’ questions, which in turn have

been broken down into ‘bite-sized’ chunks, for easy access. To this end, the resource has been strongly

structured. Each section begins with an ‘Overview’ page, which highlights the key points you will need

to know. This provides a framework for you to organise your learning, and is also useful as a revision

tool. Each subsection/chapter has a further summary page, which outlines the key aspects from the

specification and the student learning objectives which are covered by the subsection. These allow you

to see in a visual format what is covered by the subsection/chapter and highlight key developments and

trends, which you must grasp to succeed in the exam. Each subsection has been styled around key

‘examination-style’ questions, which in turn have been broken down into ‘bite-sized’ chunks, for easy

access.

These questions are initially presented under the heading ‘Key Question’, providing all the

information you need to be able to tackle the question. The notes on each key question are followed by

activities, which help you really get to grips with what you have learnt and develop your empathetic

abilities. Armed with all the information and skills you need, you can then try the question, developing

your exam skills throughout the course.

I hope that they prove useful to all.

A McLeod, February 2015


Problem 2: Weak coalition

government struggled to

govern, whilst the President

could overrule parliament.

Problem 1: Left-wing ‘Spartacist

Uprising’ (1919) was crushed

by right-wing Freikorps.

The early Weimar Republic

was formed out of the chaos of

post-war Germany and

experiences many problems...

Previously the German Reich

(1871–1918) until Germany lost

WW1 and the Kaiser

abdicated.

Problem 3: Treaty of Versailles

conditions were very harsh on

Germany.

The Early Years: The

Weimar Republic between

1919 and 1923

Problem 4: The right-wing

Kapp Putsch (1920) lost

support after the left-wing

general strike.

Origins of the Nazi Party

(NSDAP): 1919 Hitler joined

Nationalist Party (DAP). 1920

became Nazi Party. ‘Twenty-

Five Point Programme’ –

future policies.

Key Event 1: French troops

invaded and occupied the

Ruhr, demanding reparations

payments. German

government organised passive

resistance, leading to...

Key Events of 1923...

Key Event 3: Hitler’s

unsuccessful Munich Putsch

Recovery between 1924 and

1929

Stresemann as Chancellor in

1923: called off Ruhr passive

resistance, repaid reparations

and introduced new currency.

Challenges and Recovery:

The Impact of Economic

Problems 1923–1929

Stresemann as Foreign Minister

(1924–1929): agreed fairer

reparations, joined the League

of Nations and improved the

economy.

Key Event 2: German

government printed more

currency to pay strikers’

wages, causing hyperinflation

and contributing to...

Increasing Support for the

Nazi Party

Support for Nazism from

different social groups in the

years to 1929

Strengths: received notoriety

after ‘Munich Beer Hall Putsch’,

Mein Kampf and party

reorganised.

Weaknesses: performed badly in

elections, whilst economic

conditions and living standards

improved, so many ignored

extreme political parties.

In the mid-1920s, Hitler’s Nazi

Party was still a small political

party. However, by 1932 they had

gained the most votes in parliament.

This was due to...

...the Wall Street Crash of 1929

(the Great Depression). Hitler

argued that Germany had over

relied on other countries and

that the government was weak.

Nazism appealed to many

Germans afraid of job losses and

pay cuts.

...a well-structured Nazi Party,

using propaganda, huge rallies

and the SA/SS to intimidate

opponents.

Section 1: The Nazi Rise to Power

1.1 Overview of: The Nazi Rise to Power


Origins of the Nazi Party (NSDAP)

1919 – Hitler met and was impressed by Drexler, leader of the DAP.

Early members included nationalistic ex-soldiers and Freikorps and Germans

angry with the conditions of the Versailles Treaty.

1920 – Hitler played major role in changing the party to NSDAP (National

Socialist German Workers’ Party / Nazi Party).

‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’ – this outlined nationalistic and racist Nazi

policies that they intended to advance in the future.

Nazi Party strengthened by mid-1920s – SA and SS (private armies) formed.

A young soldier called

Adolf Hitler was

surprised and angered

by Germany’s surrender

in the First World War.

Nazi seats in 1932 Elections: June=37% / Nov=33%.

No Nazi majority (i.e. 51%) meant Nazis could be

outvoted.

Losing 4 seats meant people were voting against Nazis.

Nazi Party nearly bankrupt; urgently needed more

money. Hindenburg made Hitler Chancellor in January.

1933.

By 1932, the Nazi Party

had the highest amount of

votes, but Hindenburg

refused to make Hitler

Chancellor...

Hitler’s Role

Strengths:

Successfully used democratic process to dismantle it.

Leadership, decision-making and oratory skills.

Weaknesses:

Never gained full support of all Germans.

Opposition to Hitler never completely ceased.

More involved in foreign policy and rearmament

than in domestic affairs.

Often short-tempered, which made delivering bad

news a difficult task.

Goebbels’ Role

Keen and trusted

Hitler supporter.

Became Nazi

Propaganda

Minister.

Effective writing

and speaking

skills.

Röhm’s Role Ex-Freikorps

supporter of

Munich Beer Hall

Putsch.

Built up SA in

early 1920s.

Executed in 1934

after internal

power struggle.

The Importance of Hitler and Other Leaders in the Success of the Nazis

Overview of: The Nazi Rise to Power


1.2 What were the weaknesses and strengths of Weimar democracy?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES – YOU WILL NEED TO:

Understand the changes that occurred in Germany following the First World War

Demonstrate the reasons why the Treaty of Versailles was so unpopular in Germany

Explain why the Weimar Republic experienced so many problems between 1919 and 1923

Understand the ideas behind the formation of the Nazi Party and what they set out to achieve

Explain what Hitler set out to achieve during the Munich Putsch and the consequences on the future of the Nazi Party

Describe Stresemann’s role in Weimar Republic successes between 1923 and 1929

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The nature of Weimar democracy

Post-war economic conditions as a cause of discontent

Revolts, rebellions and opposition to Weimar, 1919–1923

The origins and history of National Socialism, 1919–1925

The Munich Putsch, 1923 Stresemann and Weimar

successes, 1923–1929

KEY TERMS

Germany (The German Reich) – This name was given to the states that collectively formed the

country in 1871 and the name Germany is still used today. The following will also be used to

highlight the different periods of political rule between 1871 and 1945:

1 The German Reich

(German Empire),

1871–1918

2 The Weimar Republic,

1919–1933

3 The Third Reich or Nazi

Germany,

1933–1945

Armistice – When countries involved in a particular war agree to stop fighting and to negotiate

peace settlements.

Chancellor – In Germany, this title refers to the Head of Government (known as Prime Minister in

the UK or President in the USA). The German Chancellor is not to be confused with the UK

Government’s Chancellor of the Exchequer, who is responsible for monetary/economic issues.

Coalition Governments – This is when the country is run by elected members of more than one

political party. This happens when one political party cannot gain enough votes to receive a

majority in parliament (e.g. 51%). Germany was run by a series of coalition governments from 1919

to the time of the Third Reich / Nazi Germany in 1933.

The Treaty of Versailles – This agreement between the Triple Entente / Allies (those countries that

won the war) punished Germany for its involvement in the First World War. Many harsh

conditions were placed on Germany, which contributed to further political, economic and social

instability.

NSDAP – Also known as the Nazi Party and the National Socialist German Workers’ Party

(National Socialism), the NSDAP was led by Hitler from 1920 and ruled Germany from 1933 until

the end of the Second World War in 1945.


Map of the German Reich/Empire (1871–1918)

Background: Key German Events before 1919

Germany Unites

Before 1871, Germany was not a country as it is

today, but rather different states. After a short war

with France called the Franco-Prussian War (1870–

1871), these German states united to form one

country known as the German Reich, or Germany. By

uniting, Germany not only became larger but also

became a very powerful country within Europe with

a strong industrial base and military. Germany had a

parliament called the Reichstag, which was led by the

Chancellor (the chief parliamentary minister). Parliament was ruled by the Kaiser (similar to a king or

emperor), who was related to Queen Victoria and was descended from the kings of Prussia (the most

powerful German state).

The Kaiser:

• Was responsible for overseeing how the country was run

• Had the power to appoint the Chancellor and dismiss ministers as he saw fit

There were many differences amongst the German people. These included religious beliefs, cultural and

social practices and the types of work they did (e.g. industry and farming). However, many Germans

were united in their beliefs in duty and authority. Many also believed that a strong country was

important, both at home and abroad. By the early twentieth century, Germany’s economic success and

the support of many German people contributed to the country having one of the best standards of

living in the world. This included good housing and diet, widespread education and help for the

unemployed. Germany soon started building an overseas empire, as several other European countries

(such as Great Britain) had done in previous centuries.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION

Although this topic begins in 1919, shortly after

the end of the First World War, it is important

to know about the key events and trends that

occurred in Germany before this period. This is

because these resulted in a clash of ideas and

events that shaped Germany for the next

quarter of a century.


The German Reich’s Involvement in the First World War

Between 1914 and 1918, many European countries fought against each other in the First World War.

Germany, Bulgaria, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires (known as the Central Powers and also

as the Triple Alliance) battled against the Triple Entente (countries such as Britain, France and Russia – also

known as the Allies). Germany was well prepared for war, both militarily and financially. Most people

believed that the war would be short, but it dragged on for four brutal years with terrible human cost.

By the beginning of 1918, Germany continued to

believe that it could win the war. The war fought

against Russia on the Eastern Front had been won due

to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and in March 1918

Russia had suffered a humiliating peace treaty (the

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) at the hands of Germany. At

the same time there had been a major German

offensive on the Western Front.

However, providing food for Germans and the

military was increasingly difficult. Shortage of food

supplies resulted from farmers being drafted in to the

armed forces and Germany having to import much of

the food needed to feed its people. However, the

powerful British navy successfully blockaded German sea ports. Other problems included US soldiers

arriving in France (after America entered the war to fight alongside the Allies) to fight against Germany

on the Western Front. This resulted in the German Army – already weakened by four years of fighting –

retreating closer to the German borders. Although many German soldiers and Germans believed that

Germany could still win the war and should fight on, others demonstrated for peace. Protests and

revolts against the war further highlighted the confusion and anger over Germany’s fate.

1918 – The War Lost and an Opportunity Gained

By September 1918, Germany faced starvation whilst the army faced defeat. The Allies offered peace on

the condition that the Kaiser (who many blamed for starting the war) was to stand down. By early

November 1918, Berlin was in chaos. Soldiers and workers (many armed) demonstrated on the streets,

whilst a general strike crippled Berlin. A left-wing political organisation called the Spartacus League

argued for the removal of the Kaiser and for a social revolution, inspired by the taking of power in

Russia in 1917 by Communists. On the 9th November, the leaders of the largest political party (a mainly

left-wing moderate party called the Social Democrats led by Friedrich Ebert) announced that Germany

was now a Republic. The Kaiser went in to exile the following day and the Social Democrats took control

of a now unstable country.

An armistice between Germany and the Allies was agreed for all fighting to stop on the 11th hour of the

11th day of the 11th month (November) 1918. Germany had lost the First World War. Many Germans

agreed with the armistice, but not everyone did. One of those who disagreed was a young Austrian

soldier who had fought on Germany’s side in the war. His name was Adolf Hitler. Hitler and many

others later referred to the German politicians that had signed the armistice as the ‘November

Criminals’.

Trench warfare resulted in millions of deaths


KEY QUESTION ONE

What were the key features of the Weimar Republic?

The Nature of Weimar Democracy

From the outset, Ebert’s Social Democrats faced many problems:

Year Some Problems Experienced by the Weimar Government

1919–1933 The coalition government lacked real power and support

1919 The Treaty of Versailles

The Weimar Constitution/Republic (1919–1933) The German Reich was replaced with what became known as the Weimar Republic. Against a

background of violence and confusion, politicians set up the new Weimar Constitution.

Main features of the Weimar Constitution were:

Elected Leaders

All men and women over the age of 20 could vote for MPs (ministers) from a variety of political

parties to represent them in parliament.

Chancellor (Prime Minister)

Led the government with the support of the majority of MPs in the German Parliament (called the

Reichstag after the building it is housed in).

The main political parties during the Weimar Republic are outlined in the table below:

Political Party Shortened

Name What Party Stood For

Who Supported Them

(this is general)

German Workers’ Party

(Later became Nazi Party)

DAP/

NSDAP Anti-democratic

Some working-class support

/ middle-class support later

National Party DNVP Anti-democratic Wealthy industrialists and

businessmen

People’s Party DVP Nationalist but supported

the Weimar Republic Middle-class support

Centre Z

Brought together practical

elements of left-wing and

right-wing political thinking

Catholics of all social class

Democratic Party DDP Formed by lawyers and

intellectuals Middle-class support

Social Democrats SPD Believed in a democratic

system Working-class support

Independent

Socialists/Communists

USPD/

KPD

Wanted a workers’ state like

in Bolshevik Russia Working-class support


Some Problems with the Weimar Constitution

Voting System

This was based on proportional representation (when

political parties are represented according to the number of

people who have voted for them). However, this encouraged

the formation of large numbers of political parties (for

example, 1% of the vote would get 1% of the seats in the

Reichstag). Having so many political parties made it very

difficult to get more than 50% of the vote. This led to

coalition governments (groups of political parties joining

together who often found it hard to agree and therefore to

pass important laws).

Presidential Decree

In theory, the role of president was intended to oversee the

German Parliament. However, Presidential Decree

(Article 48) meant that when parties couldn’t agree the

president could overrule it.

Other Issues Challenging the Weimar Republic

The new Weimar Constitution experienced many other issues, including:

• The army, civil service, legal system (judiciary) and universities still employed many who were still

loyal to the previous German Reich.

• Major industries (such as coal, steel and engineering) were under the control of owners who were

not sympathetic to trade unions.

• Few political parties supported the democracy of the Weimar Republic (Hitler’s Nazi Party later

used the constitution to first gain power and then to dismantle it).

• Many Germans blamed the negative effects of the Treaty of Versailles on the Weimar Constitution.

Post-War Economic Conditions as a Cause of Discontent In June 1919 the government of the new Weimar Republic – with Ebert as President and Scheidemann as

Chancellor – signed the Versailles Peace Treaty.

The main aspects of the treaty were as follows:

War Guilt • Article 231 stated that Germany and her allies (the Central Powers) were

responsible for the war and the damage caused.

Reparations Germany was to pay for this damage in different ways. For example:

• The coal mines of the Saar were to be run by the French for 15 years and Germany

was to supply free coal to France, Belgium and Italy. This resulted in a shortage of

goods in Germany.

• Germany was to pay reparations for war damage (£6,600 million). By 1922

Germany was behind with these payments.

Disarmament • To prevent future wars, the German army had to be reduced to 100,000 men.

• The German Navy was reduced to only small ships and no submarines were

allowed.

• No military air force was allowed.

• No German forces were allowed to the west of the Rhine river (called the

Rhineland) in order to protect France, whilst the area was to be occupied for 15

years.

The Weimar Constitution


World leaders at Versailles in 1919

Loss of

Territory

Much had been said about the American President Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ where

it was stated that frontiers should be drawn along lines of nationality. This created

new nation states such as Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Poland. However, this

principle did not apply equally to Germany and land was lost as follows:

• Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium, Alsace-Lorraine to France, North Schleswig to

Denmark and Upper Silesia to Poland.

• West Prussia to Poland to give Polish access to the Baltic Sea. This meant that East

Prussia was detached from Germany.

• Danzig became a free port under the League of Nation’s control.

• Austria wanted to join Germany, but was not permitted to and became a separate

Austrian state.

• Germany lost all her overseas colonies (empire).

These conditions meant a total loss of 13% of German territory, but 48% of its iron

production, 15% of its agricultural land and 6 million of its population.

League of

Nations

• Germany was not initially permitted to join the League of Nations (an

intergovernmental organisation set up between the First and Second World Wars to

settle international disputes and prevent war. It was replaced by the United Nations).

The terms imposed on Germany were far worse than many Germans

expected. The three main countries involved in creating the treaty,

France, Britain and the USA, had very different views about how

Germany should be treated. Britain took a more neutral stance in the

negotiations, whilst America wanted a fair treaty. However, France

(which had suffered the most in the war) negotiated successfully for

Germany to be treated harshly. The German Government was angry

with the terms, especially as they had not been allowed to negotiate

the terms of the peace conference. Scheidemann resigned as

Germany’s Chancellor. However, the government felt that they had

no option but to sign the treaty, as they were not prepared to fight

another war with the Allies.

The German Government became very unpopular by signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty. It became

referred to as the ‘Diktat’ or the ‘Dictated Peace’, whilst many Germans later referred to those who

signed the treaty as the ‘November Criminals’.

A 1919 demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles outside the Reichstag (Parliament) building in Berlin


KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES

a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. Germany: 1871–1918

b. In chronological order, list five key facts about Germany between 1871 and 1918 (I have included key facts from the beginning and the end of the period):

Number of Fact Key Fact (in chronological order)

1 Germany was also known as the German Reich after uniting following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–171.

2

3

4

5

6

7 Germany and the Allies signed an armistice agreeing for all fighting to stop on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (November) 1918.

c. Explain how both of the factors below contributed to Germany losing the First World War:

Factor How this contributed to Germany’s surrender

Shortage of food supplies

The USA entered the war in 1917

d. Give two reasons why it would have been difficult to form a new government in November 1918.

e. Why do you think that Hitler referred to the politicians as the ‘November Criminals’?

?


Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could

use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.

Problems with the Weimar Constitution

f. Complete the following sentences:

The Kaiser was…

In Germany, the Chancellor is…

Coalition Government is when…

In 1919, the German Reich became known as the…

The German Parliament is held in a building called the…

g. Cross out the two incorrect statements below:

All men over the age of 20 could vote for ministers to represent them in parliament.

All men and women over the age of 18 could vote for ministers to represent them in parliament.

All men and women over the age of 20 could vote for ministers to represent them in parliament.

h. Do you think that having so many political parties would have had a positive, negative or both positive and negative effect on the Weimar Republic? Give a reason for your answer.

i. What problems could arise from the Weimar Republic’s voting system?

j. What other issues arose from the Weimar Constitution? Treaty of Versailles

k. Outline the key conditions of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany below:

War Guilt

Reparations

Disarmament

Loss of Territory

League of Nations

l. Why did France demand that Germany be treated harshly in the Treaty of Versailles?

m. Why did many Germans refer to the treaty as the ‘Dictated Peace’ and those who signed it as the ‘November Criminals’?

n. What problems might this have caused the government of the Weimar Republic?


KEY QUESTION TWO

Why did the Weimar Republic face so many problems in the years 1919 to 1923?

Revolts, Rebellions and Opposition to Weimar, 1919–1923

From the outset, Ebert’s Social Democrats faced many problems:

Number and Year of Problem Some Problems Experienced by the Weimar Government

1919 The Spartacist uprising

1920 The Kapp Putsch

1923 Invasion and occupation of the Ruhr, leading to...

1923 ...hyperinflation

The Spartacist Uprising

After the First World War, regular clashes occurred between the

government and members of revolutionary groups who saw the

confusion of late 1918 as an opportunity to seize power. These included

the communist Spartacus League, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa

Luxemburg. They believed that although many of the Social Democrats

were left wing, they were not left wing enough. In contrast to members of

the Spartacus League, most Social Democrats viewed the removal of the

Kaiser as the end of any kind of left-wing revolution. For the

Communists, it was viewed as merely the beginning of a much larger and

radical revolution.

Ebert tried to reach agreement with the Spartacus League, but they tried to

take control of Berlin. Although the Spartacus revolutionaries managed to

take control of the telegraph bureau and the offices of the government’s

newspaper in January 1919, they had not prepared well. They lacked the

support of other left-wing revolutionaries and even members of their own leadership. However, Ebert’s

government had to rely on right-wing ex-soldiers called the Freikorps to crush the revolutionaries. Both

Liebknecht and Luxemburg were murdered whilst imprisoned by the Freikorps and the Spartacus

League did not recover. By relying on the Freikorps in an attempt to stabilise Germany, Ebert’s

government had created new problems:

• Reluctantly relying on ex-soldiers to crush revolutionaries – showing that the new government

lacked the ability to crush revolts itself.

• Turning to the right wing to crush the left wing, even though the Social Democrats also had many

left-wing beliefs themselves. In fact, the government had to turn to the left wing to crush right-wing

Freikorps resistance in the following year.

• Providing the legitimacy for the right wing to have their own military presence alienated the Social

Democrats from many of their supporters.

Rosa Luxemburg (1908)


KEY TERMS

Passive Resistance – When people refuse to co-operate with those in control by using non-violent

methods (e.g. peaceful protests, fasting and in the case of the Ruhr in 1923, by refusing to work).

Inflation – When prices go up and the value of money goes down (therefore leaving many people

poorer).

Hyperinflation – When inflation becomes a very serious problem and is out of control. In Germany in

1923, hyperinflation was caused by the government printing more and more money. This made the

money worthless.

Great Inflation – Another term used to describe the hyperinflation of 1923.

Problem Four – The Kapp Putsch

Events such as the Spartacist uprising and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles demonstrated how

fragile the newly formed Social Democrat government was in 1919. Whilst the treaty was very

unpopular amongst most Germans, the government’s reliance on the Freikorps to put down left-wing

uprisings (such as the Spartacist uprising) created more problems. Over the next year, the Freikorps

grew from strength to strength, becoming a powerful unofficial army. Because the German Army had

been forcibly reduced to 100,000 men, many demobbed soldiers simply joined the Freikorps. Most were

angry with the government for accepting the treaty and believed them to be a weak government. They

were right wing and nationalistic, wanting the return of the Kaiser.

When the Allies put pressure on the German Government to disband the Freikorps, the Freikorps

reacted by joining other right-wing groups. In March 1920, when the government attempted to disband

them, they revolted by marching on Berlin. Led by Wolfgang Kapp, 5,000 Freikorps soon seized power

and declared a new government. The army had stood by and not interfered in the Kapp Putsch. This

showed that many supported the revolt and disliked the Social Democrat Government. Realising that

they did not have the support of the army to protect them, the government were forced to flee Berlin.

They appealed to the German workforce to go on strike, so that Kapp’s government could not function

properly. This ‘general strike’ (when everything shuts down) was successful and within a few days the

Kapp Putsch and their new government had collapsed. However, none of the members involved in the

putsch were ever brought to trial for their actions. This showed once again how limited the

government’s power was. After all, if they had convicted those involved, the government might have

further alienated other Germans.

Key Events/Challenges of 1923 – The Invasion and Occupation of the Ruhr

The Allies became increasingly concerned that Germany was struggling with its reparations payments.

Reparations were a key aspect of the Treaty of Versailles and the German Government had already

defaulted (when you don’t pay what you have agreed to pay in the agreement) on some payments. As a

consequence, French and Belgian troops marched into the Ruhr (Germany’s main industrial area) in

January 1923. They argued that if Germany would not pay reparations as agreed in the treaty, then they

must be paid in the form of coal, steel and manufactured goods. Although the occupation of the Ruhr

was legal, many Germans were angry with this outcome. This was because now any money made from

the Ruhr would be taken directly by the occupying forces. Critics argued that this could only make

Germany even poorer and Germans suffer even more.


This later map of the Ruhr region shows how close it is to countries to the west of Germany

The German government asked the

inhabitants of the Ruhr to protest

against the occupation with a policy of

passive resistance (when people refuse

to work). Strikes were also organised,

leading to confrontation between Ruhr

workers (who were Germans) and

occupying soldiers (who were not). The

idea was that the occupying forces

would leave as they would not be able

to take the reparation payments if there

was no production. Hitler’s NSDAP

(Nazi) Party opposed the policy of

passive resistance, arguing that

this was further humiliation to

Germany and showed their

politicians to be weak. They

believed that the German Army

should have been used to evict

the occupying soldiers instead.

However, the French and Belgian

soldiers continued to occupy the

Ruhr and the German

Government decided not to use

military force. This led to a

stalemate (with neither side

budging), which lasted for most

of 1923 and further affected

Germany’s already struggling

economy.

Key Events/Challenges of 1923 – Hyperinflation

A major result of the occupation of the Ruhr was the collapse of the German economy and a sharp fall in

the value of Germany’s currency, the Mark. Germany suffered hyperinflation, which was made worse

by the government authorising the printing of more and more bank notes to pay the striking workers in

the Ruhr. By printing more bank notes, the government was basically circulating money the country did

not have. By May 1923 (four months into the occupation), the rate of inflation had risen to 25,000%. This

increased to a staggeringly high 600,000% in August. Prices often went up several times a day and old

notes became useless.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION REPARATIONS REMINDER

Germany had to pay reparations in different ways:

The coal mines of the Saar were to be run by the French

for 15 years and Germany was to supply free coal to

France, Belgium and Italy. This resulted in a shortage

of goods in Germany.

Germany was to pay reparations for war damage (6,600

million pounds). By 1922 Germany was behind with

these payments.


This 50 million Mark note was practically worthless in 1923

Hyperinflation was so bad in 1923, that

children played with bundles of now

worthless bank notes and some were even

used as wallpaper. One famous example

was when somebody left a wheelbarrow

full of old bank notes outside a shop to

try and exchange them for goods. Whilst

inside the shop, the wheelbarrow had

been stolen but the bank notes remained.

This was because items were still of use to

people, whereas old bank notes were

practically useless. Many people

(including Adolf Hitler) blamed the

hyperinflation on the government of the

Weimar Republic.

However, although hyperinflation was a big problem for Germany, it affected different people in

different ways:

The effects on those who suffered the most from

hyperinflation included:

The effects on those who suffered the least from

hyperinflation included:

• Savings and pensions became worthless – many

elderly people living on these struggled to make

ends meet

• Many businesses collapsed – resulting in many

Germans losing their jobs

• Poverty increased – many poorer Germans

suffered from malnutrition, whilst some even

died of hunger

• The middle classes also suffered – as many saw

their businesses collapse, whilst others had

savings and pensions which had become

worthless

• Debts could be wiped out easily – those who

had taken out loans or who had large debts

could pay them back at a fraction of the real

value of what they owed

• Wages and welfare benefits increased as

inflation increased – those in work or on

unemployment benefits usually saw their

earnings/benefits increase alongside inflation

• Property, foreign currency and many goods

were protected – many rich people simply held

on to these until the economy stabilised

As hyperinflation increased and the problems caused by the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr

remained unresolved, drastic action was taken by the government. The failed attempt of passive

resistance had harmed Germany

as much as it had harmed France

and Belgium. Printing more

money that Germany did not

have also proved useless.

Passive resistance, however,

had helped the political

campaigns of others such as

Hitler. Nationalist political

parties gained the support

of many Germans by arguing

that the government’s response

had showed weak government.


Be careful not to confuse the causes and effects of German

hyperinflation of 1923 (which only affected Germany) with the

Wall Street Crash (also known as the Great Depression) of 1929.

The events of 1929 had started as an American recession and

affected not just Germany, but the whole world.

Also, be careful not to confuse the economic problems created by

the French reoccupation of the Ruhr and passive resistance

directly with Hitler and the Nazi Party’s rise to power. The Nazis

made far more immediate political gains due to the effect of the

Wall Street Crash (1929) on Germany.


KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES

a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. The Spartacus Uprising b. Both the Spartacus League and the Social Democrats believed that the removal of the Kaiser had been a

positive outcome for Germany but disagreed on what this meant for the future. How did their views differ? c. Describe the key events of the Spartacist uprising, using the key words below:

Luxemburg and Liebknecht | revolutionaries | left-wing | Ebert’s government could not deal with the uprising | right-wing Freikorps | murdered

d. What impression do you have of the powers of the Social Democrat Coalition Government from the way they

dealt with the Spartacist uprising? The Kapp Putsch e. How did the Treaty of Versailles’ condition of limiting the size of the German Army contribute to the size and

popularity of the Freikorps? f. Which three from the list below describes best the politics of the Freikorps?

Right-wing | Republicans | Recruited ex-soldiers | Recruited Communists | Nationalistic | Left-wing g. Why did the Freikorps attempt to take over Germany in the Kapp Putsch? h. Do you think that calling a general strike showed the Weimar Government to be strong, weak or both strong

and weak? Give a reason for your answer. Strong / Weak / Strong and Weak (cross out the two you disagree with) because…

Invasion and occupation of the Ruhr: i. Which one of the following statements do you most agree with?

By 1923 the Weimar Republic was struggling with its reparations payments.

By 1923 the Weimar Republic had no problem paying its reparations.

By 1923 the Weimar Republic no longer had to pay reparations. j. What was the intention of France and Belgium in invading and occupying the Ruhr? k. Why did the occupation of the Ruhr anger most Germans? l. Describe the following:

Passive resistance is when…

Strikes are when… m. What did the government of the Weimar Republic hope would happen by passive resistance? n. Which two of the following actually happened?

The French and Belgium armies left the Ruhr

This led to a stalemate between Germany and the occupying forces

The French and Belgium armies remained in the Ruhr

This lead to an agreement between Germany and the occupying forces

?




Hyperinflation: o. How did the German Government manage to pay the German workers in the Ruhr? p. What problems did this cause for the German economy? q. Describe what is meant by inflation and hyperinflation. r. Which groups of Germans would have suffered the most from hyperinflation? s. Which groups of Germans would have suffered the least from hyperinflation? t. In what ways might the German Government’s failed policies of passive resistance and printing more

currency have boosted the popularity of extremist political parties? u. How far do you agree with the statement below? Make sure you give full reasons for your answer.

The Weimar Republic was doomed to failure from its very beginning.


KEY QUESTION THREE

What were the origins and history of National Socialism in Germany between 1919 and 1925?

The Origins and Formation of the National Socialist Party

When the First World War ended in 1918, Adolf Hitler was in a military hospital. He believed that

Germany had not really lost the war but had been stabbed in the back by the German politicians who

had made peace and set up the new Weimar Republic.

In 1919 he attended a meeting of the DAP (German Workers’ Party). He was impressed with their

nationalistic views and the leader (Drexler) and joined the party. In 1920 Hitler played a major part in

changing it into the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party). Together,

Drexler and Hitler created the ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’.

The ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’ included policies intended to:

• Create a strong, central government

• Unite together all of Germany in to a greater Germany (union with Austria)

• Increase and provide land and colonies in order to provide more food and places for Germans

to settle

• Allow only fellow Germans to have the right to be German citizens

• Stop further immigration by non-Germans

• Nationalise (when government takes control) all publicly owned companies

• Improve old age pensions

• Control the press completely

• Teach national ideals in schools from an early age

KEY PERSON: ADOLF HITLER (1889–1945)

Hitler was born to poor parents in Austria. During the First World War

(1914–1918), Hitler volunteered for military service in the German Army.

Undertaking various front-line roles throughout the war, Hitler reached

the rank of corporal and received the Iron Cross for bravery. Hitler was

anti-Semitic (hatred of Jews) and nationalistic (very particular views

about how the country should be organised). He developed his ideas into

policies throughout the 1920s and put them into practice once reaching

power in 1933. Elected Chancellor in 1933, he changed the name

of Chancellor to Führer (meaning leader, but usually referring to Hitler as a dictator) as he

quickly, successfully and ruthlessly turned Germany from a democracy into a Nazi

dictatorship between 1933 and 1934. Hitler is often remembered for his crowd-rousing

speeches and for the Hitler/Nazi salute and the ‘Heil Hitler’ / ‘Sieg Heil’ greetings. His legacy

of power includes the invasion of European countries, Nazi Germany’s involvement in the

Second World War and the Holocaust. Hitler committed suicide in his bunker in 1945 as

Germany and Berlin lay in ruins around him.

A young Adolf Hitler


Adolf Hitler

Hitler soon grew from strength to strength in the party by developing skills in

speech making and propaganda. In 1921 he became leader and took the title

‘Führer’. Other key individuals who joined the Nazi Party at this time included

Göring, Himmler, Hess and Röhm. They formed their own private army called the

SA (also known as Stormtroopers and Brownshirts) to keep order at meetings and to

hold pro-Nazi street demonstrations and parades. Many members of the SA had

been in the Freikorps or were ex-soldiers. By the end of 1922, the NSDAP had 20,000

members. This increased to 55,000 in 1923 (the year that hyperinflation hit

Germany). At this time the NSDAP also started to receive some financial backing

from wealthy individuals and industrialists. Later, in 1925, the SS (also known as

the Blackshirts) was formed. This was an elite group of the SA private army which

swore loyalty to Hitler.

Key Events/Challenges of 1923 – The Munich ‘Beer Hall’ Putsch

On the evening of the 8th and the 9th November 1923, Hitler tried to take over the State Government of

Bavaria by leading a putsch. This was meant to be followed by a march on Berlin and the establishment

of a Nazi regime in Germany. The intended putsch started at a beer hall in Munich and Hitler was

accompanied by armed members of the SA. Kahr, the Bavarian Prime Minister, was making a speech to

a large crowd in the beer hall. Hitler’s big idea was to convince Kahr, his followers and the army to

support the Nazi putsch. Hitler also gave a speech to the crowd, arguing that Stresemann’s government

was not fit to govern Germany after the failed responses to the invasion and occupation of the Ruhr.

Although Kahr and others pledged support for the putsch under pressure by Hitler, they soon went

back on this.

Confident that the army would support the putsch, Hitler and thousands of Nazis marched to the centre

of Munich on the following day. However, they were soon surrounded by the army and police. A tense

stand-off followed, which was broken by shots. In the event, 16 of Hitler’s supporters were killed (those

killed were later celebrated as martyrs for the Nazi cause). Hitler escaped, but was later arrested and

tried along with other Nazis involved in the putsch.

In many ways, Hitler’s intended putsch was a copy of Mussolini’s March on Rome in the previous year

(this event had led to Mussolini establishing a fascist government in Italy).

Hitler had attempted the putsch in Bavaria because of the following:

• The Nazi Party had much support in Bavaria in 1923.

• Many Bavarian politicians had similar right-wing views to Hitler. Hitler understood that their

support was vital to taking power in Germany.

• By gaining their support, Hitler believed that the German Army would also support the putsch.


Make sure when studying this whole topic that you understand the very different role

of the SA and SS. This is vital to your understanding of events after the Nazi Party

came to power from 1933 onwards: 1923–1934 – the SA (Stormtroopers/Brownshirts)

1934–1945 – the SS (although the SS developed in large part out of the SA throughout

the 1920s). Their roles will be discussed in depth throughout this resource.


Hitler and other members of the Nazi Party were tried on charges of high treason (crimes viewed as

causing a serious threat to your country). Hitler cleverly used the trial to promote his ideas, by making a

long speech. He also accepted full responsibility for what had happened in the putsch. He declared that

by attempting a putsch he had been acting in Germany’s national interests. The judge and jury were

sympathetic to Hitler’s right-wing views, suggesting that much of the legal establishment had little

faith in the Weimar Government. This arguably resulted in light punishment for those involved,

including Hitler.

Hitler (along with other organisers) was sentenced to a minimum of five years in prison, but in fact only

served nine months in the reasonable comfort of Landsberg Castle. He used the time to develop his ideas

and wrote a book called Mein Kampf (My Struggle). He also decided that he would no longer attempt to

take power by force but rather by gaining greater electoral support politically. The Munich Beer Hall

Putsch had taught Hitler that violence was unlikely to succeed. However, this did not mean that he

believed in democracy. Rather, that parliamentary power would be a means to an end. The Nazi

revolution would be achieved after coming to power rather than as a means of obtaining power.

Hitler came out of prison in a stronger position. His impressive trial had gained him national publicity

and the time spent in prison had been used effectively to finalise his programme of bringing the Nazi

Party to power.

Munch Putsch – Short-Term Failure Munich Putsch – Long-Term Success

• Hitler and the Nazis had failed to take

power by force in 1923

• The putsch showed that the Nazis could not

necessarily rely on the support of the army

to take power

• Hitler became better known amongst Germans as

a consequence of the putsch and the following

trial

• Because of the failure of the putsch, Hitler

decided to gain power by using the democratic

system, rather than by using force




KEY QUESTION THREE– ACTIVITIES a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. What did Hitler think of Germany’s surrender in the First World War? c. Drexler and Hitler changed their political party’s name:

From: German Worker’s Party (DAP) To: __________________ also known as the_____________

d. List nine key points of Drexler’s and Hitler’s ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’. Two are done for you.

• Create a strong, central government • Teach national ideals in schools from an early age

e. What purpose did the SA serve? f. What aspects of the Nazi Party might have appealed to its members in the early 1920s? g. What aspects of the Nazi Party might have put many Germans off becoming members in the early 1920s? The Munich Beer Hall Putsch: h. Describe the key features of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch. i. Give three reasons why Hitler had attempted to take power by force in Bavaria first and then in Berlin? j. What does Hitler’s light prison sentence tell you about the German legal establishment? k. What was the German name and English translation of the book Hitler wrote in Landsberg Castle/Prison?

Hitler’s book outlining the beliefs of the Nazi Party was called…

The English translation of the book was called… l. List the negative and positive outcomes of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch on the Nazi Party and Hitler. m. Do you think that the failure of the putsch placed Hitler in a stronger or weaker position overall?

Give a reason.

?


KEY PERSON: GUSTAV STRESEMANN (1878–1929)

A very bright student, Stresemann excelled in the arts, humanities and politics.

His early career as a politician (he entered the Reichstag as a politician in 1907)

was shaped by the events of the German Reich (including the First World War –

which he supported). He was involved with different political parties until his

time as Chancellor. He campaigned for some left-wing and some right-wing

policies throughout his career.

Stresemann was Chancellor of the coalition government in the Weimar Republic between August

and November 1923. As such, he had to deal with several extreme events. These included tackling

the country’s hyperinflation and ending the policy of passive resistance against foreign occupation

in the Ruhr. He also had to deal with the Munich Putsch and the subsequent trial of Hitler and

other leaders involved. For this he received much criticism and revolt within parliament.

Stresemann then became the Foreign Minister (under the new Chancellor Wilhelm Marx) until his

death in 1929. Gaining much confidence from other countries, he campaigned successfully for the

reforms outlined below. During the period, Stresemann became increasingly accepting of the

Weimar Republic. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926, in recognition of his attempts at

stabilising Germany during the crises of the early 1920s.

KEY QUESTION FOUR

Why was the Weimar Republic more stable between late 1923 and 1929 than it had been in previous years?

Stresemann and Weimar Successes, 1923–1929

Recovery – The Introduction of a New Currency

A new government (led by Gustav Stresemann) was formed in August 1923. They called off the policy of

passive resistance in the Ruhr and agreed to start paying reparations to the Allies again. They also

introduced a new currency, called the Rentenmark. In response to Germany’s effort to solve the Ruhr

problem and the hyperinflation that followed, the Allies called off the occupation of the Ruhr.

However, support for Stresemann’s coalition government was weakened by the crises of 1923. The

Weimar Republic had not had a very promising beginning. The government simply did not have the

support of many Germans. Throughout the 1920s, although the Social Democrats won the most votes,

they never gained enough to rule on their own. This often led to weak governments that found it

difficult to make important decisions. There had been uprisings by extreme left-wing and right-wing

groups, anger at the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and then the hyperinflation of 1923. Whilst many

Germans with left-wing sympathies (including many within his own party) argued that Stresemann’s

reforms were too right wing, those with right-wing and nationalist views claimed the opposite.

Stresemann only remained Chancellor for a few months (from August until November 1923) and the

coalition government collapsed. Many Social Democrats had left the government, believing that their

own party had been too lenient with those involved in the Munich Putsch. He remained an influential

politician, taking on the role of Foreign Minister until his death in 1929.


The Impact of Stresemann’s Foreign Policy on the Domestic Situation in Germany

Stresemann is often viewed as a key figure in the stabilisation of Weimar Germany and in improving

Germany’s relationships with other powers (especially in his role as Foreign Minister between 1924

and 1929).

Below are some of his policies during this period:

• He introduced the Rentenmark as a new currency to replace the now worthless Mark.

• Loans from US businesses were used to build new factories and produce jobs. Exports rose and the

economic performance of Germany became much more favourable than it had been in the aftermath

of the First World War. Industrial output actually rose to the levels of pre-1914, despite the

territorial losses Germany suffered after the First World War.

• He negotiated the Dawes Plan (1924).

• He led a skilful foreign policy, which helped to re-establish Germany’s international position. With

the Locarno Pact (1925), Germany accepted her losses in the West and this encouraged French-

German cooperation. In return, some Allied soldiers immediately left the Rhineland (a German area

on the western border). Eventually, in 1930, all Allied soldiers left the Rhineland. This was five years

earlier than had been stated in the Treaty of Versailles.

• In 1926, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations. It now had influence in world affairs.

• Also in 1928 Germany signed the Kellogg–Briand Pact, where 60 countries denounced the use of war.

• In 1929 the Young Plan was accepted by Stresemann.

• Stresemann’s policies were so successful he received the Nobel Peace Prize.

As a consequence of these actions and agreements, the political and economic situation in Germany

became far more stable in the latter half of the 1920s than it had been in the first half. This in turn

contributed to a fall in the number of people voting for extreme left-wing and right-wing political

parties. In the 1928 Reichstag elections, political parties which supported the Weimar Republic gained

over half the vote. This was important as before this the Social Democrats had been working with many

politicians who wanted a return to a Kaiser and the German Reich. However, Hindenburg had been

elected President (a position that oversees the German Government) in 1925 until his death in 1934. He

heavily criticised the Weimar Republic, showing that strong divisions in German politics still existed.

Other problems included high unemployment and high taxes. Also, although standards of living rose

for some people, others remained poor.

KEY TERMS

The Dawes Plan (1924) – This helped Germany to meet the required reparation payments to other

countries for a period of five years (therefore leaving Germany with more control of its own

finances). Aided by loans from America, this stimulated economic growth following the

hyperinflation and was therefore widely considered to be beneficial to Germany in the short term.

However, in the latter half of the 1920s, Germany continued to struggle to meet the ever

increasing demands of reparation payments.

The Locarno Pact (1925) – This agreement helped to secure the positions of European borders and

make European nations feel safer. In the following year, Germany was accepted into the League

of Nations (a post WW1 agreement between many countries that attempted to avoid future wars

through diplomacy).

The Young Plan (1929) – This meant a further reduction in reparation payments by extending

Germany’s payment deadline by another 58 years. Whereas the Dawes Plan had previously

helped to solve Germany’s short-term economic problems, the Young Plan was viewed as aiding

Germany in the long term (the Wall Street Crash / Great Depression happened shortly after the

Young Plan was agreed).




KEY QUESTION THREE– ACTIVITIES

a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. What two actions did the new government take immediately after coming to power in 1923? c. Why do you think the government introduced the new Rentenmark currency? d. What was Stresemann’s political role between August and November 1923? e. Describe the immediate problems facing Germany that Stresemann had to tackle. f. Below are two factors stressing why Stresemann’s coalition government collapsed after only three months.

Think about why both of these would have angered many politicians and the German public and give reasons why.

Hyperinflation

The lenient prison sentences given to those involved in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch – including Hitler g. What political position did Stresemann then take until his death in 1929? h. Describe each of the actions taken by the Weimar Government, including whether the action had resulted in

mainly political or economic effects for Germany:

The Dawes Plan (1924) – Mainly Political or Economic / This was…

The Locarno Pact (1925) – Mainly Political or Economic / This was…

The Young Plan (1929) – Mainly Political or Economic / This was… i. What positive effect did Stresemann achieve by building up excellent political and economic relations with

the USA? j. Why was Germany’s entry into the League of Nations so important for the country? k. Write two sentences explaining what you think Stresemann’s main achievements were.

l. What effect did these reforms have on voting patterns in the latter half of the 1920s? m. What problems still needed to be overcome by the late 1920s? n. Some historians have described the period 1924–1929 as Weimar’s honeymoon period. What do you think is

meant by this? o. Look back at your answers for the Treaty of Versailles. Does the fact that the economy and the political

situation were improving change your opinion on whether or not you think ‘the Weimar Republic was doomed from its very beginning’?

Now try answering the following question. Why was the Weimar Republic more stable between late 1923 and 1929 than it had been in previous years?

?

?


SUMMARY – WHAT WERE THE WEAKNESSES AND STRENGTHS OF

WEIMAR DEMOCRACY?

A young soldier called Adolf Hitler and

many others were surprised and angered by

Germany’s surrender.

Origins of the National Socialism (Nazi

Party: NSDAP)

1919: Hitler met and was impressed by

Drexler, leader of DAP.

Early members included nationalistic ex-

soldiers and Freikorps.

1920: Hitler played a major role in

changing the party to NSDAP (National

Socialist German Workers’ Party / Nazi

Party).

‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’ outlined

nationalistic future Nazi policies.

Nazi Party strengthened by mid-1920s;

SA and SS (private armies) formed.

The Weimar Republic (1919–1933) was formed

out of the chaos of post-war Germany and

becomes a juggling act.

Problems between 1919 and 1923:

The left-wing Spartacist Uprising occurred

in 1919.

The conditions of the Treaty of Versailles

were harsh.

Holding the coalition government together

was difficult.

A powerful ‘unofficial’ army called the

Freikorps almost succeeded in seizing

power in the Kapp Putsch of 1920.

Ruhr invasion and occupation of 1923 –

hyperinflation followed, crippling the

German economy.

Whilst these events occurred, Hitler and the Nazi

Party were organising...

The Munich Putsch Short-Term Failure: Taking advantage of

the weak government, Hitler

unsuccessfully attempted to take power

by force in a Munich Beer Hall. Hitler was

imprisoned for nine months.

Long-Term Success: Hitler wrote Mein

Kampf in prison and decided to use

democracy to win power in parliament.

Germany Unites:

After Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)

became the German Reich.

Empire (1871–1918): Germany fought and

lost a prolonged war (WW1: 1914–1918).

In 1918 the Kaiser stood down and a much

weakened Germany surrendered. Germany

became a republic.


SUMMARY – STRESEMANN AND WEIMAR SUCCESSES: 1923–1929

Recovery of the Weimar Republic between 1924 and 1929

Stresemann’s policies were so successful he

received the Nobel Peace Prize.

...Germany signing the Kellogg–Briand Pact in

1928, where 60 countries denounced the use of

war.

In August 1923, Gustav Stresemann:

formed a new government

became Chancellor

called off passive resistance in the Ruhr

agreed to repay reparations to the Allies again

introduced the new Rentenmark currency

However, the government collapsed after three

months. He became Foreign Minister between

1924 and 1929 and achieved...

...securing

American loans to

build new

factories and

produce jobs.

Exports rose and

the economy

improved.

...Germany being

accepted into the

League of Nations

in 1926.

The Dawes Plan (1924) – helped Germany meet reparation payments for five years

The Locarno Pact (1925) – secured European borders and made nations feel safer

The Young Plan (1929) – extended payback deal and further lowered Germany’s reparations


1.3 Key Issue: How was Hitler able to come to power?


Explain the economic and political effects of the Wall Street Crash on Germany

Understand the significance of political instability in 1929–1933 to the Nazi Party’s rise to power

Describe the key features of the Nazi Party between the late 1920s and the early 1930s, including the role of Nazi leaders

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The depression, its impact on Germany and contribution to the rise of National Socialism

Political instability, 1929–1933 The emergence of the Nazis as a mass

party, 1928–1930 The role of Hitler in the development

of the Nazi Party; the leadership of the Nazis

The struggle for power, 1930–1933

KEY TERMS

‘Roaring Twenties’ – Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the 1920s experienced a flourishing of

the arts and culture. After the upheaval of the First World War and the political, economic and

social problems that followed in Germany in the early 1920s, many flocked to cities such as Berlin

to enjoy themselves.

Propaganda – The deliberate spread of ideas and information to influence peoples’ beliefs and way

of life. Under Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Party used propaganda very effectively; first to win the

democratic support needed to win seats in the Reichstag, then to control all walks of life in Nazi

Germany.

Wall Street Crash / Great Depression – A severe economic downturn from 1929 that originated in

America and affected all Western industrialised countries over the following decade. Germany

was hit particularly badly due to its reliance on American loans to fuel its economy. The Great

Depression brought a sudden end to the ‘Roaring Twenties’.

Rearmament – Re-strengthening all aspects of a country’s military (e.g. new weapons and

soldiers). During the 1920s, Hitler, the Nazi Party and many others argued that Germany needed

to be rearmed to be strong again. However, the Treaty of Versailles stated that Germany must not

achieve this.

SA – These were Hitler’s private army from the early 1920s until 1934. Also known as

Stormtroopers (to show that they were effective soldiers organised on military lines) and

Brownshirts (because they wore brown uniforms), their role was to protect Nazi Party members

and intimidate those that opposed them.


A contemporary photograph of Landsberg Prison/Castle, where Hitler and other Nazi

Party members were temporarily imprisoned

Hitler and SA members at a 1928 rally

Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could use

the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.

KEY QUESTION ONE

How did Hitler and the Nazi Party change their tactics after the failed 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putsch?

Introduction – The Nazi Party in the Wilderness Years (1923–1929)

The years leading up to 1929 were not very successful for the

Nazi Party. Although they had decided to gain power through

the democratic process, they did not do well in elections at

first. A temporary ban had been placed on the Nazi Party

whilst Hitler was still in prison. They won some electoral seats

using another name, but soon lost many of them again.

However, by early 1925 Hitler reorganised and relaunched the

Nazi Party. Members were trained as skilful speakers in an

attempt to appeal to as many people as possible at public

rallies and meetings. Many working-class Germans became

interested in his ideas from Mein Kampf and viewed the Nazis

as potential strong leaders of the country.

This did little to raise their vote in the Reichstag though. This lack of

support was because the German political system and the economy

had become far more stable since the crises of 1923. Standards of

living had risen for many and Germany’s relationship with foreign

countries had improved. The ‘Roaring Twenties’ (which brought

about a flourishing of arts and ideas) had also gripped German cities

such as Berlin. Many Germans were enjoying themselves for the first

time in years and simply did not want their country to be run by an

extreme political party such as the Nazis. By 1928, the Social

Democrats and the Communist Party continued to have many more

seats than them. Many Germans simply did not foresee that Hitler

would become Chancellor within five years. Hitler increasingly

turned to agricultural workers and the middle classes to gain popular

support. As with the working classes, the Nazi Party directed their speeches to issues that mattered to

them. Their use of propaganda was developed in this period (and will be discussed in more depth

throughout this resource).


a. Read through the section and underline key points and words.

b. Give two reasons why the Nazi Party were not very successful from 1924 to 1929.

c. What purpose did the Nazi Party serve by training speakers?

d. Cross out the two incorrect statements:

The Nazi Party gained the support of all Germans from the mid-1920s.

The Nazi Party first gained the support of agricultural workers and the middle classes, and then working classes.

The Nazi Party first gained the support of some working-class Germans, and then agricultural workers and the middle classes.

e. Which two political parties had many more seats than the Nazi Party in 1928?

?


Panicked bank customers queue to withdraw their savings from an American bank

KEY QUESTION TWO

Why did the Nazi Party become more popular with voters in the years 1929 to 1932?

The Role of Hitler in the Development of the Nazi Party

Whilst imprisoned for his involvement in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler formulated many of the

ideas and beliefs that were to become so well known in later years. The main set of beliefs were not new

ideas of Hitler’s at all, but rather a combination of existing political beliefs into a new ideology of

Nazism (also known as National Socialism). These were published in his book Mein Kampf (translated as

‘My Struggle’) in 1925. Key points of these beliefs were:

Belief Description of Belief

Race Hitler argued that the German (Aryan) race was superior to other races and that it was

supposedly being weakened by the Jews.

Social

Darwinism

This is the view that the world is a struggle for survival with the strongest species

surviving and the weakest being made extinct. Hitler applied this view to relations

between peoples and nations. He argued that strong nations would survive, whilst

weak nations would decline and eventually disappear.

Anti-Semitism

This prejudice against the Jews had been common in Europe for centuries. The

prejudice took new forms in twentieth-century Germany. Jews became associated with

big business, left-wing political parties and communism. Hitler and others felt that

these groups had ‘stabbed Germany in the back’ by signing the Treaty of Versailles.

These views were based on prejudice, ignorance and a very selective use of facts. It

suited some Germans to view the Jews as problems and as scapegoats for Germany’s

problems after the First World War. Hitler believed in existing propaganda that

presented Jews as conspiring against other races and, in particular, as a threat to

Germany. By 1922, Hitler had also come to the conclusion that the communist

revolution in Russia was a Jewish conspiracy.

Lebensraum

Hitler argued that both Bolsheviks (Russian Communists) and Jews should and could

be defeated by a strong German army in eastern Europe. This would provide extra

land and living space (Lebensraum) for Germans.

The Depression, its Impact on Germany and Contribution

to the Rise of National Socialism

In 1929, the Wall Street Crash brought about a

worldwide recession known as the Great Depression.

Germany was affected badly, as America could not

continue to support Germany economically with

loans as it had done previously. Over the following

years, German unemployment rose by millions and

many businesses went bankrupt (these were similar

effects to those caused by hyperinflation in 1923). This

created an opportunity for Hitler and the Nazi Party.

They had always argued that post-war German

coalition governments had been weak and that

Germany would suffer for relying financially on other

countries.


To many Germans, the effects of the Great Depression had seemed to prove Hitler right. The next three

years were difficult for Germany economically, whilst reminding Germans of the problems they had

experienced following the First World War and the hyperinflation of 1923.

Political Instability and the Emergence of the Nazis as a Mass Party, 1928–1930

After the Great Depression, the Nazi Party started gaining mass support as shown below.

Year Nazi Seats in the Reichstag Causes of Nazi Seats Linked to the German Economy

1928 13 Seats – Just over 2% of the vote

and far less than they had in 1924.

This was at a time when the German economy had been

growing for some years. Many opted to vote for what

they considered to be a safe government which had

brought in several reforms.

1930

107 Seats – Risen to 18% of the vote

and the second largest party in the

Reichstag.

This was one year after the Great Depression had hit

Germany. Lack of confidence in the German

Government led many who had previously not voted to

vote for extremist left-wing and right-wing political

parties.

July

1932

230 Seats – Risen to 37% of the vote.

The Nazis became the largest party in

the Reichstag, but did not have a

majority.

At this time, Germany was still suffering from the Great

Depression. Many increasingly turned to extremist

political parties to solve Germany’s problems.

Nov

1932

196 Seats – Dropped slightly to 33%

of the vote. The Nazis remained the

largest single party in the Reichstag,

but without a majority.

The worst effects of the Great Depression were passing

and there were signs of the German economy improving.

This led to less support for extremist political parties.

Below are some trends that contributed to the Nazi successes of the early 1930s:

• The middle classes were often divided between supporting big capitalists and Communists. The

collapse of other political parties’ share of the vote (such as the DDP and DVP, which tended to be

supported by middle-class voters) meant that there were many more undecided voters. The Great

Depression contributed to many of these voters turning to more extreme solutions to Germany’s

problems.

• The Nazi Party appealed to many Germans who were afraid of losing their jobs or having their pay

cut.

• There was some working-class support due to the Nazis arguing that they could tackle

unemployment.

• A fear of communism amongst the very wealthy and aristocrats led some to vote for right-wing

political parties.

• Nazi support and votes were highest in small towns and rural areas. There was also support from

the working class outside of cities. They were less likely to be in a trade union and tended to work

for smaller firms. The Nazis promised them better working conditions and greater job security.

• They performed better in wealthier suburbs of cities.

• They gained a lot of support from young people.


KEY PERSON: ERNST RÖHM (1887–1934)

From a working-class background, Röhm had been a highly experienced and decorated army officer

and a veteran of the First World War. Like Hitler, he had won the Iron Cross (for bravery on the

battlefield). After the war, Röhm became a member of the right-wing Freikorps and was involved in

tackling the left-wing Spartacus uprising (1919). Röhm had supported Hitler as leader of the Nazi

Party, they had become close friends and Hitler knew he could be relied on. Röhm was involved in

the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 and was sentenced by the courts, but without actually serving

time in prison. After building up the SA in the early 1920s he moved to South America, where he

trained military personnel. Returning to Germany in the early 1930s, he resumed his position as

leader of the SA. He was executed in 1934 (shortly after the Nazi Party had secured power) along

with the entire leadership of the SA under Hitler’s orders. A power struggle between the SA and the

SS had taken place and Hitler believed Röhm to be plotting to take power from the Nazi leadership.

Hitler’s fear that Röhm might take power and his subsequent execution shows that even within the

Nazi Party, power struggles existed.

The insignia of the SA

The Work of the SA

Shortly after becoming leader of the Nazi Party in the early 1920s, Hitler created a

private army called the SA. Their leader was a tough ex-soldier called Ernst

Röhm. The SA recruited many ex-soldiers (including the Freikorps), angry at

having been demobilised as a condition of the Treaty of Versailles. Many young

working-class men also joined, disillusioned with the political instability and lack

of opportunities given to them by the Weimar Republic. The SA offered a

structure, an opportunity to prove oneself physically and also a cause which

many felt worth fighting for; a strong government in the form of national socialism.


Do not make the mistake of stressing Hitler’s anti-Semitism as a major reason for electoral support.

This was very much understated during the election campaigns in the period 1930–1932. The Nazis

had found that many Germans (especially the middle classes) did not have the same views of Jews

as them and so scaled down anti-Jewish messages at this time.

Also, the onset of high unemployment and economic depression did not mean that most of the votes

for the Nazi Party came from the unemployed. This is a common misunderstanding. Many of the

working class remained loyal to other political parties such as the Social Democrats and the KPD

(Communists) in industrial, urban areas. The KPD actually increased their share of the vote at this

time, which would have come from former Social Democrat voters after the party collapsed.

Catholics tended to remain loyal to another significant political party (the Centre Party).


An SA Stormtrooper wearing the distinctive ‘brown shirt’ uniform

and waving the Nazi Swastika flag

Soldiers wearing the distinctive brown uniforms of the SA

boycotting a Jewish shop in 1933

Organised on military lines (including the wearing of brown

uniforms and strict lines of command), the SA acted as bodyguards

to Nazi officials and they also policed Nazi demonstrations and

rallies against left-wing opponents. Many conflicts emerged between

the SA and left-wing opponents of the Nazis. However, the SA often

promoted strikes and strikers before the Nazis took power. This was

because strikes helped to disrupt Germany and therefore the

government (who the Nazis wanted to replace). SA tactics were very

effective in terrorising opposition. These included starting fights,

vandalism, intimidation and even murder. Intimidation of Jews was

also common and they were also involved in Hitler’s failed attempt

at power in the 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putsch. The SA grew from

strength to strength and by the early 1930s its membership had

increased to over a million. The SS developed as a branch of the SA

and increasingly took over their roles once the Nazi Party had

secured power in the early 1930s. The SS actually organised and carried out many of the assassinations

of the SA leadership on the Night of the Long Knives in 1934 (to be discussed elsewhere in this

resource).

Success of the SA in Increasing Support for the

Nazi Party (early 1920s to early 1930s)

Lack of Success in Increasing Support for the

Nazi Party (early 1920s to early 1930s)

They used various methods to help get rid of other

political parties (especially the left wing) and make

others unpopular with voters. Also, many

Germans viewed the German Government to be

weak and the SA as a strong and efficient branch of

the Nazi Party and therefore good for policing

Germany.

Their use of violence and intimidation made many

Germans distrustful and fearful of them and

therefore the Nazi Party in general. Also, many

members displayed drunken behaviour both

inside and outside of their distinctive brown

uniforms. This tarnished their reputation as

orderly and efficient ‘soldiers’.

The Role of Nazi Propaganda

The Nazi Party gained more respectability during this period. For

example, in July 1929 they joined other right-wing parties to campaign

against the Young Plan. They also made an uneasy alliance with a

right-wing conservative party called the DNVP. The leader of the

DNVP, Hugenberg, owned several newspapers and gave the Nazi lots

of positive publicity in return for their cooperation. Hitler campaigned

tirelessly across the length and breadth of Germany by aeroplane,

whilst his propaganda minister – Joseph Goebbels – became election

campaign manager. Goebbels skilfully sent pro-Nazi messages to

Germans, whilst denouncing opponents as being weak and

incompetent or dangerous threats to Germany. In addition, there was

also increasing support from industrialists for Hitler’s determination

for a rearmament programme.


But despite the Nazis becoming the largest single political party in the elections of 1932, President

Hindenburg did not agree to Hitler becoming Chancellor. Hitler had demanded that he would only

enter government as Chancellor and not in any other role. The political intrigue that followed was to

determine the course of Germany’s history until 1945.

KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. Describe each of Hitler’s beliefs as outlined in his book Mein Kampf.

Race Hitler argued that the German (Aryan) race was superior to other races and that it was supposedly being weakened by the Jews. This was a historical view already held by some people worldwide.

Social Darwinism

Anti-Semitism

Lebensraum

c. What was the name of the worldwide recession following the Wall Street Crash? d. Although the Wall Street Crash had occurred in the USA, it affected many countries worldwide. Why was

Germany affected so badly? e. List two effects of the Wall Street Crash on Germany. f. Hitler gained the confidence of many voters following the crash because he had argued what in the

previous years?

KEY PERSON: JOSEPH GOEBBELS (1897–1945)

Goebbels had wished to fight in the First World War, but was refused by the army due to a bad

limp he had since childhood. As an intelligent young man he was interested in literature and the

arts (obtaining a PhD), but wasn’t successful as a novelist. Joining the Nazi Party in the early 1920s,

Goebbels soon became a keen and trusted supporter of Hitler. He was elected to the Reichstag in

the 1928 election and became Propaganda Minister (Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and

Propaganda) once the Nazi Party took power. His writing and speaking skills were used very

effectively in creating Nazi propaganda during their rise to power and later in controlling all

aspects of German life under the Nazi rule. This included denouncing German Jews and

advocating ‘total war’. Remaining loyal to Hitler and the Nazi Party until the end of the Second

World War, he and his wife killed themselves in Hitler’s bunker (they killed their six children

beforehand) as Berlin and the Nazi regime fell to the Russians.

?




g. List the number of seats and percentage of vote the Nazi Party gained in these four elections.

Year Nazi Seats in the Reichstag Nazi Vote as Percentage in the Reichstag

1928

1930

July 1932

Nov 1932

h. Look carefully at the three Nazi Party election results from 1928 to July 1932. What does this trend tell

you about:

How Germans felt about the Nazi Party before the Wall Street Crash?

Voter confidence in the Nazi Party in the three years following the Wall Street Crash? i. Now compare these results with the November 1932 election result. Why might less Germans have voted for

the Nazi Party in November 1932? j. Which political party had the most seats in the Reichstag in July and November 1932? k. Explain why many people in the different groups below voted for the Nazi Party in 1932.

Wealthier Germans

The middle classes

The working classes

Those fearful of communism

The young l. Although anti-Semitism was at the heart of Hitler’s belief in racial ‘purity’, the Nazi Party emphasised it far

less in these elections than they had done before. Why do you think this was? m. Was the Nazi Party the only political party to do well in these elections? n. Name two groups of Germans who tended not to vote for the Nazi Party. o. Identify whether each of these aspects of the SA would have contributed to either increasing support or less

support for the Nazi Party and give a reason why.

Making other parties unpopular with voters

Often drunk and disorderly

Use of violence and intimidation

Strong and effective branch of the Nazi Party p. Who built up a reputation as an expert in Nazi propaganda and later became Propaganda Minister? q. In what ways did the Nazi Party use propaganda to gain votes in the late 1920s and early 1930s? r. How important do you think the economic depression was in helping the Nazi Party become the single

largest party in the Reichstag by 1932?


The Reichstag experienced much political intrigue between 1932 and 1933

President Hindenburg in military uniform and Hitler in civilian clothes, shortly before Hitler

became Führer

KEY QUESTION THREE

How did political instability in 1932 and 1933 contribute to Hitler becoming Chancellor of Germany?

In the two Reichstag elections of 1932, the Nazi Party became the largest political party in the German

parliament (37% of seats in June, 33% of seats in November).

However, this was far from perfect for the Nazi Party:

• Without an overall majority of 51%, they

would find it difficult to pass laws.

Theoretically, if other parties all opposed a

proposed new law in parliament from

November 1932, their 67% combined votes

would block the Nazis’ proposed law and

therefore it would not be passed. This is a

problem for any political party holding the

largest percentage of seats but without an

overall majority.

• Losing seats in the Reichstag showed that

many Germans were voting against

extremist political parties like the Nazis.

• The Nazi Party needed a huge amount of financial

support to bankroll their expensive demonstrations,

rallies and propaganda machine. Their money was running out fast.

• Under the Weimar Constitution, President Hindenburg decided who was to be Chancellor.

Hindenburg did not approve of Hitler and instead appointed von Papen firstly (between the two 1932

elections of June and December) and then von Schleicher (between December 1932 and January 1933).

Hitler had been temporarily sidelined as Chancellor, further reducing the Nazis’ grip on power.

• Hitler had made it clear to President Hindenburg that he would not consider any Reichstag position

other than Chancellor.

• Political uncertainty hung over the Reichstag during 1932–1933

with von Papen, von Schleicher and Hitler all wrangling for

power. President Hindenburg was stuck in the middle in the

knowledge that any decisions he made could be catastrophic.


KEY PEOPLE

President Hindenburg (right) had been a highly experienced, decorated

and respected General Field Marshal during the First World War. He was

elected as the second President of the Weimar Constitution in 1925 (after

Ebert), a position he held until his death in 1934. Hindenburg neither

liked nor trusted Hitler. However, caught between the power struggles of

von Papen and von Schleicher in 1932 and early 1933, he eventually

agreed to von Papen’s proposal that Hitler should become Chancellor.

Elderly and frail, Hindenburg increasingly withdrew from politics during

his final year, whilst Hitler secured power and turned Germany into a

Nazi state.

Von Papen (1879–1969) had been a military adviser and statesman

during the First World War. He entered politics in the early 1920s as a

member of the right-wing Catholic Centre Party, but many dismissed

his old-fashioned views. However, with considerable backing from

wealthy Germans, he eventually became Chancellor in 1932. He

lacked support as Chancellor and struggled to keep the coalition

government together. A prominent member of his coalition, von

Schleicher, persuaded President Hindenburg to appoint himself as

Chancellor instead. After supporting Hitler’s appointment as

Chancellor, von Papen soon became disillusioned. Many of his close

political allies were killed during the Night of the Long Knives, whilst

he was brought to trial but acquitted after the collapse of the Nazi

Party for his role in bringing the Nazis to power.

Von Schleicher (1882–1934) had been a general during the First World War and then a leader of the

Freikorps. He had been a political adviser to Hindenburg after he became President of the Weimar

Republic. His short-lived appointment as Chancellor (less than two months) was Hindenburg’s

second attempt at creating ‘centrist’ alliances to keep the Nazis and Hitler from power. This was

unsuccessful and von Schleicher was replaced by Hitler. Von Papen actually supported Hitler in

taking over the role of Chancellor with himself as Vice-Chancellor (this was a misguided attempt to

reduce Hitler’s power from within). Von Schleicher was murdered by Nazi assassins the following

year during the Night of the Long Knives.

Note – Hindenburg, von Papen and von Schleicher had worked together in various military capacities during

the First World War, they had been political allies and were personal friends. The problems that existed

between them during 1932–1933 therefore show how problematic such relationships can become when faced

with threats such as political instability and the rise of Nazism.

Von Schleicher (right) with von Papen (left)





a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. Why was it a problem that the Nazi Party did not have at least 51% of the seats in the Reichstag? c. Explain why each of these factors were a problem for the Nazi Party in November 1932.

Factor Why this was a problem for the Nazi Party

Losing 4% of their seats in the Reichstag

Financial support

President Hindenburg’s choice of Chancellor

d. Describe the political roles of each of the following in 1932:

Hindenburg

Von Papen

Von Schleicher e. Which of the following statements do you most agree with?

The reason why Hitler was denied the right to be Chancellor even after winning two elections in 1932 was because of the skill of von Papen and von Schleicher.

The reason why Hitler was denied the right to be Chancellor even after winning two elections in 1932

was because Hindenburg feared the direction Hitler might take Germany in. f. Who do you think was most responsible for Hitler becoming Chancellor in 1933 – Hindenburg, von Papen,

von Schleicher or a combination of each? Give a reason for your choice.

?


The Emergence of the Nazis as a Mass Party / Hitler’s Leadership Strengths:

The Nazi Party had become infamous following the failed Munich Beer Hall Putsch.

Hitler’s book Mein Kampf (‘My Struggle’) became popular when published in 1925.

Hitler reorganised the Nazi Party for participation in the democratic process.

Most support came from the working classes. Many saw the Nazis as potential strong leaders.

Weaknesses:

They did not perform well in elections until the Great Depression in the late 1920s.

Economic conditions and living standards improved, so many ignored extreme political parties.

By 1929, the Nazis had some seats in the Reichstag. However, they did not have enough.

The Reasons for the Dramatic Increase of Support for Nazism after 1929

Germany was affected badly by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to the Great Depression.

American loans were withdrawn and millions became unemployed.

Hitler seized the opportunity and argued that Germany had over relied on other countries and that the

government was weak.

Many undecided voters increasingly looked to extreme parties to solve Germany’s problems.

Nazism appealed to many Germans afraid of losing their jobs or having their pay cut.

Wealthier Germans feared Communism, so many voted for right-wing political parties.

In the mid-1920s, Hitler’s Nazi Party were still a small political party.

However, by 1932 they had gained the most votes in Parliament.

However, President Hindenburg did not agree to Hitler being Chancellor. in 1932.

Problem: Nazis did not have a Grip on Power

Nazi seats in 1932 elections: June=37% / Nov=33%. No Nazi majority (i.e. 51%) meant other parties could

outvote Nazis.

Losing 4 seats meant many Germans were voting against Nazis.

Nazi Party nearly bankrupt; urgently needed financial support.

President Hindenburg elected von Papen, then von Schleicher as Chancellors, instead of Hitler.

Result: A Political ‘tug of war’ emerged by late 1932. Finally, after months of political wrangling, in January 1933,

Hindenburg agreed to make Hitler Chancellor.

SUMMARY – HOW WAS HITLER ABLE TO COME TO POWER?


SUMMARY – HOW WAS HITLER ABLE TO COME TO POWER?

Nazi Leaders played Various Roles in the Success of the Nazi Party between 1929 and 1933

Goebbels’ Role:

He became a keen and trusted supporter of Hitler

from the early days onwards. Elected to the

Reichstag in 1928, he became Nazi Propaganda

Minister. His writing and speaking skills were

used very effectively in creating pro-Nazi and

anti-opposition propaganda.

The role of propaganda in increasing the Nazi

vote:

Nazi Party members were trained as skilful

speakers.

Hitler campaigned tirelessly across Germany

at huge rallies.

Goebbels became a highly effective election

campaign manager.

Pro-Nazi publicity appeared in many

newspapers. Industrialists increasingly

supported Hitler and his views on

rearmament.

Röhm’s Role:

After membership in the right-wing Freikorps, he

joined the Nazi Party. He supported the Munich

Beer Hall Putsch of 1923. He built up the SA from

the early 1920s. He was killed in 1934 on Nazi

orders, after a power struggle between the SS and

the SA.

The role of the SA in increasing the Nazi vote:

Strengths:

Stormtroopers terrorised left-wing opponents.

SA organised strikes to disrupt the Weimar

Government and make them look weak.

The million members by the early 1930s swelled

the Nazi vote.

Weaknesses:

Many Germans were afraid of the SA, which put

them off Nazism.

Many SA members were often drunk or got in

to fights.


Section 2: Control and Opposition

2.1 Overview of: Control and Opposition

Between 1933 and 1945, Hitler’s Nazi Party effectively controlled one of the most powerful

countries in history. This is how they achieved it.

Ho

w H

itle

r cr

eate

d a

dic

tato

rsh

ip 1

933–

1934

Jan 1933 Hitler elected Chancellor

Feb 1933 Article 48 (emergency laws)

Feb 1933 Reichstag Fire

Mar 1933 Nazis win 45% vote

Mar 1933 Enabling Act (emergency laws)

July 1933 Germany becomes one-party state

Jan 1934 ‘Night of the Long Knives’

Aug 1934 Hindenburg dies / Hitler becomes ‘Führer’

Within a year and a half, Hitler had:

Used democracy to dismantle it

Made himself ‘Führer’ (President, Chancellor and Head of Armed Forces)

Ruthlessly wiped out his own SA

Naz

i M

eth

od

s o

f C

on

tro

l: 1

933–

1945

1: National and Local Groups and Systems

Secret Police: SS/Gestapo

Concentration camps: used from 1933 for political opponents, disabled and many not

considered racially pure

Local wardens spied on colleagues, neighbours and friends

2: Laws Restricting Civil Liberties

Political parties, churches, opposition groups and individuals were monitored and

suppressed by Gestapo

Climate of fear minimised open opposition to Nazism

Press were controlled and heavily censored under Nazis

3: Effective Use of Propaganda Goebbels ran highly effective Propaganda Ministry

All media outlets under Nazi control

Racist and anti-Semitic messages everywhere

Mass rallies were filmed and transmitted on radio

Op

po

siti

on

an

d R

esis

tan

ce t

o t

he

Naz

i G

ov

ern

men

t

Most effective opposition collapsed because of:

Repressive laws banning opposition such as the Enabling Act

The secret police such as the Gestapo/SS

A highly effective propaganda machine run by Goebbels

However, some opposition to Nazi rule existed. This included:

Passive resistance such as Edelweiss Pirates and many Germans refusing to join the

Nazi Party or give the Hitler salute

Groups such as Communists, Jews, the Kreisau Circle and the White Rose Group

Religious Opposition: Pastors Bonhoeffer and Niemöller and Archbishop Galen

July Bomb Plotters (1944): Hitler narrowly escaped death and serious injury

Hitler died by his own hand in 1945. Resistance had not been effective enough.


A mass rally in support of the Third Reich

2.2 How did Hitler create a dictatorship?


Explain how the Nazi Party used the democratic process in the Weimar Republic to dismantle it between 1933 and 1934

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The creation of the one-party state: the Reichstag Fire, the Enabling Law, the Night of the Long Knives

The removal of military and political opposition

KEY TERMS

‘Centrist’ – Political parties and opinions placed towards the centre of politics. Most ‘centrist’

parties also had members that were either more right-wing or left-wing. Many modern political

parties in Europe are ‘centrist’ parties or coalitions.

Führer – Hitler appointed himself with this title as absolute ruler of Germany (thus becoming the

President, Chancellor and Head of the Armed Forces combined).

Dictator – The absolute ruler of a country where no opposition is allowed.

Cabinet – A small, select group of politicians who oversee different ministries (i.e. with

responsibilities for areas such the economy, military, transport, education and foreign relations,

etc.) and who meet to make important decisions about the running of the country.

Article 48 (Emergency Decree) – Under the Weimar Constitution, the President could issue

emergency decrees (official statements allowing extreme measures to protect the country). By using

these to his advantage (i.e. the Enabling Act of 1933), Hitler was able to dismantle the Weimar

Republic and turn Germany into a dictatorship.


KEY QUESTION ONE

How were the Nazi Party able to gain complete power in Germany between 1933 and 1934?

The Key Events of 1933–1934

The Nazis understood all too well that these problems needed overcoming and they acted quickly.

However, in a little over a year and a half, between early 1933 and late 1934, the Nazis managed to

completely secure power in the Reichstag. In doing so, they fulfilled their ambition of destroying the

Weimar Constitution and replacing it with a dictatorship, in the form of a one-party totalitarian Nazi

state. After campaigning so hard and so long to gain the position of Chancellor for himself, Hitler had

dismissed the position in order to become Führer. The events below will provide an insight into how

Hitler and the Nazi Party achieved this.

Date Event Details Significance

30th Jan

1933

Hitler

appointed

Chancellor

Von Papen suggested to President

Hindenburg to make Hitler Chancellor

and himself Vice-Chancellor. Hitler

agreed to have only three Nazis in the

Cabinet of 12 government ministers.

Almost immediately, Hitler asked

President Hindenburg to call an

election (the date was set for 5th March

1933). Hitler hoped to get an overall

majority of parliamentary seats.

Hindenburg was persuaded to

declare a ‘State of Emergency’

under Article 48, which enabled

Hitler to become Chancellor.

Historians still disagree about the

motives of the key politicians

involved. One main theory is that

they thought they could control

Hitler (especially as the Nazi Party

only had roughly a quarter of

Cabinet seats).

4th Feb

1933

Initial

emergency

decrees

passed

Hitler convinced Hindenburg to pass a

decree under Article 48 stating that the

police were informed of all political

demonstrations two days in advance,

so as to adequately police them and

avoid violence. Individuals perceived

to be a threat could also be held by the

police without trial for short periods.

Prior to the March election, many

political demonstrations were

broken up by the Nazis. Hitler had

pushed for these measures to

reduce political opponents. Nazi

Party demonstrations were not

disrupted.

27th Feb

1933

Reichstag

Fire / more

emergency

decrees

passed

The Reichstag Fire mysteriously

occurred one week before the election.

Hitler claimed that this showed the

threat of a communist uprising by

blaming the fire on the Communists.

Hindenburg used Article 48 again, by

issuing the ‘Presidential Decree for the

Protection of the People and State’.

This meant that prisoners could be

held without being brought before a

court. This remained a foundation of

the Nazi dictatorship until their

collapse in 1945.

The full truth about the Reichstag

Fire has never been uncovered.

At the time, many believed it was a

communist plot to destabilise the

Nazi Party and the political

process. However, many later

believed it was caused by the Nazis

themselves. Thousands of

Communists and Social Democrats

were arrested after the fire and

restricted all political opposition.

Hitler referred to the fire as a ‘God-

given signal’.


Date Event Details Significance

5th Mar

1933

Election

(Final one

until the fall

of the Nazi

Party 12 years

later)

The Nazi Party got 45% of the vote.

However, Hitler needed a two-thirds

majority of parliamentary seats to

change the Weimar Constitution.

Hitler used the emergency powers

under Article 48 to stop the

Communists (KPD) taking up seats

they had gained in the Reichstag.

Hitler also got Centre Party support

by promising to defend Catholic

Church interests.

23rd Mar

1933 Enabling Act

The Nazis had already got support

from the Centre Party, whilst the

hated KPD (Communist) party were

banned from attending. Only the SPD

(Social Democrat) politicians voted

against the Enabling Act. The SPD was

banned shortly afterwards.

The ‘Enabling Act’ made it possible

for the government to introduce its

own laws. This basically did away

with the Reichstag and the

democratic process in Germany for

another 12 years.

14th July

1933

Germany

becomes a

one-party

state

The Nazis became the only legal

political party in Germany. The

Weimar Republic was now Nazi

Germany (also known as the ‘Third

Reich’).

Having been democratically elected

to the Reichstag with Hitler as

Chancellor, the Nazi Party had now

got rid of all opposition. They were

now free to run the country how

they wanted.

30th

June

1934

Night of the

Long Knives

The SA (Stormtroopers/Brownshirts)

under Röhm were beginning to

threaten the authority of Hitler and the

German army (the Reichswehr). Many

SA leaders and members (about 400)

were murdered in one night by the SS.

Amongst the German public, this in

some ways gave the Nazis more

respectability. Also, by getting rid

of their own powerful private army

(the SA were actually larger than

the 100,000, as they remained

restricted by the Treaty of

Versailles), the regular army

became more trusting of Hitler and

the Nazis.

2nd Aug

1934

President

Hindenburg

died

Hitler appointed himself President

and in doing so became the Führer.

By appointing himself as Führer,

Hitler had overall control of all

aspects of German politics, society

and the military.

21st May

1935

Armed forces

reorganised

The army (Reichswehr) was

reorganised to become the

Wehrmacht.

The army was now directly under

Hitler’s control (as Commander in

Chief).


The Nazi Party never dismantled the Enabling Act. Its powers only ceased after the fall of

Nazism at the end of the Second World War.

...imprison

opposition leaders.

...ban trade unions. ...search the

homes and

offices of

suspected

opponents.

...pass laws without the consent of parliament

(unnecessary after Hitler became Führer).

...execute

enemies

of the

Nazis.

The Enabling Act of 1933 gave the Nazi leadership ‘emergency powers’ to...


Note – When we undertake historical depth studies, we often mistakenly compress / squeeze many

years together. One example of this is when pupils compress the events leading up to, and including,

the Holocaust. For example, whilst the Nazi Party spread anti-Semitic propaganda from the early

1920s onwards, actual persecution of Jews by the Nazis didn’t begin until the 1930s and the

Holocaust didn’t actually occur until the 1940s (a gradual development over a quarter of a century).

Therefore, be careful not to compress history. Consider the following points:

Ten years passed between Hitler’s failed ‘Munich Beer Hall Putsch’ and being appointed Chancellor

of Germany. Another six years would pass before Nazi Germany’s expansion of military might

would kick-start the Second World War and the same again until the collapse of Nazi Germany and

the death of Hitler. Throughout this period Hitler efficiently, ruthlessly and relentlessly devised

political and military tactics and strategies to ensure absolute power.

• Angry with the ‘weakness’ of the Weimar Republic, his failed putsch had made him consider

using the democratic system to take power. This had required him to ‘bite his lip’ and be patient.

This he did, whilst building his party and power base from strength to strength.

• The strategy of democratic participation had worked! Ten years later and he became Chancellor.

His Nazi Party became the largest in the Reichstag.

• He then used the same democratic process that had brought him to power to dismantle it. Even

though the Nazis did not have an overall majority in the Reichstag, within less than two years this

had been achieved.

• By the outbreak of the Second World War (1939–1945), Nazi Germany had rebuilt a powerful

army and invaded several European countries.

• Another six years later and Hitler was dead in his bunker, his beloved Nazi State in ruins

around him.




The Enabling Act gave the Nazi Party power to...

...ban trade unions. ...

... ...

...

KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. What key events in 1933 and 1934 led to Hitler’s securing of power?

• 30th Jan 1933 • 4th Feb 1933 • 27th Feb 1933 • 5th Mar 1933 • 23rd Mar 1933 • 14th July 1933 • 30th June 1934 • 2nd Aug 1934

c. What action did opposition parties and President Hindenburg take in January 1933 to try to ensure Hitler

would not have too much power as Chancellor? d. How did Hitler’s use of emergency decrees from February 1933 help the Nazi Party in the March 1933

elections? e. What do you think Hitler meant when he referred to the Reichstag Fire as a ‘God-given signal’? f. How did Hitler increase the amount of Nazi Party seats following the March 1933 election? g. List the key powers that the Enabling Act gave the Nazi Party from 1933 onwards. h. To what extent were the events of 30th June 1934 different to those above? i. How did Hitler use President Hindenburg’s death to his advantage? j. Which date exactly would you use to describe Hitler as being ‘in power’? Was it in January 1933 as

Chancellor, in July 1933 as the only political party, August 1934 when Hindenburg dies, or another date? k. Many factors enabled Hitler to change his role from Chancellor in January 1933 to Führer by August 1934.

Which two of the following possible reasons do you think played the most important part in this change?

Violence | Political Skill | Luck | Weak Opponents | Power of the State | Fear

Now write one sentence explaining why you chose each.

?


...Hitler used skilful

political

manoeuvring over

the next two years to

obtain power…

30th Jan

1933

Wrongly thinking they could control Hitler, they elected him

Chancellor.

4th Feb

1933

Hitler convinced Hindenburg to pass emergency laws (Article

48), using extreme powers to break up opposition rallies before

the March election.

27th Feb

1933

Using the Reichstag Fire as an excuse, the Nazis further

restricted political opposition before the election.

5th Mar

1933

Nazis gain 45% seats in election. Although not a majority,

Nazis used Article 48 to remove more Reichstag opposition.

23rd Mar

1933

The Enabling Act basically removed the democratic process

from German politics.

14th July

1933 Germany becomes a one-party state (dictatorship).

30th Jan

1934

Nazis eliminate leadership of their own SA on the Night of the

Long Knives.

2nd Aug

1934 President Hindenburg dies and Hitler becomes Führer.

By 1932, Hitler’s Nazi Party

was the largest political party

in Germany, but without a

majority. The President

refused to make him

Chancellor. The future of

Nazism and the Weimar

Republic was uncertain, so...

Problem: Nazis did not have a grip on power

Nazi seats in 1932 elections: June=37% / Nov=33%

No Nazi majority (i.e. 51%) meant other parties could outvote

Nazis

Losing four seats meant many Germans were voting against

Nazis

Nazi Party nearly bankrupt urgently needed financial support

President Hindenburg elected von Papen, then von

Schleicher as Chancellors, instead of Hitler

Result: A political ‘tug of war’ emerged by late 1932

...and by 1934 Hitler

had gained total power

in Germany and

become the Führer of a

Nazi dictatorship.

By eliminating all opposition and aided by Hindenburg’s death, Hitler

had effectively taken on the roles of President, Chancellor and the Head of

the Armed Forces all in one. He had successfully used the democratic

system for over a decade to dismantle the very same system that had put

him in power. Throughout the following decade, it seemed as if nothing

could stop Hitler and the Nazi Party.

SUMMARY – HOW DID HITLER CREATE A DICTATORSHIP?


2.3 How effectively did the Nazis control Germany in the years 1933–1945?


Describe the different methods of control used to maintain power in the Nazi state

Understand the effect that laws restricting civil liberties had on reducing opposition to Nazi rule

Describe the different types of opposition to Nazi rule between 1933 and 1945

Explain why there was little effective opposition to Nazi rule

Demonstrate that groups such as the White Rose Group, religious opponents and the July Bomb Plotters opposed different aspects of Nazi rule

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The nature of the totalitarian state; the abolition of freedom, individual liberties and trade unions; the SS organisation’s role in the Nazi state

The nature of continuing opposition and resistance within the Third Reich

The White Rose movement; the work of individuals such as Cardinal Gallen, Niemöller and Bonhoeffer

The opposition of the military; the Kreisau Circle; the Stauffenberg bomb plot

KEY TERMS

Subversive – When an individual or group try to disrupt or destroy a political system. In Nazi

Germany, anyone criticising the Nazi regime were labelled subversives.

Passive Resistance – When opposition is peaceful rather than violent. One example is by doing little of

what you’re instructed to do. Often used by religious leaders, in Nazi Germany it was one of the only

types of effective resistance.

Concordat – An agreement made between the Catholic Church and a particular country (usually to do

with protecting the rights of that country’s Catholic citizens).

Euthanasia – The act of killing people because they are elderly or very ill. In Nazi Germany, euthanasia

was used systematically to kill at least 200,000 thousand people (many of them mentally ill or physically

handicapped).

Human rights – basic rights that all people are considered to have (e.g. freedom of speech and legal

representation)

Pastor – A Protestant Church minister (usually with a church and congregation).

Pacifism – The belief that violence, and in particular war, is wrong on moral grounds.

Aryans – The Nazis believed that Aryans (those considered to be Germanic – fair features and blue eyes)

were racially superior to other people.


KEY QUESTION ONE

Describe the different methods of control used by the Nazi Party.

The Nature of the Totalitarian State; The Abolition of Freedom, Individual Liberties and Trade

Unions; The SS Organisation’s Role in the Nazi State

The Abolition of Freedom and Individual Liberties

The Nazi Party followed totalitarianism to the letter. All forms of opposition were removed and control

was sought over all aspects of life. There were many changes regarding liberty.

The formation of opposing political parties was banned

Courts were brought into line with party views; the People’s Court was set up to try those opposed

to the regime (who were unlikely to receive a fair trial) and judges had to swear loyalty to the Nazis

in order to be given their post to ensure they always gave the verdict that suited the Nazis

The media was censored; it had to follow party lines

Local government, education and even youth clubs were all controlled to ensure the new generation

were loyal Nazis

Freedom of speech became almost non-existent as the Nazis kept a watch on any and all forms of

opposition down to merely speaking out against the party

Many people were arrested by the regime which created a feeling of fear among the populace. Some

were even executed and this marked a huge rise since before the Nazis had come to power: in the years

1930–1932 there were eight executions, while between 1934 and 1939, 534 people were killed.

Trade Unions

These are organisations of different workers split up by trade that work together for common goals – for

example, better working conditions, pay and other benefits. They were banned in Nazi Germany in May

1933. As well as losing the right to form trade unions, workers lost the right to strike. SS and SA guards

were sent to trade union offices, where they intimidated trade unionists and sent many of their leaders

to concentration camps. The trade unions were then taken over by the Nazi Party and were eventually

replaced with the Nazis’ German Labour Movement (which is discussed more in Part 3.3).


Totalitarianism

In popular language, the term ‘totalitarianism’ usually refers to a system of government whereby a

form of government has absolute (or total) power over the whole political system. As such, totalitarian

governments command absolute control over politics, society and economics within their countries.

This means that they are not democratic, as citizens in totalitarian countries do not have the same

voting rights as citizens in democratic countries. Totalitarian leaders are often referred to as ‘dictators’

– i.e. people who dictate instructions rather than asking and seeking consensus.

However, as with other ‘ism’s’, understanding totalitarianism is not easy. Whilst today Russia, Italy

and Germany all practice democracy and capitalism, they were all arguably totalitarian at different

periods in the twentieth century. In this respect, it could be argued that under Stalin and other

Communist leaders, Russia had experienced both Communism and totalitarianism. Likewise, under

Mussolini, Italy arguably experienced fascism and totalitarianism, and under Hitler, Germany had

experienced Nazism and totalitarianism.


The distinctive double lettered ‘SS’ symbolised lightning in Nazi ideology

Methods of Control of National and Local Groups and Systems – Local Wardens

Normal police officers were responsible for preventing crime and catching criminals, in much the same

way as the police do across the world today. However, the Nazi Party demanded nothing less than total

support from all Germans and this was difficult (if not impossible) to achieve. While branches of the SS

such as the Gestapo acted as secret police across Nazi Germany and later on throughout Nazi-occupied

Europe, they simply could not monitor all Germans at all times. In an attempt to achieve this at the local

level, they employed local wardens (also known as Block Wardens / Ortsgruppe). These were local

groups who were responsible for monitoring small areas of cities, towns and villages. Wardens spied on

neighbours, colleagues and even family members to ensure they were supportive of Hitler and the Nazi

Party. They would report any ‘subversive’ behaviour or actions to district wardens, who in turn would

report to the police or Gestapo. Informers were also used effectively.

Listening to foreign radio broadcasts and not hanging Hitler’s portrait in your property could result in

imprisonment or worse. Personal freedoms people take for granted in modern-day Britain or Germany

simply did not exist under Nazi rule. A law was even passed in 1934, called the Law against Malicious

Gossip, which made it illegal to tell jokes against the government. Jokes and criticism about the Nazi

Party and Hitler would have occurred in private among many people (in some cases these were actually

punishable by death). However, the thought of a teacher reporting on a student (or vice versa) or a

colleague reporting an anti-Hitler joke would have acted as a powerful deterrent. This fear ultimately

prevented most people from criticising the Nazi regime.

The Role of the SS

Short for ‘Schutzstaffel’ and also known as the

‘Black Order’ the SS emerged as a small elite and

loyal branch of the SA in 1925 and had several

hundred members. They initially provided

protection to Hitler and leaders of the Nazi Party.

In the early days, the SS wore similar brown-

shirted uniforms to the SA, but with black caps to

differentiate them. This was later changed to black

uniforms. The ‘SS’ symbol was designed to

resemble lightning and soon became a dreaded

symbol of Nazism in general.

Rivalries had always existed between Hitler’s original private

army (the SA) and the SS. Tensions continued as the SS grew

from strength to strength under Himmler’s effective leadership

and expansion of membership from the late 1920s onwards. In

this period they effectively took on the role of political police. By

the time of Hitler’s election as Chancellor in 1933, the SS had

swollen to over 50,000 members. All members had sworn loyalty

to Himmler and Hitler. Power struggles between the SS and SA

contributed to the liquidation of the entire SA leadership in the

blood purges of the Night of the Long Knives in 1934 (as Hitler

moved ever closer to becoming Führer). The Nazis had

been concerned that the SA were becoming too big, too powerful and too ruthless to control. The regular

army did not trust them, partially due to their view that the SA were a bunch of thugs. The SA’s wish for

the army to be merged with them and be under the SA’s leadership was also a cause for concern for the

army and met with hostility. Hitler was beginning to feel he needed to make a choice, and knew that he

had to keep the army on his side as they were likely to prove vital to him. Hitler was also fearful that,


Be careful not to confuse the SS with the SA.

Remember that the SS played a major part in

the elimination of the SA during the Night of

the Long Knives of 1934. The SS were also a

significant factor during the events of

Kristallnacht (the Night of Broken Glass, 1938).


although once completely loyal and very useful to the Nazis, the SA leadership were plotting to

overthrow him. In deploying the SS to round up, interrogate and assassinate hundreds of SA leaders,

Hitler had acted quickly and decisively. In doing so he had ‘killed two birds with one stone’. The SA

leadership were eliminated, their members merged with the regular army and the loyal SS took over the

role of all special police duties.

Over the course of Nazi rule, the SS emerged as a very powerful instrument of Nazi terror, answerable

only to Hitler himself. In 1938, the SS played a prominent role in the persecution of Jews known as

‘Kristallnacht’ (the Night of Broken Glass), discussed elsewhere in this resource. During the war years,

the various branches of the SS comprised almost approximately 800,000 members. Many non-Germans

were also allowed to join newly formed branches from the occupied countries in this period.

KEY PERSON: HEINRICH HIMMLER (1900–1945)

The son of a Catholic school master, Himmler had trained as officer

cadet in the First World War. Following the war he trained in

farming and joined the Freikorps, participating in the 1923 Munich

Beer Hall Putsch alongside leading Nazis such as Hitler and Röhm.

His growing anti-Semitic and nationalistic beliefs led him to take on

various party roles from the mid-1920s onwards. Recognising the

importance of the still small but effective SS, Hitler promoted

Himmler to lead them from 1929. His organisational skills in

expanding the SS and insight into the growing threat of the SA

gained him Hitler’s respect. By purging the SA leadership in 1934

(along with other potential threats to Hitler) and restructuring the

police forces into a vast organisation of state oppression, Himmler

secured his position as one of Hitler’s right-hand men. As head of the

SS, Himmler authorised concentration camps and later on extermination camps and the use of

forced labour from Nazi-occupied territories. As such, he was directly responsible for millions of

deaths. Interestingly, people who knew Himmler have claimed that he did not like the sight of

blood. Himmler fell out of Hitler’s favour after undertaking secret peace negotiations at the end of

the war, an act Hitler considered traitorous. Himmler killed himself by swallowing poison after his

capture at the end of the Second World War.

Heinrich Himmler – mastermind of the SS


Hitler – Führer and Nazi Party Leader

Himmler – Head of the SS (also Hitler’s trusted right-hand man)

By 1934, the

Gestapo had

emerged as

Germany’s dreaded

secret police. Under

the control of

Heydrich and with

almost limitless

powers, they

became a branch of

the SS and were

answerable to

Himmler.

The Waffen SS

developed as fierce

and ruthless military

units during the

Second World War.

They were under the

control of Himmler

and the military high

command. Hitler

intended them to act

as the secret police in

Nazi-occupied

countries.

The SS Death’s

Head Units ran

labour camps,

concentration

camps from the

1930s and the later

extermination/

death camps. They

were heavily

involved in war

atrocities, both in

the camps and on

the battlefields.

Following WW2, all SS organisations were condemned as criminal organisations

by the Allies. Many of their leaders were subsequently executed for war crimes.

The

Einsatzgruppen

were mobile SS

units who followed

fighting units into

conquered

territories to help

administer Nazi

affairs. Brutally

efficient, they were

increasingly used to

exterminate Jews

in the east.

Organisational Structure of the Main Branches of the SS

An Einsatzgruppen officer about to kill a Ukrainian Jew during WW2

Waffen SS troops were organised into highly effective fighting units

Gestapo ‘secret police’ agents in 1945


KEY PERSON: REINHARD HEYDRICH (1904–1942)

After serving as an officer in the German Navy, Heydrich joined the SS in the early 1930s. His skills

and ruthless determination to succeed were soon recognised by Himmler and Hitler and several

promotions followed. Heydrich played a large role in the purging of the SA leadership (the Night of

the Long Knives) in 1934. Further promotions included the Head of the Gestapo in 1936 and Deputy

Reich Protector for Nazi-occupied Bohemia and Moravia (Czechoslovakia) in 1941. Also playing a

key role in the deportation, internment and execution of Jews throughout Nazi-occupied Europe,

Heydrich became chairman of the now infamous 1942 Wannsee Conference. He was assassinated in

Prague by Czech resistance fighters in retaliation to his brutal

methods of control. The German response was typically brutal –

thousands of Czechs were imprisoned, deported or interrogated.

Many more were executed. Some Nazis even viewed Heydrich

as a possible successor to Hitler. However, unverified claims

have suggested that he may have had some Jewish ancestry and

that Hitler and Himmler had ‘turned a blind eye’ to this because

of his importance to the Nazi Party.

Concentration Camps Concentration camps were first used to

imprison political opponents in Nazi

Germany. The first concentration camps

were built following Hitler’s rise to

power from 1933 onwards. On the

orders of Hitler and Himmler,

thousands of Communists were

imprisoned in Dachau, Buchenwald and

Sachsenhausen. Using the emergency

powers granted under Article 48

following the Reichstag Fire, the Nazis

successfully removed political

opponents from society and concentrate

them in one area so as to re-educate

them. The Nazis form of re-education –

or reform – meant that to be released

back into society, political opponents

would have to show that they had

renounced their views and that they

now supported Nazism. In the absence

of personal freedoms / civil rights (prisoners usually still have these), brutal methods were used. Hard

labour, interrogations and torture were a feature of life in the camps from the outset. Needless to say

that some political opponents were either never released or died in the camps. Most received no trial and

proper legal representation. Many Germans accepted the need for concentration camps to keep public

order and ward off the threat of revolution. Dachau (near Munich in the south of Germany) was the first

concentration camp and one which many later camps were modelled on.

This Nazi era stamp commemorates Heydrich as a martyr of the Nazi cause


In exams, many GCSE candidates confuse concentration

camps with extermination/death camps in Nazi

Germany. Although there were notable exceptions,

concentration camps tended to be used for large-scale

imprisonment and/or for forced labour of prisoners.

These had been developed by the American

Government to intern Native American Indians in the

nineteenth century and by the British in South Africa’s

Boer War in the early twentieth century. Extermination/

death camps, on the other hand, were used for the

large-scale murder of various groups of prisoners

during the latter part of WW2 (to be discussed

elsewhere in this resource). Conditions varied in the

camps, although all would have been appalling.

Whereas the principal purpose of most wartime

concentration camps was for forced labour, countless

prisoners died as a result of the terrible conditions or by

the brutal treatment by SS guards.


During the 1930s, the camps were increasingly used to

imprison those who spoke out against Nazism, including

trade unionists and Christians. They were also used for

those considered inferior or who didn’t conform to the

Nazi’s ‘Aryan’ idea of racial purity, such as Jews and

gypsies. They were also used for those living on the edge

of society, such as alcoholics and homeless people. Most

prisoners who had been interned (imprisoned) in

concentration camps prior to the Second World War were

eventually released.

By the time of the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, approximately a quarter of a million

Germans had been interned in concentration camps. More concentration camps emerged in Nazi-

occupied Europe to house prisoners of war and forced labourers to provide Germany with essential

materials needed for the war effort. Thousands of smaller camps were built near to factories, whilst

transit camps dispersed prisoners to other camps. Different categories of prisoners were systematically

recorded and labelled with marks or colours for easy identification. For example, Jews wore yellow

stars, Jehovah’s Witnesses wore a purple badge, political prisoners wore a red badge and those

imprisoned for anti-social behaviour wore a black triangle. The Nazi Party considered those they

believed to be a threat to the pure Aryan race as social outcasts. Jews were the main target and other

groups included Jehovah’s Witnesses, the mentally and physically ill, homeless people, gypsies,

alcoholics and homosexuals. They were dealt with severely through a combination of sterilisation,

euthanasia and forced labour. As the war progressed, some concentration camps became extermination

camps where Nazi ideology on racial purity could be exercised, most notably Auschwitz-Birkenau.



The Abolition of Liberties b. What main liberties were removed under the Nazi regime? c. What did judges of the new People’s Court have to do? d. What loss did workers face? The Role of the SS: e. What role did the SS have in 1925?

f. Why do you think the SS symbol resembled lightning?

g. Why did tensions emerge between the SS and the SA in the following years?

h. Complete the following sentence:

The SS originally only had several hundred members, but by 1933 this had increased to…

i. The SS were involved in what bloody action in 1934?

Jewish slave labourers’ sleeping quarters in a concentration camp in 1945. Although conditions varied from camp to camp,

these were typical of conditions elsewhere.

?




j. Make notes on the four main branches of the SS during the Second World War in a table like the one below:

Branch of SS Duties/Responsibilities

Gestapo

Waffen SS

Death’s Head Units

Einsatzgruppen

Concentration Camps: k. Describe concentration camps. l. Give two examples of the use of concentration camps in other countries. m. Which is the correct statement?

Concentration camps were first used in 1933 to imprison political opponents.

Concentration camps were first used in 1933 as transit camps before opponents were sent to extermination camps.

Concentration camps were first used in 1933 to imprison Germany’s Jews. n. What other groups of people were imprisoned in concentration camps in 1930s Nazi Germany? o. Approximately how many Germans had been imprisoned in concentration camps by 1939? p. How were different categories of prisoners easily identified by concentration camp guards? q. What purposes were those imprisoned in concentration camps expected to serve in the Second World War? Local Wardens: r. What role did local wardens play in Nazi Germany? s. What other methods did the Nazis use to limit criticism of their regime? t. Why did the Nazis create a vast network of informers?


KEY QUESTION TWO

Describe the types of opposition and resistance to Nazi rule in the years 1933 to 1945.

The Nature of Continuing Opposition and Resistance within the Third Reich

As with most people in most countries and at most times, there would have been much private

grumbling about the Nazi policies that affected people’s lives negatively. However, the majority of

Germans would have been preoccupied with maintaining a decent standard of living for themselves and

their families. This was due to a combination of fear and intimidation, together with a sense that many

ordinary people were doing well during the economic progress and peacetime years between 1933 and

1939. Whilst many Germans certainly did not agree with certain aspects of Nazism, most people did not

become involved in open opposition to Nazi rule.

The Nazi government created an atmosphere of intimidation and the Gestapo relied heavily on

informers to arrest political opponents and other prisoners. It was this climate of fear that intimidated

many ordinary Germans and led them to accept and support Hitler and the Nazi Party. Some

individuals and groups used various methods to oppose Nazism. However, open opposition to Nazism

was rare and ‘underground’ resistance was usually unsuccessful. (These areas are discussed in detail

elsewhere in this resource.)

The opposition that did occur in Nazi Germany took many forms. Prior to the Second World War, there

was no serious attempt to take power from the Nazi government. Opposition, resistance and full-scale

attacks on Hitler himself only became more common during the second part of World War Two (a

decade after gaining power). Systematic political resistance to Nazism never fully recovered from the

aftermath of the Enabling Act of 1933 and open revolt would have been pointless (as the Nazis

controlled all positions of power).

There was also some opposition from the army, which lead to Hitler sacking or retiring large numbers of

army officers in 1938. He subsequently took over full responsibility for military decisions himself. There

were also some attacks on factories, railways, and army barracks, whilst spies passed on information to

other governments. This type of opposition was often led by secretive ‘underground’ anti-Nazi groups.

However, most opposition took the form of passive resistance (as it had done before Nazi rule in the

Weimar Republic, when passive resistance ended the Kapp Putsch and was also used in the occupation

of the Ruhr). In Nazi Germany, some working-class groups distributed anti-Nazi leaflets. There was also

the working-class Edelweiss Pirates group, which refused to join the Hitler Youth (to be discussed

elsewhere in this resource). Many Germans refused to join the Nazi Party or have their children join

Nazi youth movements. Others refused to give the Hitler salute (some people were imprisoned for this,

whilst a small minority were even executed). There was also some public outrage at the events of

Kristallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass, 1938 / large-scale anti-Jewish violence).




Below are some examples of opposition/resistance to the Nazi regime:

Opposition/

Resistance Description of Opposition/Resistance

Communists

Communists had links with the Soviet Union (Russia) during the war and they

collected information that would help the Soviet Union through spy rings. Rote Kapelle

(also known as the Red Orchestra), were one such group. They were discovered by the

Gestapo and many of the approximately 100 members were brutally executed.

Social

Democrats

(SPD)

They encouraged resistance amongst factory workers through the distribution of anti-

Nazi newspapers, leaflets and discussions. However, they did not manage any really

effective resistance.

Jewish

Resistance

A long struggle took place throughout Nazi-occupied Europe. Over 15,000 Jews with

makeshift weapons fought against the Nazis in Warsaw, Poland during April 1943

(when the Nazis cleared the ghetto to send Jews to concentration/extermination camps).

They were eventually overpowered and killed after fierce fighting.

Kreisau Circle

These were a small group of German intellectuals, officers, professional people and

Christians who were alarmed at the violence of Nazism and Hitler’s war plans.

Members of the group were arrested and executed in 1944–1945.


a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. What action did Hitler take against army officers who opposed aspects of Nazi rule in 1938? c. Give two examples of passive resistance encouraged by the Weimar Government in the early 1920s. d. Now give three examples of passive resistance used by ordinary Germans against the Nazi regime from 1933

onwards. e. Describe each of the following four different groups that opposed Nazism in different ways in a diagram like

the one below. f. Why did the Enabling Act of 1933 make political opposition to the Nazis difficult? Use your own knowledge. g. In what ways would the Nazis effective and systematic use of propaganda have limited opposition? Use your

own knowledge.

Jewish Resistance

Social Democrats (SPD)

Different groups opposed different

aspects of Nazism. These included...

Kreisau Circle

Communists

?


KEY QUESTION THREE

How effective was opposition and resistance in Nazi Germany?

The White Rose Movement

The German Youth Movement was a wide ‘umbrella’ movement of organisations providing activities

and the education of young Germans. In Nazi Germany, these organisations came under the control of

the Nazis, who used them to promote pro-Nazi views. However, not all youth movements openly

supported Hitler and the Nazis.

The White Rose group were a non-violent student resistance

organisation that opposed the Nazi regime. Based in the

University of Munich (which had a large ‘underground’ resistance

movement), the White Rose aimed to encourage university

students and German youth in general to resist Nazism. Most of

the members were religiously motivated, believing Nazism to be

morally wrong. It has been argued that they were originally

influenced by Cardinal Galen’s outspoken attack of the Nazi use of

euthanasia in 1941. They produced and anonymously distributed

anti-Nazi leaflets, calling the regime a ‘dictatorship of evil’,

between 1942 and 1943. Members included a Munich professor

called Kurt Huber and Sophie and Hans Scholl (sister and brother

students at the university). Along with other students, they

organised a protest in Munich in February 1943. This was followed

by dropping leaflets into the university courtyard. They were

captured, interrogated and executed shortly afterwards. Other

members were also executed or imprisoned.

The actions of the White Rose group are viewed as important as the Scholls and Huber must have

known that their bravery and defiance would have led ultimately to their deaths. Also important is that

several members had previously been in Nazi youth movements and some had been enlisted in the

German Army and fought in the Second World War. Rather than confirming the Nazi view of racial

purity and rightful military expansion, these experiences opened their eyes to prejudice, the abandoning

of civil rights and the extreme horrors of warfare. This is significant as it shows how some people

involved in building the Third Reich not only turned their back on it, but in some cases even rebelled

against it, at the cost of their lives.

A memorial outside Munich University commemorating the White Rose group


Religious Opposition – The Work of Individuals such as Niemöller, Bonhoeffer and Galen

The Nazis’ attempts to combine the Protestant Church with their

beliefs brought about much Protestant opposition. One prominent

example of Church opposition to Nazism was led by a Protestant

pastor called Martin Niemöller. Initially a supporter of the Nazis and

Hitler and an opponent of communism, Niemoller had supported the

Nazi Party and their beliefs on nationalism and race in the 1920s and

early 1930s. He even gave sermons and wrote a book combining

Nazism with fundamental Christian beliefs and practices. By the mid-

1930s though, Niemöller and other German pastors became fearful of

increasing Nazi influence over Christianity and set up their own

church, called the Confessional Church. Although he gained the

support of thousands of pastors, many were persecuted by the Nazis.

Speaking about the importance of religious people following God

rather than man, he gained popular support from Protestants and even

Catholics. This angered Hitler, who ordered his trial in a special court.

First imprisoned for eight months in 1937–1938, Niemöller was then

confined in concentration camps until his release at the end of the

Second World War.

Religion played an important part in German life, even

under Nazism

KEY PERSON: PASTOR MARTIN NIEMÖLLER (1892–1982)

Niemöller was the son of a pastor and had been a highly respected and

decorated U-Boat (German submarine) commander in the First World War.

After the war he trained as a pastor and practised in Berlin. Niemöller had

strong nationalistic and anti-communist views. He even spoke out against Jews

in Germany and the need for racial purity. All of these were similar to Nazi

ideology. This led him to initially support the Nazis in the 1920s and early

1930s. He had even joined the Freikorps in the post-war years and been

involved in the unsuccessful Kapp Putsch of 1920. However, his views changed

as the Nazi state merged the Protestant churches into one, under the name the

German Christians. Believing that Christianity and the state should remain

separate and that religious allegiance should be to God and not the Führer, he became leader of the

Confessional Church. His arrest in 1937 and subsequent imprisonment in concentration camps

throughout the war years were largely due to his refusal to accept that Nazism and religion should be

combined. However, he remained a nationalist and had even offered to fight in the Second World

War. After his release by the allies, Niemöller became a pacifist and campaigned against the use of

atomic weapons (recently used by America on Japanese cities) and for world peace.

He is perhaps best remembered for his poem ‘First they came...’, which demonstrated well the dangers

involved in ‘turning a blind eye’ to the persecution of different groups in a regime such as Nazi

Germany. He later accepted that the Protestant Church had not done enough to prevent the rise of

Nazism in Germany and that his earlier anti-Jewish views were changed during his long

imprisonment. Niemöller’s opposition to some aspects of Nazism and not others has meant that he

remains a controversial figure.


Other prominent Protestant critics of the Nazis included the pastor Paul

Schneider, Heinrich Grueber and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Each gave their support to

the breakaway Confessional Church (along with Martin Niemöller) and opposed

the Nazis on moral grounds. Schneider served two years in a concentration

camp. He was executed in 1939 after continually preaching against Hitler and the

Nazis’ treatment of prisoners. Grueber was imprisoned in 1940 for his role in

helping Jews to flee Germany. Bonhoeffer was executed before the end of the war

in 1945.

Many other pastors and religious Germans became involved with opposing the

Nazi regime in various ways and with varied success. Many sheltered Jews and

political opponents and helped them to escape from Germany. Others simply

gave hope to those fearful of the growing tide of fanaticism and dictatorship.

Paul Schneider as a young student

KEY PERSON: DIETRICH BONHOEFFER (1906–1945)

Bonhoeffer was a gifted intellectual who gained a PhD in theology and became a Protestant pastor

in the 1920s. His beliefs in pacifism and equality were shaped by his participation with Protestant

churches in the Americas and Europe in the late 1920s and early 1930s. He served as a pastor in

London and became involved with African-American Protestantism in the USA. Bonhoeffer

became a prominent member of the Confessional Church in the mid-1930s (along with Niemöller).

He remained an outspoken critic of the Nazi practice of combining the church and state and their

racist ideology. However, unlike Niemöller, Bonhoeffer disagreed with the Nazi view of racial

purity and championed the rights of Jews in very difficult circumstances. He used his influence at

home and abroad to attempt to end the Second World War and was directly involved with helping

Jews escape from Nazi-occupied Europe. In 1943 he was imprisoned for his role in an anti-Hitler

conspiracy, and later found guilty of being involved in a plot to assassinate Hitler. He was executed

by hanging in 1945. Whilst Bonhoeffer was influenced by the peaceful resistance methods adopted

by Gandhi, he has also inspired others in the latter part of the twentieth century, including Martin

Luther King and Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

KEY PERSON: CARDINAL GALEN (1878–1946)

As a German Catholic Archbishop, Galen had opposed the Nazi

rise to power in 1933. During the war, he campaigned against

their human rights abuses, most notably their euthanasia and

sterilisation programmes and their use of concentration camps.

Although he was an open and prominent critic of Nazism from

within Germany, he actually survived the war. This was

because the Nazis were afraid to turn him into a martyr. This

could have possibly led to a rebellion of German Catholics at a

time when the Nazis were preoccupied with fighting a world

war. In recognition of his bravery in taking a stand against Nazi

Germany, the pope ordained Galen a Cardinal. Galen used this

position to secure the release of German soldiers imprisoned in

allied POW camps and in consoling the families of German

soldiers killed in the war.

Cardinal Galen


Other religious groups such as Jehovah’s Witnesses were persecuted for refusing to accept Hitler’s rule

over their religious beliefs. Whole families were sent to concentration camps, where many died. The

Jewish communities in Nazi Germany and later across Nazi-occupied Europe also suffered terribly (as

will be discussed elsewhere in this resource).

The Opposition of the Military

By 1944, it was clear that Germany was losing the Second World

War. The war in the east (against Communist Russia) had been lost,

whilst it was only a matter of time before the Allies would launch

an invasion into Nazi-occupied Europe from Britain. This was

perhaps the first time that many Germans started to doubt Hitler’s

ability to lead Germany. Some even questioned their beliefs in the

Nazi Party. Many more secretly believed that the Third Reich had

seen its greatest hour and that continuing the war would lead to

countless suffering and an end to Germany. To some, getting rid of

Hitler would at least provide a chance for Germany to negotiate

peace with the Allies and soften the blow.

Historical records show that some members of the military and

other groups had seriously thought about removing or

assassinating Hitler from the late 1930s onwards. However, any

attempt to do this and establish a fully functioning government

afterwards would prove too difficult. Those plotting against Hitler

were all too aware that his popularity was growing from strength

to strength during the early war years. Several attempts by senior military personnel had been made to

assassinate Hitler in 1943, including a failed bomb plot on Hitler’s plane. Bonhoeffer had also been

involved with plotters, as had other religious leaders. These attempts and the later failed bomb plot in

1944 show that a network of otherwise loyal Germans (both military and civilian) existed.

The Kreisau Circle

Following military defeats in 1942–1943, more resistance arose. The Kreisau Circle was a small group of

German intellectuals, officers, professional people and Christians who were alarmed at the violence of

Nazism and Hitler’s war plans. They met at an estate in Kreisau, Silesia (hence their name) to discuss

plans for a Germany after Hitler. They even drew up a programme in 1943 based on conservative and

Christian values. They were against staging a coup, however.

Hitler had several high-ranking opponents, especially towards the

end of the war


It is important to remember that religious opposition to Nazism took many forms. Whereas

Schneider and Bonhoeffer disagreed with the Nazi regime on religious and moral grounds

(and were executed as a result), Niemöller’s main objection was with the combining of

church and state. Whilst many Protestant pastors had supported Nazism, some changed

their views throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The fact that the Catholic Cardinal Galen was

never imprisoned for his outspoken attacks on Nazi ideology and practices shows just how

difficult it was for the Nazi Party to control religions in Nazi Germany:

• If they banned religions they would lose much popular support and possibly spark off

anti-Nazi rebellions.

• If they allowed complete religious freedom they would struggle to contain views that

might threaten the Nazi Party itself.


After the leader of the group, Helmut von Moltke, was arrested in January 1944, the group started to fall

apart. Following this, some individuals participated in the Bomb Plot of July 1944 (see below) and after

its failure many of the Circle’s members were arrested and executed, even some who had not been part

of the plot, as Hitler sought to remove any and all opposition.

The Stauffenberg Bomb Plot (July Bomb Plot, 1944)

The closest plotters came to assassinating Hitler was with the July Bomb Plot on 20th July 1944 (code

named ‘Operation Valkyrie’ by the plotters). The plot was organised and led by von Stauffenberg (a

German Count and veteran of the war) with the help of a network of high-ranking military officers.

Amongst these was General Beck, who had become disillusioned with Hitler and who was to become

the provisional leader of Germany if the plot had succeeded. As a respected Chief of Staff, Stauffenberg

had limited access to Hitler and various headquarters used by him. He had previously attempted to

assassinate him, with a briefcase bomb in December of the previous year and again in early July.

However, the first attempt failed as Hitler had changed his plans, whilst he was ordered to abort the

second attempt due to Hitler’s right-hand man (and possible successor), Himmler not being present.

On the 20th July, Stauffenberg was admitted to the conference room

of Hitler’s ‘Wolf’s Lair’ headquarters at Rastenburg, in the east of

Nazi-occupied Europe. Hitler had scheduled a military meeting

with a large gathering of senior officers. Placing a briefcase bomb

under a table close to Hitler, he made his excuses and left the room,

returning to Berlin. The big idea was that, once Hitler had been

killed, army sympathisers would take control of Berlin. The bomb

exploded shortly afterwards, killing and wounding many of those

present. Hitler was himself wounded, although not seriously. His

life had been saved by the briefcase being moved further away from

him (unintentionally) minutes before the blast.

After assassinating Hitler, the plotters’ big idea

was to gather the support of leading politicians

and soldiers and quickly establish a new

government. But the plot had failed and the

plotters were soon rounded up, tortured and

executed. In the aftermath, Hitler ordered the

imprisonment of anyone his SS perceived to be a

threat. Thousands of relatives were also

imprisoned. With typical ruthlessness and

efficiency, Hitler had once again wiped out

opposition to his rule.

The prison courtyard where Stauffenberg and other

members of the July Bomb Plot were executed

Awards such as this were personally presented to survivors of the plot. Other awards were presented to family members of those who were killed.




The White Rose Group b. Did all youth movements support the Nazis? c. What were the aims of the White Rose Group? d. What type of opposition did they participate in? e. Give two reasons why you think their opposition was significant in Nazi Germany.

f. What does the execution of the leaders of the White Rose Group tell you about the problems of mounting

effective and coordinated opposition to Nazi rule?

Religious Opposition g. What was the name of the breakaway Protestant Church in Nazi Germany? h. Which of the following sentences do you most agree with?

Bonhoeffer and Niemöller both campaigned against all aspects of Nazism.

Bonhoeffer and Niemöller both campaigned against certain aspects of Nazism, but disagreed about others.

Bonhoeffer and Niemöller both campaigned for the Nazi Party. i. To what extent did Bonhoeffer and Niemöller disagree about Jews? j. Which Protestant pastor do you think made the most difference as an opponent of Nazism? k. To what extent did divisions within the Protestant Church limit effective opposition to Nazism?

l. What types of issue did Archbishop Galen campaign against? m. The Nazi Party could have easily imprisoned or even executed Galen for his outspoken attacks on Nazism.

Why do you think he avoided both of these possible outcomes?

?




The July Bomb Plot, 1944 n. There had always been people in powerful places (military, political and civilian) who wanted Hitler to be

assassinated. However, why did these plotters...

…fail to gain enough support in the late 1930s?

...succeed in gaining enough support from 1943?

o. In a previous attempt, Stauffenberg had been instructed to abort the mission because Hitler’s right-hand man (Himmler) was not there. Why do you think Himmler also being present was of so much importance to the plotters?

p. Describe Stauffenberg’s role in ‘Operation Valkyrie’. q. Why did the plot fail? r. How do you think Stauffenberg should be remembered?

s. In what ways did the ruthless actions taken by Hitler following the July Bomb Plot demonstrate just how

difficult it was for effective opposition to exist in Nazi Germany? t. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Give a reason for your choice.

There was no effective opposition to Hitler because opposition consisted of different groups who had very different aims.


The Nazi Party controlled Germany through a number of highly effective approaches...

By

usi

ng

met

ho

ds

of

con

tro

l

The SS (‘Schutzstaffel’ / ‘Black Order’):

1925: created as a small, elite and loyal branch of SA bodyguards

SS In Nazi Germany: much larger powerful political police under Himmler

Won power from SA following 1934 Night of the Long Knives

Different SS Groups: Waffen SS / Gestapo / Death Head / Einsatzgruppen

Concentration Camps:

From 1933 first used for political opponents of Nazism (i.e. Communists)

Main camps in the 1930s: Dachau, Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen

Most prisoners received no trial or proper legal representation

Many Germans accepted them out of fear of revolution and to keep public order

Also used for those considered racially inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies and disabled)

Local Wardens (Ortsgruppe / Block Wardens), People’s Courts and the German

Labour Movement:

Local groups responsible for monitoring small areas of cities, towns and villages

and spying on neighbours, colleagues and even family members

Judges had to be loyal Nazis, meaning they would be more likely to rule in the

party’s favour

Trade unions abolished and reorganised into the Nazis’ German Labour

Movement which they could control

Media was censored to follow party lines, other political parties banned and local

government, education and youth clubs all controlled by Nazis

SUMMARY – HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE NAZIS

CONTROL GERMANY IN THE YEARS 1933–1945?


SUMMARY – HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE NAZIS

CONTROL GERMANY IN THE YEARS 1933–1945?

The Nazi Party had effectively removed

and outlawed most forms of effective

opposition from 1933 onwards by use of…

Repressive laws banning opposition such as

the Enabling Act

The secret police such as the Gestapo/SS

A highly effective propaganda machine run

by Goebbels

However: Some opposition to Nazi rule existed. This included ‘passive resistance’ by various groups for various

reasons. Some resistance was small scale, whilst some attempted to strike at the heart of Nazism itself.

This included plots to assassinate Hitler.

Op

po

siti

on

in

clu

ded

:

Passive Resistance:

Edelweiss Pirates refused to join the Hitler Youth.

Many Germans refused to join the Nazi Party or give the Hitler salute.

Group Opposition Against Different Aspects of Nazism:

Communists created anti-Nazi spy rings, including the ‘Red Orchestra’.

Social Democrats encouraged anti-Nazi resistance amongst workers through

newspapers, leaflets and meetings.

Jewish Ghetto Resistance fought back in Warsaw, Poland in 1943.

Kreisau Circle: small group of anti-Nazi intellectuals, officers and professionals.

White Rose Group: non-violent student resistance organisation distributed anti-

Nazi leaflets in wartime. Some members were interrogated & executed.

Religious Opposition:

Bonhoeffer was an outspoken critic of the Nazi racism & Nazi ideas about

combining church and state (executed).

Niemöller initially supported Nazi views of racial purity and anti-Semitism. He

became an outspoken critic and spent years in concentration camps. Famous for

the ‘First they came...’ poem, but remains a controversial figure (survived).

Galen campaigned against Nazis’ human rights abuses. Nazis were afraid of

Catholic reaction if they killed him (survived).

Many other prominent ‘Confessional Church’ Protestant critics of the Nazis

included pastors Paul Schneider and Heinrich Grueber.

July Bomb Plot (1944) – Attempt by Officers to Assassinate Hitler:

From late 1930s onwards some military officers had thought about

assassinating Hitler.

1943: several attempts made on Hitler’s life (including failed bomb plot on

Hitler’s plane).

20th July 1944: Officer von Stauffenberg places briefcase bomb near Hitler in his

‘Wolf’s Lair’ headquarters. Hitler narrowly escaped death or serious injury.

Hitler died by his own hand in 1945 – resistance had not been effective enough.


Economic Changes in Nazi Germany

The New Plan (1933) – economy stimulated and unemployment reduced by importing raw materials and

producing industrial goods.

Labour Service – many unemployed built vital public works, including autobahns.

Four Year Plan (1936) – Autarky (self-sufficiency) and rearmament created more jobs. Göring

spearheaded conscription of unemployed men and increased emphasis on creating military weapons.

Trade unions banned and German Labour Front created to oversee work (1933).

Beauty of Labour – made factories safer and cleaner and encouraged better working conditions and

relations between workers, managers and owners.

Strength Through Joy – provided access to leisure activities for workers.

Negative Outcomes: Workers could not strike, many were directed to certain jobs, and many Germans’

wages did not increase whilst working hours did.

Positive Outcomes: Solid economic growth, more job security, fixed wages and high levels of

employment (unemployment = 25% in 1932 to 1% in 1939).

Section 3: German Economy and Society

3.1 Overview of: German Economy and Society

The Nazis considered German women and the family to be vital for the future of the Third Reich.

Nazi policies towards women included...

The Role of Women: Family, Society and

Employment

Nazis believed:

Men and women had different roles

Women should be mothers of ‘racially pure’

children

As a result many professional women lost

their jobs and many considered racially

impure were sterilised

Changes to Women’s Role:

Female workers – increasing demand.

1942: just over half the labour force was

female.

1943: 3 million women conscripted for

work.

Hitler was concerned about the effect

working women would have on morale and

on family life.

The Impact of the Nazi Regime on Religion and Different Social Classes

Religion:

Protestant Church under more

direct control of pro-Nazi

Reichsbishop.

Nazis encouraged Church

support for nationalism and

the Nazis.

Many Protestant Churches

became propaganda machines

promoting the Nazi state.

Social Classes: Life for different groups of people in Nazi Germany varied

greatly, depending on:

Religion, economic conditions, political views, the armed

forces / WW2. Other groups, such as class, ethnicity and age. Many Germans from different social classes continued to

live in much the same way as they had done before Nazi

rule. Others (e.g. ethnic minorities / political opponents)

experienced discrimination and persecution.

WW2 affected all Germans and aspects of German society

(e.g. war economy / conscription / the Holocaust / Allied

bombing and invasion).


3.2 How much change did the Nazis bring about in German society?


Understand the importance of women to the Nazi state before and during the war

Explain Nazi policies towards religion and the responses to these within Germany

Describe the impact of the regime on different social classes

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

Changes in policies and attitudes to the role of women in German society, 1933–1945, the education of women, women’s organisations, changing roles as workers and mothers

Nazi policies and attitudes towards religion and responses to this within Germany

Nazism as social revolution and the impact of the regime on different social classes

KEY QUESTION ONE

How much change was there to the role of women in Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945?

Changes in Policies and Attitudes to the Role of Women in German society, 1933–1945

Women’s Roles Between 1933 and 1939

During the Weimar Republic, women had made gains in professions such as teaching and medicine,

whilst 10% of members of the Reichstag parliament were women. However, the Nazis believed that men

and women had different roles. The Nazis believed that a woman’s place was in the home, as a wife and

as a mother. Many female doctors and civil servants lost their jobs when Hitler came to power. The

number of female teachers declined and no more women could teach in universities.

The Nazis had also been worried about the falling birth rate in Germany in the early twentieth century.

This was a result of smaller families, more widespread use of contraception and more women in

employment. Nazi campaigns encouraged more births so that Germany could become a world power.

The campaign for larger families included higher maternity benefits and family allowances and loans to

married women who did not take up employment. Birth control and abortions were banned and there

were awards for mothers who had a lot of children. Whilst mothers with four children would receive the

bronze ‘Honour Cross of the German Mother’, those with eight or more received the honoured gold

cross. However, this Nazi drive to push up the birth rate was not encouraged or permitted for women

considered a risk to racial strength and purity. Almost 100,000 women were sterilised under the ‘Law for

the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring’.

KEY TERMS

‘Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring’ – this became law in 1933 (shortly after

Hitler became Chancellor) and was also known as the ‘Sterilisation Law’. It made the sterilisation of

anyone deemed genetically unfit (either physically or mentally) compulsory. Special genetic health

courts were set up and hundreds of thousands of Germans were sterilised in Nazi Germany. The law

can be seen as putting Hitler’s idea of creating a ‘master race’ into practice.


Nazi policy changed towards

women changed from the late

1930s onward. Although Hitler

preferred women to remain in the

home, they were also needed for

German rearmament. Encouraged

to enter the labour market

(especially on farms and in

factories), this intensified with the

onset of the Second World War.

Education for Women

To spread their ideas about a woman’s separate role in life, the Nazis sought to teach them this.

Therefore their education differed from that of boys; they had subjects tailored to the lifestyle they were

encouraged to have. There was a far greater focus on domestic science and subjects relating to

motherhood. As they got older, further educational opportunities were shown to become more limited

as fewer and fewer women were granted admission to universities.

Women’s Organisations

The Nazi policy of the different roles of men and women was further ingrained in women’s

organisations. Girls became part of different sections of the League of German Girls (also known as the

Band of German Maidens) depending on their age. It was the only female youth group and prepared

them for the lifestyle of a true woman in the eyes of the Nazis: a wife, mother and homemaker.

When they became adults, they were part of organisations such as the National Socialist Womanhood,

though these merely served to further Nazi views, giving women very limited roles and keeping them

out of politics (women couldn’t join the party) while offering some educational programmes related to

their role.

The Role of Women – Changes to their Role during the Period

The Second World War complicated Nazi policies on women, the home and the family. There was an

increasing demand for workers, and there were increasing shortages on the Home Front. The Nazi

leadership were concerned about people working longer hours. There were several ways to try and help

this problem:

• One way to solve the problem was by increasing the use of prisoners in the concentration and

extermination camps to produce goods for the German war effort.

• Using captured foreign workers and prisoners of war to work in factories.

• From quite early on some senior Nazi leaders such as Speer wanted to increase the proportion of

women working. However, Hitler was concerned about the effect this would have on German

soldiers away from home. By 1942 just over half the labour force was female.

• Eventually, in 1943 over three million women aged 17–45 were conscripted for work (this was later

raised to 50 years old in 1944). They were never allowed into the armed forces, however.

There were also concerns about the falling birth rate and some Nazi leaders considered ideas to

encourage illegitimate births. Hitler later expressed his concern that there would be less men than

women after the war, due to increasing casualties in the armed forces. Serious consideration was even

given to the possibility of men being allowed to have two wives when the war was over. Before the war,

abortion had been made illegal. However, during the war Nazis became concerned that German women

were becoming pregnant from foreign workers. Although this would increase the much needed birth

rate, it also harmed the Nazi idea of a master race. In these cases, abortion was permitted.


Do not make the mistake of writing lengthy answers where you

describe the Nazis treating women as second-class citizens.

Although this argument is justified, Nazis considered women as

a significant and vital contribution to Nazi Germany’s future.

However, women’s roles were very different to that of men.

Therefore, focus on women’s roles before the war, how they

changed during the war and the reasons for this.





a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. Role of Women: 1933–1939 b. What roles did the Nazi Party consider important for women? What methods did they use to ensure they

upheld these roles? c. What happened to many female professionals – such as teachers and doctors – in Nazi Germany? d. Higher maternity benefits were one action taken by the Nazi Party to encourage higher birth rates.

List four more. e. How many children were mothers expected to have to receive the gold ‘Honour Cross of the German

Mother’? f. 100,000 women were sterilised under what law? g. Why were many German women then encouraged to go back to work from the late 1930s onwards? Role of Women: 1939–1945 h. Roughly how much of the German population was female in 1942? i. How many women had been conscripted into the work force by 1943? j. List two other actions taken to increase the workforce. k. In what cases would abortion have been allowed? l. Does the fact that Hitler changed some of the roles of women during the war mean that he had changed his

views about women’s roles? Use your own knowledge and understanding.

?


KEY QUESTION TWO

Describe the impact of the Nazi regime on religion and different social classes.

Nazi Policies and Attitudes towards Religion and Responses to this within Germany

One problem the Nazi Party had to face was the power of Christianity in Germany. Roughly a third of

Germans were Catholics, whilst most of the others were Protestant. To ban them from the outset could

have caused open revolt against the Nazis, especially as Nazi Germany and even Nazis themselves were

comprised of many Church members. Many Protestant pastors held strong nationalistic ideas and had

encouraged their Church members to vote for the Nazi Party in elections. However, allowing

Christianity to remain powerful did not fit easily with Hitler’s notion of a one-party state with him as

ultimate ruler and saviour of the German people. This juggling act resulted in the Nazis accepting some

aspects of the Church, devising Nazi alternatives to others and sometimes banning others, whilst

prosecuting several thousand ministers.

Impact on the Catholic Church

The Catholic Church and members of the Church opposed Nazism politically throughout the 1920s and

early 1930s. In July 1933, the Concordat agreement was made between the Nazi government and the

Roman Catholic Church. They agreed that the Church’s Centre (political) Party would be dissolved and

priests would not take part in political activities (this was significant as approximately one third of

Germans were Catholics and many supported the Centre Party). In return, bishops could communicate

freely with the Vatican in Rome. Their religious orders and Church schools could continue. However,

the Nazis later broke this agreement. Church schools were shut down, monasteries were closed down

and the Catholic Youth League was banned. In 1937, the Pope condemned Nazism and linked it to racist

beliefs and attacks on German Catholics. By 1941, most monasteries and abbeys had been dissolved.

Whilst a minority of Catholics sided with the Nazis, many continued to protest against the abuse of

human rights and the euthanasia policies. Most of the 2,500 Catholic Church ministers imprisoned in

Dachau concentration camp were killed.

Impact on the Protestant Church

The Protestant Church was more divided as it had many different factions. The Nazis placed it under

more direct control of a pro-Nazi Bishop (Reichsbishop) and they became known as the German

Christians. Only those considered to be Aryans were allowed to be pastors. These moves ensured that

the Protestant Church would encourage support for nationalism and the Nazis, rather than being a

threat to them. Many Protestant churches simply became propaganda machines promoting the Nazi

state. Religious symbols and icons often served a dual purpose in their promotion of Christianity on one

hand and Hitler on the other.

Nazism as Social Revolution and the Impact of the Regime on Different Social Classes

Life for different groups of people in Nazi Germany varied greatly. This depended on many factors and

conditions:

Religion

Economic conditions

Political views

The Armed Forces

The Second World War

Groups, such as class, ethnicity and age, etc.


Hitler and the Nazi Party never received a majority vote in the Reichstag, relying instead on a series of

emergency laws to gain absolute power. However, this did not mean that many Germans did not

support the Nazi Party over the next 12 years. Some clearly did, others did not, whilst many agreed with

some aspects of Nazism and disagreed with others. Goebbels’ propaganda had invented the ‘Hitler

Myth’. This meant that Germans would be constantly reminded that they had a strong and decisive

leader. The promise of a better future for Germany would have appealed to Germans from many

backgrounds. Most Catholics (approximately one third of Germany’s population) were deeply

suspicious of Nazism and believed that Hitler was attempting to replace Christianity and the Catholic

Church with a ‘Nazi’ religion. There were more Protestant supporters of Nazism due to the fact they

made up approximately two thirds of the population. By setting up the Protestant Reich Church, the

Nazis arguably created more power amongst this majority. It is important to remember that there was

also much opposition to Nazism both within the Protestant and Catholic Churches. The appeal of Hitler

was understandably far less for Germans with left-wing socialist or communist views or sympathies.

Many would have simply ‘kept quiet’ during the Nazi years, only to cast their votes after the demise

of Nazism.

As with any society, there were winners and losers. For example, those who had good jobs, were

considered ‘pure Aryans’, obeyed Nazi laws and did not speak out against the regime were less likely to

experience problems in Nazi Germany (especially between 1933 and 1939). However, those who did not

have all of the above would have had very different experiences. For example, somebody might have

experienced prejudice and discrimination from as early as 1933 because they were not considered to be a

‘pure Aryan’ or because they disagreed with the changes made in Nazi Germany. Many of these would

have had good jobs and considered themselves to be law-abiding citizens. As the Nazi state machine

grew from strength to strength from 1933 onwards, so did strict laws governing many aspects of life and

dictating what Germans could and could not do. For example, a woman could be prevented from giving

birth due to having been forcibly sterilised under Nazi law. Also, Nazi race laws could even prevent

those considered ‘Aryans’ and ‘non-Aryans’ from marrying or from having children. This increased

greatly throughout the war years (1939–1945) with tragic consequences for many Germans (e.g. those

who came from particular ethnic minorities or who spoke out against the Nazi regime).

Therefore (and as discussed in far more depth throughout this resource), many people who considered

themselves to be decent and law-abiding Germans also suffered greatly under Nazi rule. It could be

argued that, by the end of the Second World War, as Germany lay in ruins following six years of war, all

Germans ultimately suffered. After all, conscription into the armed forces resulted in millions of deaths

and many more wounded. German civilians had also suffered terribly in the final years of the war due to

the effects of the Allied bombing campaign (especially those living in urban cities or working in

industrial areas) and the subsequent Allied invasion.


For further information on the impact of the Nazi social revolution and impact on different social

classes, please refer to the following:

Parts 2.3–2.4: How effectively did the Nazis control Germany in the years 1933–1945?

Parts 3.3–3.4: How successful were the Nazis in rebuilding the German economy?

Parts 4.1–4.2: How successful were the Nazis in influencing young people?

Parts 4.3–4.4: How important in Germany were Nazis’ ideas on race?

Parts 5.1–5.2: How did the Nazis change the cultural climate of Weimar Germany?





Impact on Religion a. Why was Christianity a problem for the Nazis? b. Why do you think that the Nazi Party...

• allowed some aspects of the Church to continue? • devised Nazi alternatives to others?

• sometimes banned others? • imprisoned many religious ministers? c. What did both of the following groups intend to gain by signing the Concordat agreement in 1933?

Catholic Church Leaders in Germany:

The Nazi Party: d. What problems did the Catholic Church experience in Nazi Germany? Impact on Different Social Groups e. Did all social and other groups have similar experiences in Nazi Germany? f. Provide an example of a type of German who might not have suffered in Nazi Germany between 1933 and

1939 (using your own knowledge and understanding). g. Now provide two examples of Germans who probably would have suffered in Nazi Germany. h. In what ways would the Second World War have affected the day-to-day lives of Germans? (Aim to give

several examples.)

?


KEY TERMS

Autarky – Hitler believed that Germany must pursue this policy of self-reliance both economically and

militarily to be strong again. Many Germans accepted this policy after living through the Great

Inflation of 1923 and the Great Depression after the Wall Street Crash of 1929.

Public works – Major engineering projects serving the needs of people within a country and

commissioned by the government.

Conscription – Known as the ‘draft’ in the USA, those conscripted are required to join the armed forces

by law. Nazi Germany introduced conscription for young unemployed men from the mid-1930s, whilst

Britain followed suit in the Second World War.

Depression – A period of economic decline typically where production falls, wages fall and

unemployment rises.

Trade Unions – Organisations that protect the rights of workers (i.e. pay and working conditions).

‘Strength Through Joy’ – This sub-organisation of the German Labour Front provided leisure activities

for workers.

‘Beauty of Labour’ – Another sub-organisation of the DAF, which provided services for workers

within the workplace.

Blitzkrieg – Meaning ‘lightning war’ this new type of warfare was used by invading German armies. It

involved well-coordinated and fast attacks of aircraft, tanks, artillery and soldiers.

Home Guard the ‘People’s Army’ recruited fit men to protect Germany.

3.3 How successful were the Nazis in rebuilding the German economy?


Describe the key features of Nazi economic policies

Explain why so much emphasis was placed on economic reforms and work in Nazi Germany

Assess whether Nazi economic policies benefited all Germans

Understand the impact that war had on the German economy and society

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The development of the economy and employment patterns in the 1930s

Economic planning: preparation for war, the defence economy

The impact of Nazi economic policy on different groups in German society

The response of the German people to economic changes in the 1930s

The impact of the war upon the German economy and society, propaganda, rationing, labour shortages, air raids, medical care, refugees, defeat and occupation


KEY QUESTION ONE

Describe the effect of economic reforms on the Nazi state.

Introduction

When Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, Germany was struggling to overcome

the severe economic crisis of the late 1920s (the Wall Street Crash / Great

Depression). Hitler had promised voters that he and his Nazi Party alone

could save them from worsening economic conditions. Ordinary Germans,

and especially the six million unemployed, expected much from him. He acted

quickly and decisively.

The two main aims were to:

• Reduce unemployment

• Get Germany out of depression

The Impact of Economic Policies

There is no doubt that Germany recovered faster from the Depression

than other major economies such as the USA, Britain and France.

Hitler immediately appointed an experienced and trusted financial

expert called Dr Hjalmar Schacht as President of the Reichsbank

(Germany’s central bank). His big idea was to stimulate the economy

and reduce unemployment through the ‘New Plan’.

The ‘New Plan’ stimulated the economy by making trade agreements

with other countries (especially less developed ones) and limiting

imports into Germany. The government’s main economic emphasis

was on producing industrial goods rather than consumer goods. Raw

materials produced in trading countries were imported and used to

produce industrial goods in Germany, which in turn were exchanged

for more raw materials. Within a few years, production had

increased, more raw materials were being produced within Germany

itself and unemployment had decreased. Hitler had argued that

Germany needed to achieve ‘Autarky’ (become self-sufficient) and that rearmament was an essential

condition of this. Schacht then masterminded Hitler’s plans for rearmament, but lost favour with Hitler

after his concerns that military expenditures might cripple the economy. The ‘Four Year Plan’ of 1936

replaced the ‘New Plan’, with a huge emphasis on rearmament. Göring was at the helm.

Hitler as Chancellor in 1933


KEY PERSON: HERMANN GÖRING (1893–1946)

The son of an official, the young Göring trained as an infantry officer and

commanded soldiers at the beginning of the First World War.

Transferring to the air combat force, he became a pilot and soon received

fame for shooting down many enemy planes. A war hero, Göring took

command of the air force before the German surrender in 1918.

He took various flying jobs following the First World War and joined the

SA in 1922. He was shot and seriously wounded whilst at Hitler’s side

during the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 1923. He held leadership roles

within the SA during the 1920s. In 1928 he became one of the first Nazis

to be elected to the Reichstag, a position he held in the following election.

Göring held major positions of power during the early Nazi reign. These

included Reich Minister without Portfolio, Prussian Minister and Reich

Commissioner for Air. Building a political force (which later came under

the control of the Gestapo), he was involved in the purging of the SA

leadership ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in 1934. By selecting Göring to set

up the ‘Four Year Plan’ in 1936, Hitler had effectively given him complete

control of the economy. These powers were later extended to cover Nazi-

occupied territories.

During the Second World War, Göring commanded the German Air Force (the Luftwaffe). He was

involved in the Jewish ‘Final Solution’ at the highest level and was considered a possible successor to

Hitler. He gradually lost the confidence of Hitler as the Luftwaffe struggled to control the skies, but

remained in Hitler’s inner circle. Göring tried to negotiate a peace deal with the Allies in the closing

days of the war, an act Hitler saw as a personal assault on his leadership. Arrested, tried and found

guilty of Nazi war crimes at Nuremberg in 1946, Göring poisoned himself in his cell.

Interestingly, his brother Albert Göring actually detested Nazism and helped Jews to escape during the

war. Although the Nazi regime knew of some of his antics, he survived the war. This was probably due

to being the brother of one of the most powerful members of the Nazi Party.

Hermann Göring in the 1930s, wearing uniform

with various medals showing his rank and status

Economic Planning: Preparation for War, the Defence Economy

To reduce unemployment from 1933 onwards, the ‘New Plan’ had introduced large job creation schemes

to build vital public works projects. These schemes required many labourers and therefore provided

many jobs. Motorway (autobahns) construction was one such scheme. The Nazis received a lot of

positive publicity for this. However, autobahn construction had been started by the previous

government. Nevertheless, many more were built under Nazi rule. This scheme also created jobs in

other industries such as steel and iron. The autobahns not only connected German cities and towns, but

were also to have an important military purpose later on. The economy was also boosted with rapid

rearmament, although this went against the Treaty of Versailles. Industries diversified and expanded at

alarming rates to design and build military equipment and weapons on a large scale. The reduction in

male unemployment was also aided with conscription of unemployed men into the armed forces from

the mid-1930s onwards.


Trade Unions

In May 1933, trade unions were banned. They were

replaced with the nationally controlled German Labour

Front (DAF) as part of the ‘New Plan’. Workers no longer

had the right to go on strike, but were provided with job

security and fixed wages, though on average they had to

work more hours for less pay.

Changes in the Standard of Living for German Workers –

Strength Through Joy

Realising that high morale in the workplace would also

lead to higher production and a more settled workforce,

the DAF also provided other quality of life services.

These included:

Beauty of Labour (SDA) Strength Through Joy (KDF)

This movement encouraged better working

conditions and relations between workers,

managers and owners. Factories were cleaned up

and made safer places to work.

This movement provided access to leisure

activities for workers. Sports, holidays and even

cruises were included in the scheme.

The German Labour Front was successful in:

• maintaining very high levels of employment

• stimulating economic growth by increasing production

• keeping the majority of workers happy

This mixture of capitalism and socialism appealed to many working-class Germans, but also had its

problems:

Some Positive Effects of Economic

Policies to Reduce Unemployment

Some Negative Effects of Economic Policies to Reduce

Unemployment

Many were simply content that they were

no longer experiencing the poverty and

insecurity brought about by the Great

Inflation in the early 1920s and the more

recent Great Depression.

There was also much publicity and propaganda about the

cheap people’s car, the Volkswagen (originally known as

the KDF Wagen). However, although many workers paid

instalments and looked forward to driving them on the

autobahns, very few actually received them.

Male unemployment had reduced from

25% in 1932, to 10% in 1935 and less than

1% by 1939.

Despite the huge reduction in unemployment, overall pay

levels did not actually increase and working hours in many

areas actually increased.

A German autobahn in the mid-1930s

The German Labour Front (DAP) flag


Impact on Other Groups in German Society

As we have seen, industrial workers seemed to benefit from the increase in employment opportunities

created by Nazi economic policy, and this is especially important as the working class was the largest

group in German society. The poorer sections benefitted the most as they now had the steady income

that they needed. But even within the working classes there were limits, as those in consumer goods

industries did not enjoy the benefits of construction and rearmament and actually struggled to maintain

their incomes. In addition, some groups became increasingly excluded from the workplace. These

included ethnic minorities and, in particular, Jews. Various policies (e.g. the Nuremberg Laws of 1935)

and actions (e.g. boycotts of Jewish shops / Kristallnacht) made it very difficult for most to earn a living

in Nazi Germany. Women also were not extended the benefits of extra employment opportunities due to

the Nazi belief in their role as wife and mother.

The Response of the German People to Economic Changes in

the 1930s Many middle-class Germans thought Hitler and some of his

leadership to be vulgar. This does not mean that they would not

have supported some of his policies though, so long as they

benefited from it. Nazi officials also did much to gain the confidence

of ‘big business’. The ‘New Plan’ and the continuation of the ‘Four

Year Plan’ into the Second World War meant that many owners of

business and investors were making huge profits under the Nazis.

The working classes often felt as if they were the losers of the ‘Nazi

Revolution’. This was because, although their hard work had

lowered unemployment and improved the economy, they rarely saw

many of the benefits of Nazi policies.

KEY QUESTION TWO

How far did the war impact on Nazi economic reforms?

The Impact of the War upon the German Economy and Society

Many Germans felt subdued and concerned when war began

in September 1939. However, the first stages of the war and

the successful blitzkrieg strategy resulted in a rapid conquest

of Poland. By 1940 Germany had successfully invaded

Denmark, Norway, Holland and Belgium. The collapse of the

French army in the summer of 1940 and subsequent bombings

of Britain also meant a surge of national feeling in Germany.

These victories convinced Hitler that through Nazism,

Germany had not only reached a state of self-sufficiency, but

was also a powerful nation to be reckoned with. Propaganda

was used to keep the people’s spirits up and to maintain

support for the war. People were encouraged to save fuel and

work harder for example.

Rationing had started in the autumn of 1939 and there werestrict penalties for people that tried to evade

these regulations. Germany had much more rationing than Britain during the Second World War,

including food, clothes, hot water, and soap. But the blitzkrieg strategy and an ever wider economic base

A poster campaign advertising the ‘People’s Car’ in the 1930s

German bombers caused severe damage to Britain


throughout Nazi-occupied Europe meant that there were no severe shortages as goods could be

imported (including luxury items such as fur coats and perfumes). As the war continued however,

rationing increased: and more and more key commodities were restricted.

Medical care was important in war and the Germans insisted that a member of the international Red

Cross was on board every ship. However, the fact that many Jewish doctors had been forced out of their

jobs undoubtedly had a negative impact on the quality of medical care within the country, as less

experienced doctors took their places.

In these early war years theatres, nightclubs and restaurants were still open, factories were still

producing consumer goods and some people could even still go on holidays. The British had started

bombing raids right from the start of war, but these initially focused primarily on military targets and

later on factories and oil refineries. The bombings did serve to reduce the capacity of arms production.

However by the summer of 1941 55% of the workforce had been mobilised for some sort of war related

work. Labour shortages occurred despite this as more and more men went to fight. The introduction of

women and foreigners into the workforce, as well as using those in concentration camps, only filled

some of the gaps that the men leaving for war made.

Hitler had put off plans to invade Britain.

However, his invasion of the Soviet

Union (Russia) in June 1941 came as a

huge shock to many Germans, Russians

and the international community. There

was some initial success, but by 1942 the

Soviet Union was rearming and fighting

back at a much faster rate than German

military commanders had anticipated.

This led to a huge change of experience

on the Home Front.

The Nazi Party had convinced many Germans that the invasion of the Soviet Union would lead to

another quick victory. However, the lack of a rapid victory meant that the Nazi Party encouraged the

collection of winter clothes for the Russian (Eastern) Front. The mood quickly changed after the German

army’s defeat at Stalingrad in January 1943. Heavy German troop losses and the increasing sight of

hospital trains carrying wounded troops back from the eastern front led many to question the war. In

February 1943, Goebbels spoke to an audience of 10,000 at

Berlin Sportspalast and all radio stations in his famous speech urging the need for ‘total war’.

From 1943 onwards, Allied bombing of Germany became much heavier and included major cities such

as Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne and Dresden. While the Germans had tried to greatly expand

their economy for the war, such bombings limited their ability to do this. For the first time since the Nazi

Party came to power a decade before, the tide was starting to turn.

Bombs Dropped in Tons On Germany On Britain

1940 10,000 40,000

1941 30,000 20,000

1942 40,000 5,000

1943 120,000 3,000

1944 650,000 10,000

1945 500,000 1,000

German soldiers


These statistics reveal well how the tide of war had changed against Germany. The army had been

stretched too far, America had joined the Allies and Soviet Russia was fighting back with a vengeance.

In September 1944, the Volkssturm (Home Guard) was formed. It suffered from a combination of poor

training, a lack of equipment and low morale. By the end of 1944, almost as many German civilians had

been killed by the relentless Allied bombing campaign as in the armed forces. Food shortages were

increasingly severe and supplying civilians and the armed forces with essential goods became

increasingly difficult in many places because of transport problems. Medical care was also affected by

this and there were many deaths from disease.

Millions fled the bombs as well as the Russians and went to the safety of the countryside and the

villages. Roughly 12 million Germans fled the east after changes in the frontier as the Russians

advanced.

On 30th April, 1945 with Russian troops only a few

hundreds of meters away from Berlin, Hitler shot

himself and his body was burnt. Chaos erupted on

the streets of Berlin as Nazi Germany had been

reduced to ruins. The army had been defeated,

most of the country occupied and many of the

country’s leaders dead, captured or fleeing.

After Germany’s surrender and the breakdown of

its government, the Allies divided the country

itself into four zones, each controlled by one of the

victorious powers: Great Britain, France, the USA

and the USSR, while some land was given to

Poland as well. Berlin itself was

likewise partitioned. It was the end of

Nazi Germany.

Soviet (Russian) POWs after the German offensive. The Germans actually prevented the Red Cross from coming into Russian POW camps.

A British Lancaster bomber flying over Hamburg, Germany


Historians disagree as to the

total loss of German life in the

Second World War. However,

they were significant. Estimates

range from five to eight million

deaths, most of them being

soldiers. This amounted to

approximately ten percent of

the entire population, but does

not take in to consideration

those military personnel and

civilians wounded throughout

the conflict. Millions more

Germans were made homeless

or became refugees.


KEY QUESTIONS ONE & TWO – ACTIVITIES

Note: Look back over your notes on: the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Hyperinflation (1923) and the effects of the Wall Street Crash (1923) to help you answer these questions. a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. What two immediate economic problems did Hitler face when he became Chancellor? c. What was Dr Schacht’s (President of the Reichsbank) big idea in 1933? d. Describe the main economic reforms outlined in the ‘New Plan’:

• Trade agreements • German imports • Production • Raw materials • Unemployment over the following years

e. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

The first autobahns started to be built in 1933 by Hitler as a way to reduce unemployment. f. Explain your choice. g. In what ways did the building of large public works – such as the autobahns – help the economy and reduce

unemployment? h. What was the one main difference between the ‘Four Year Plan’ of 1936 and the earlier plan it replaced? i. What is meant by Autarky? j. Why did Hitler argue that reaching Autarky was vital for Germany’s future? k. What powers had been given to Göring by letting him lead the ‘Four Year Plan’? l. How did the rearming of Germany and the building up of the armed forces also lower unemployment? m. In what ways would the achievement of Autarky and rearmament be beneficial to Hitler and the Nazi regime

from 1939 onwards?

o. Describe one positive effect and one negative effect of the creation of the German Labour Front (DAF). p. Explain how both the Beauty of Labour (SDA) and the Strength Through Joy (KDF) would have contributed to

a happier workforce. q. Complete the following sentences by crossing out the incorrect words written in bold (and including

percentages in the first sentence): • Male unemployment had increased/reduced from ___% in 1932, to 10% in 1935 and ___% in 1939. • Despite the huge increase/reduction in unemployment, overall pay levels did / did not actually increase for

many Germans and working hours in many areas actually increased/decreased.

r. Did ethnic minorities benefit as much as other Germans from the economic reforms? s. What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages to ordinary German workers from Nazi economic

policies during the 1930s?

?




t. What type of people do you think would have benefited the most from Nazi economic reforms from 1933 onwards? Who didn’t benefit?

u. Many historians suggest that Nazi economic reforms were a combination of capitalism and socialism. Do you

agree or disagree? Give a reason for your answer.

v. List one key point about Germany’s involvement in the Second World War for each year:

1939 – Britain declared war on Germany in September, which became known as the Second World War 1939 – 1940 – 1941 – 1942 – 1943 – 1944 – 1945 –

1945 – Approximately eight million Germans had been killed, another seven million made homeless and another 16 million became refugees by the end of the war.


SUMMARY – HOW SUCCESSFUL WERE THE NAZIS IN REBUILDING

THE GERMAN ECONOMY?

When Hitler became Chancellor in 1933:

Germany was struggling with the severe economic crisis of the late 1920s (Wall Street Crash / Great

Depression).

Hitler had promised voters and especially the six million unemployed that his Nazi Party alone could

save them from worsening economic conditions.

Much was expected from them. He acted quickly and decisively.

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The Development of the Economy and Employment Patterns in the 1930s:

The New Plan (from 1933 onwards): President of Reichsbank Schacht stimulated

economy and reduced unemployment by importing raw materials and producing

industrial goods.

Labour Service: large job creation schemes employed many labourers to build vital

public works.

Construction of Autobahns: many new motorways also created jobs in other

industries such as steel and iron. Connecting towns and cities across Germany,

they were later vital for the military.

Rearmament: Hitler wanted ‘Autarky’ (self-sufficiency) and rearmament. The

‘Four Year Plan’ of 1936 saw further reduction of unemployment with conscription

of unemployed men and diversification and expansion of industries to build

military equipment and weapons on a large scale. Göring spearheaded this drive to

expand Germany’s military capacity, replacing Schacht.

Trade Unions banned (1933) and were replaced with nationally controlled German

Labour Front (DAF).

Negative Outcomes: workers could not strike and many were directed to certain

jobs.

Positive Outcomes: solid economic growth and many workers were kept happy

through job security, fixed wages and high levels of employment.

Limits: ethnic minorities and women did not benefit much from these reforms.

Beauty of Labour (SDA) made factories safer and cleaner and encouraged better

working conditions and relations between workers, managers and owners.

Strength Through Joy(KDF) provided access to leisure activities for workers

(sports and leisure activities and holidays)

Working and Living Standards: To increase worker morale and therefore

productivity, DAF provided quality of life services:

Some Positive Effects of Economic Policies to

Reduce Unemployment

Some Negative Effects of Economic Policies to

Reduce Unemployment

Poverty and insecurity brought about by

economic problems in the early and late 1920s had

largely disappeared

Many Germans did not receive the cheap people’s

car, the Volkswagen, after paying instalments

Male unemployment reduced from 25% in 1932,

to 10% in 1935 and less than 1% by 1939

Despite the huge reduction in unemployment,

overall pay levels did not actually increase and

working hours in many areas actually increased

From 1939 to 1945, Nazi Germany’s economy was completely geared towards war


Propaganda in the Nazi Education System:

The big idea was to indoctrinate youth (to

become soldiers and Nazi administrators, etc.)

Important subjects included German, History,

Biology and Physical Education

National Socialist Teachers’ League: 97% of

teachers were members by 1937

Academic standards dropped and some youths

were denied an education

Youth Movements in Nazi Germany:

Nazi youth movements introduced from 1920s

1933: Other youth movements banned

1936: Membership to Nazi youth movements

made compulsory

Main Purpose was to create young, fit,

disciplined & loyal Nazis

Boys (Hitler Youth) should be fit for war

Girls (League of German Maidens) should be fit

for work in the home

Did provide many activities for poorer youth

Rebel Groups:

From the late 1930s, the Edelweiss

Pirates and the Swing Youth rebelled

against Nazi youth movements and

formed their own. The Swing Youth

danced to Western music, whilst the

Edelweiss Pirates attacked Hitler

Youth.

Some of these youth continued to rebel even

after the collapse of Nazi rule.

Role of Youth Movements During the War:

Hitler Youth activities were increasingly

geared towards war effort

Boys prepared for military work

Children collected harvests, delivered post

and helped with the evacuation of

children

Recruitment age to Armed Forces was

lowered and some formed anti-tank and

air defence units, built anti-tank ditches

and fought in the Battle for Berlin

Nazi policies affected different

aspects of German society in

different ways. These included...

Section 4: Race and Youth

4.1 Overview of: Race and Youth

During the War Years (1939–1945)

Before the War Years


4.2 How successful were the Nazis in influencing young people?


Explain why Hitler and the Nazis placed so much emphasis on education

Understand the importance of youth to the Nazi state and the role of Nazi youth movements before and during the war

Demonstrate the significance of alternative youth movements – such as the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the ‘Swing Youth’ – in challenging the Nazi regime

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The appeal of Nazism to youth; the role of youth in National Socialism

Youth movements in Nazi Germany, changing character of Hitler Youth after 1939

Education in German schools and universities as an instrument of propaganda

The extent and nature of youth resistance, Swing Youth, Edelweiss Pirates, the White Rose Group

KEY TERMS

Lebensraum – The idea of gaining extra living space for the large German population had been

popular since before WW1. Hitler used the slogan to argue for the need for German expansion into

countries in the east (i.e. Poland and the Ukraine).

National Socialist Teachers’ League (NSLB) – A state-controlled Nazi Party organisation that

controlled all aspects of teaching.

Hitler Youth (HJ) – Nazi youth movement for boys between the ages of 14–18. State-controlled with

compulsory membership from 1936 onwards, it became an effective tool for churning out soldiers

and loyal Nazis.

League of German Maidens (BDM) – Nazi youth movement for girls between the ages of 14–18.

Also state-controlled with compulsory membership from 1936 onwards, it taught Nazi ideas whilst

preparing girls for domestic duties in the home and motherhood.

Battle for Berlin – The final European battle of WW2 and Nazi Germany’s last stand experienced

fierce fighting. With Soviet Russian armies attacking from the east and the Allies from the west,

most of the once great city was reduced to rubble.

The ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and ‘Swing Youth’ – Some young Germans joined groups which rebelled

against increasing Nazi influence and control of youth. Whilst some simply wanted to enjoy being

teenagers and not young soldiers or Nazis, others became politicised.


KEY QUESTION ONE

Describe the role of education and Nazi youth movements in the years 1933 to 1945.

Education in German Schools and Universities as an Instrument of Propaganda

Prior to the Nazi regime, Germany had one of the most respected education systems in the world.

Teachers and lecturers had been highly trained, the curriculum had been wide ranging and educational

institutions had been well managed. However, whilst education under the Nazis continued to maintain

high levels of discipline, the quality of education dropped. This was because the Nazis were more

interested in influencing and controlling the young to suit Nazi social policy. As a result, lessons were

biased (geared completely towards what the Nazis thought was important), whilst a minority of youth

were denied any education at all from the mid-1930s.

Hitler understood that youth were vital to maintaining Nazi values in a future Nazi Germany. This was

because, although he was Führer/dictator of a one-party state by 1934, many adults did not trust the

Nazi Party. He could control adults through the one-party system, applying strict laws and punishments

and through the use of propaganda. However, he argued that German youth could be easily

indoctrinated and would then be unquestioning supporters of Nazism when they became adults. In

short, young people were viewed as the future of Nazism.

From an early age and continuing throughout school, education had to suit Nazi ideology; Nazi ideas of

race and the need for war were key aspects of this. Subjects such as German, History, Biology and

Physical Education were seen as the most important subjects and could be used to spread very biased

Nazi messages. For example, school books and lessons included:

• German – this encouraged a sense of national identity with a Nazi message, by focusing on writings

about the Hitler Youth and German war heroes

• Mathematics – this included mathematical problems about warfare

• History – lessons focused on the unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles, whilst presenting a positive

and biased view of German history

• Biology/Race Studies and Eugenics – this taught Nazi ideas about the ‘racial purity’ of ‘Aryans’,

presenting a picture to German youth that ethnic minorities (in particular Jews and gypsies) were

inferior

• Geography – this taught the need for lebensraum (additional German living space)

• Physical Education – this became a key aspect of education and trained boys to be physically fit for

possible future roles in the army, whilst girls were trained to be healthy mothers


The Ministry of Education, under the

leadership of Bernhard Rust, controlled what

was taught in schools and what textbooks

could be used by teachers. The same applied to

college and university education as well. Anti-

Semitism was a key feature across the school

curriculum, whilst Jewish teachers lost their

jobs. The curriculum also stressed the need for

girls to be taught about the importance of

home life and being good mothers. Religious

Studies was one school subject that the Nazis

did not think was important. Youth were

encouraged to learn about Nazi heroes and

martyrs rather than religious ones, whilst Hitler had set himself up as a kind of God. Special leadership

schools were also set up for pupils who ‘excelled’ in the Nazi education. Whilst some specialised in

sports and became breeding grounds for future officers and the SS, others trained pupils to be loyal and

unquestioning Nazi Party officials and administrators. There are many examples of German youths,

influenced by Nazi educational policies and youth movements, actually turning against their parents

(especially if their parents were not keen supporters of Nazism).

Teachers were encouraged to join the National Socialist Teacher’s league (NSLB). 97% of teachers were

members by 1937. Some were also Nazi Party members. Many teachers were keen supporters of Nazi

practices in the early years of Hitler’s power. However, this often turned to resentment in later years as

Nazis increasingly controlled what was taught, as well as the activities of Nazi youth movements.

As with schools, university education had

been recognised as one of the best in the

world before the Nazi Party came to power in

1933. However, although they had been proud

of high educational standards, excellent

teaching and freedom of what they taught,

universities tended to be nationalistic. Many

professors had supported Germany’s

involvement in the First World War, were

angered by Germany’s defeat and did not

support the Weimar Republic. On gaining

power, Hitler and the Nazi Party gained the

support of many university professors and

lecturers. This support contributed to

universities continuing the kind of education practised in schools, i.e. pro-Nazi ideas. Many leading

professors and lecturers resigned and left Germany, benefiting academic institutions in other countries.

Others were sacked. These included Jews and others Nazis believed to be ‘non-Aryan’, and those with

anti-Nazi views. New vacancies were often filled with less experienced or capable Nazi supporters.

Whilst Hitler had succeeded in turning universities into Nazi-supporting education institutes, standards

had slipped.

The Role and Effectiveness of Youth Movements – Preparation for War and Charity Work

Outside of school, children were encouraged and increasingly expected to join Nazi youth movements.

Nazi youth movements had existed from the early 1920s and were becoming popular with many

children before Hitler came to power. However, by 1933, youth movements for other political parties

were stopped. Membership to Nazi youth movements became compulsory from 1936.


Always think of examples of how Nazi education

policies were used to support their ideas about

race, anti-Semitism, the role of women and

preparing the country for war.

When answering questions about Nazi control of

education, remember to think about how the

Ministry for Education controlled what was

taught, as well as how teachers themselves

were controlled.


Turning German youth into active supporters of

the Nazi Party played a key role in German

education.

However, Hitler’s personal interest in youth

education also reflected his distrust of teachers,

lecturers and intellectuals. Whilst he had not

completed his own school education, as a young

man he had also been turned down as an art

student by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna.


The main purposes were to create young Nazis that were fit,

disciplined and loyal to Nazism. Boys were to be fit for war and

girls for work in the home. For many children it gave them access to

leisure activities such as camping and hiking. Nazi youth

movements were also involved in various forms of charity work in

the community. However, much of this work involved campaigning

for the Nazi Party. There is also evidence that in some instances it

was used by the Nazi Party to encourage children to inform on both

parents and teachers. Nazi youth movements also instilled an

unquestioning admiration and respect for Hitler and Nazism over

their own families.

Nazi youth movements were divided up as follows:

Youth Movement Membership Age Membership Details

German Young People

(DJ) – Boys 10–14

This provided initial training to prepare young boys for

the Hitler Youth

Hitler Youth (HJ) –

Boys 14–18

From approximately 100,000 members in the early 1930s

to over seven million in the late 1930s

League of Young Girls

(JM) 10–14

This provided initial training to prepare young girls for

the League of German Maidens

League of German

Maidens (BDM) – Girls 14–18 By the late 1930s there were over two million members

Faith and Beauty 17–21

Special training was provided for some young women

before motherhood. Intended to promote the Nazi ideal of

the ‘Aryan’ or ‘Master Race’, emphasis was placed on

physical and spiritual grace.

This propaganda poster promoting the Hitler Youth

shows a boy considered a ‘pure German’ idolising Hitler

The Hitler Youth flag


The Role and Effectiveness of Youth Movements – Military Roles in the War Years

During the war the activities of the Hitler Youth were increasingly geared towards helping with the war

effort. Boys were increasingly prepared for military work, and children were used for work such as

collecting harvests, delivering post and helping with the evacuation of children from cities. The age of

recruitment to the armed forces became lowered as the tide of war changed. Older members of the Hitler

Youth were enlisted into the army in the last years of the war. In the very last stages of war, members of

youth movements formed anti-tank and air defence units, and built anti-tank ditches. Hitler Youth even

fought in the Battle for Berlin. Accounts report that they fought bravely. Only a few survived.


a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. Education b. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Give a reason why.

Standards of state education in Nazi Germany were higher than previously.

c. Give two reasons why Hitler considered German youths to be more important to the future of Nazi Germany. d. Choose any three from the list of subjects below and explain how the Nazi Party used these subjects to

indoctrinate German youth.

Physical Education | Mathematics | History | Biology/Race Studies and Eugenics | Geography | German

e. Why do you think Religious Education was not considered important to the Nazis? f. What was the purpose of Special Leadership Schools? g. After only four years in power, 97% of teachers were members of the National Socialist Teachers’ League

(NSLB). Why was this important to the Nazi Party? h. To what extent do you think that Hitler’s own educational experiences as a young man determined the way

education was organised in Nazi Germany?

KEY PERSON: BALDUR VON SCHIRACH (1907–1974)

Schirach joined the Nazi Party in 1925 and took leadership

roles in Nazi youth movements. Noticed by Hitler for his

organisation skills, he was promoted to Youth Leader of the

German Reich when Hitler became Chancellor in 1933.

Increasing youth membership numbers throughout the

1930s and in wartime Germany, he entered Hitler’s inner

circle. Responsible for the evacuation of children from

German cities in the war, he also oversaw the deportation of

Jews from Vienna (Austria). Schirach was found guilty of

crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials and served

20 years in prison.

Schirach (second row, second from right) with other Nazi leaders at the

Nuremberg Trials of 1945–1946

?




Youth Movements Because almost all Germany’s youths were members of Nazi youth movements meant that they were keen supporters of the Nazi Party. j. What key youth movement policies happened between 1933 and 1936? k. Name the Nazi youth movements for boys and girls of ages 14–18 and describe the purposes of each. l. What was the purpose of the ‘Faith and Beauty’ youth movement? m. In what ways did the role and purpose of the Hitler Youth change during the Second World War? n. Why did the Nazi Party rely so heavily on the contributions of German youths during the Second World War? o. Does the fact that children had to join the youth groups mean that they were all keen supporters of Nazi

ideas? Give a reason for your answer.


KEY QUESTION TWO

How successful were groups like the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the ‘Swing Youth’ in challenging the Nazi regime?

The Extent and Nature of Youth Resistance

As discussed elsewhere in this resource, there was little open opposition to Nazi rule within Germany.

Notable exceptions used various methods and included:

• The ‘July Bomb Plotters’ – attempted regime change by attempting to assassinate Hitler

• Religious opposition – attempts to destabilise Nazism on religious and moral grounds

• The ‘White Rose Group’ – anti-Nazi pamphleteering on political grounds by university students

These forms of opposition are discussed elsewhere throughout this resource (this group is another

example of youth resistance; see page 58 for more information).

There was not much youth opposition to Nazi rule until the late 1930s. However, as membership to Nazi

youth movements became compulsory and pro-Nazi activities increasingly took over their lives, some

youth rebelled. Resentment increased as many leaders of Nazi youth movements joined the armed

forces and went to war leaving youth to be ordered around by other youth.

Two groups who rebelled were the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the ‘Swing Youth’.

Name of Youth

Rebels Description Nazi Authorities’ Responses

Edelweiss

Pirates

These were a loose network of mainly working-

class youth from around Germany who set up

alternative youth activities to the Hitler Youth.

Many undertook similar activities to the Hitler

Youth (hiking, camping) from the late 1930s

onwards and even got in to fights with them.

Boys could befriend girls (this wasn’t allowed in

the Nazi youth movements). Although most

members were not explicitly political and were

involved mainly with teenage activities, some

posted leaflets and sheltered deserters from the

German Army. Others were simply youths who

were living on the edge of society and who

would have rebelled under any circumstances.

As numbers of ‘Edelweiss Pirates’

swelled, the authorities became

increasingly worried about their

influence on German youth. Their

actions were criminalised.

Members were often imprisoned

or beaten, their heads shaved and

some were sent to concentration

camps to be ‘re-educated’. Some

members who became involved in

direct action against the Nazi

regime were executed in Cologne,

Germany in 1944.

Swing Youth

Mainly from middle-class backgrounds, ‘swing

youth’ (also known as ‘swing kids’) gathered to

listen and dance to jazz and dance music in the

1930s (music the Nazis considered degenerate).

Although they tended to mock Nazi salutes,

most were not political. Many were simply

playing out teenage desires, rejecting Nazi

propaganda and the increasing militarism and

control of Nazi youth movements.

The authorities tended to punish

‘Swing Youth’ who were not

considered pure Germans first

(i.e. ethnic minorities). By the

early 1940s, leaders were

increasingly arrested for

organising events. Punishments

were similar to those of the

‘Edelweiss Pirates’.



As with any youth in any country and at any time, German youth who rebelled against Nazi

education and Nazi youth movements represented a natural trend to disobey authority. This

refusal to conform and desire to challenge authority exists everywhere amongst some youth.

Rebellious acts usually took the form of passive resistance; avoiding physical education and

military-type activities (much in the same way that some pupils try to avoid Physical Education

lessons today) or doing as little work as possible.

Although controlling the rebellious youth caused problems for Nazi authorities, many youths

continued to cause problems for the Soviet and Allied authorities in Germany after the war. This

shows that whilst some rebellious youths were anti-Nazi and might have supported Western or

communist ideas, others simply disliked authority and politics.



KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. Why do you think some German youths rebelled against Nazi youth movements? c. Copy and complete the table below.

Name of Youth Rebels Description (include five key points) Nazi Authorities’ Responses

Edelweiss Pirates

Swing Youth

d. Why do you think the Nazi Party feared alternative youth movements? e. Did alternative/anti-Nazi youth movements stop after the fall of Nazism in 1945? f. Which statement do you most agree with?

The fact that some young people rebelled shows that they disliked the Nazi regime.

The fact that some young people rebelled shows that they did not necessarily dislike the Nazi regime but did not like to be forced to join Nazi youth movements either.

The fact that some young people rebelled says less about their attitudes to Nazism and Nazi youth movements and more about teenagers’ natural questioning of authority in general.

g. Give a reason for your choice.


As with any youth in any country and at any time, German youth who rebelled against Nazi

education and Nazi youth movements represented a natural trend to disobey authority. This

refusal to conform and desire to challenge authority exists everywhere amongst some youth.

Rebellious acts usually took the form of passive resistance; avoiding physical education and

military-type activities (much in the same way that some pupils try to avoid Physical Education

lessons today) or doing as little work as possible.

Although controlling the rebellious youth caused problems for Nazi authorities, many youths

continued to cause problems for the Soviet and Allied authorities in Germany after the war. This

shows that whilst some rebellious youths were anti-Nazi and might have supported Western or

communist ideas, others simply disliked authority and politics.

?


KEY TERMS

Social Darwinism – Naturalist Darwin’s nineteenth-century theory that evolution of species

occurred and that all life forms struggled for existence. This theory was often misused for political

and social purposes, justifying nation states and arguing that some groups of people were superior

(better suited to life on earth) than others.

Holocaust – The name given to Hitler’s attempts to exterminate all European Jews. In total,

approximately six million Jews and many others were killed in this genocide.

Anti-Semitism – Strong anti-Jewish feelings and actions. Existing before Hitler and the Nazis, his

racist beliefs and actions took anti-Semitism to the extreme.

The Nuremberg Laws (1935) – These citizenship and race laws were part of Hitler’s anti-Semitic

plan to restrict Jews in most walks of life.

Kristallnacht (1938) – ‘Crystal Night’ or the ‘Night of the Broken Glass’ on 9th November was when

systematic attacks were made on synagogues and thousands of Jewish businesses.

Reich Ghettos – Areas within cities in Nazi-occupied Europe where Jews were moved to. The

standard of living was extremely poor in the heavily policed ghettos.

Wannsee Conference – A meeting between high-ranking Nazis held in a suburb of Berlin on the 20th

January 1942 to decide the fate of Jews in Nazi-occupied areas. The outcome of this was the ‘Final

Solution’.

Nuremberg Trials – Allied war crimes trials held in the German city of Nuremberg between 1945

and 1946. Twenty-two leading Nazis were tried. Leaders of other groups accused of contributing to

the Nazi regime were tried in the following years (such as judges, doctors and members of the

Einsatzgruppen).

The ‘Final Solution’ (from 1942) – The intended extermination of all European Jews by the Nazi

regime was agreed at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942. Approximately six million Jews

were killed throughout Nazi-occupied countries.

Guerrilla Warfare – This is a form of warfare where a small group (usually not regular soldiers)

fights against a larger force (usually a regular army). The former make use of their superior mobility

due to their size to carry out hit-and-run attacks.

4.3 How important in Germany were Nazis’ ideas on race?


Understand the importance that Hitler placed on beliefs in ‘race’ and ‘Aryan supremacy’

Describe the treatment of Jews and other minority groups in Nazi Germany

Explain that the persecution of Jews and other minority groups increased gradually between 1933 and 1939

Explain the ways in which the treatment of Jews changed between 1939 and 1945

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

Nazi ideas: the belief in Aryan supremacy and the master race

Racism in the Nazi state, the treatment of minority groups in society

The persecution of the Jews and the Final Solution (1933–1945)

The creation of Greater Germany and eastern expansion (1935–1945); the impact of war on Nazi policy towards and treatment of Jews and minorities

Reactions to these developments from different individuals and groups, Jewish resistance, Warsaw ghetto


KEY QUESTION ONE

Describe the Nazi Party’s treatment of Jews in the years 1933 to 1939.

Nazi Ideas: The Belief in Aryan Supremacy and the Master Race

By the time of the Nazi rise to power, there were approximately half a

million German Jews. This was about one percent of the total German

population. Anti-Semitism already existed in Germany and other

European countries before Nazism. Many Germans interpreted ‘Social

Darwinism’ to mean that it was natural for struggles to occur between

different groups of humans. They argued that those who could adapt the

best (i.e. the strongest, fittest and cleverest) would rightfully win the

struggle. The idea of a strong Germanic people, known as ‘Aryans’ (as

opposed to other weaker groups) who could become a type of ‘master

race’, was a view held by some Germans. Another view was that some

groups within German society were inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies and other

ethnic minorities). These and other views were used effectively as

German propaganda in the First World War. However, other groups from other countries held similar

ideas about the superiority of their own people over others. These included some people in Britain and

France, but could be found almost everywhere in the world in various forms.

Therefore, Hitler did not invent anti-Semitism, but merely brought together existing views already held

by a minority of Germans.

These claimed that:

• Strong and superior Germanic ‘master race’ of ‘Aryans’ existed and had a natural right to rule

• Other groups were weaker and inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies) and should be removed from

Germanic society

However, what changed under Hitler and Nazi rule was the ferociousness and scale of violence of the

anti-Semitic campaign. From 1933 until the fall of the Nazi regime in 1945, the Nazi Party systematically

used every opportunity to increase the persecution of Jews and other minorities.

Jews in Nazi-occupied territories were increasingly forced to wear

the Jewish ‘Star of David’. ‘Jude’ is German for Jew.


Remember not to ‘clump together’ the Holocaust as if it occurred very quickly. The

persecution of Jews by the Nazis was a process that developed over time and which

increased gradually over more than a decade.

Incorrect Statement: The Nazis came to power in 1933, decided the ‘final solution’ of ‘the

Jewish problem’ and then systematically killed six million Jews in the Holocaust.

Correct Statement: The Nazis came to power in 1933 and over the next 12 years persecuted

firstly the Jews in Germany, then Jews throughout Nazi-occupied Europe. This persecution

occurred gradually: from stereotyping and the restriction of certain rights, to confiscation of

property and belongings and the removal Jews to ghettoes and concentration camps. By the

early 1940s, the ‘final solution’ to ‘the Jewish problem’ had been agreed and the systematic

and wide-scale extermination of approximately six million Jews took place.


From Stereotyping to Discrimination – The Treatment of Minority Groups between 1933 and 1939

The table below illustrates the three major stages and intensification of anti-Semitism in 1930s Germany

in the period from Hitler becoming Chancellor leading up to the outbreak of the Second World War.

Stage One: 1933–1935 (from Hitler’s Chancellorship and the securing of Nazi power to

before the Nuremberg Laws)

Date Event Significance and Effects

1st

April

1933

Boycott of Jewish

shops, cafes and

businesses

SA Stormtroopers stood outside Jewish business during the

one-day boycott, discouraging potential customers. Whilst

some ordinary Germans participated in the boycotts, many

others ignored it.

April

1933

Law for the Re-

establishment of

the Professional

Civil Service

Non-Aryan civil servants (including Jews and other

minorities, but also political opponents) were sacked as

teachers, judges and professors. This later included doctors

and lawyers. However, there was some opposition from

President Hindenburg who insisted this should not include

Jews that had fought in the First World War.

May

1935

Jews forbidden to

join the German

Armed Forces

Approximately 100,000 German Jews had been involved in

the First World War, many receiving awards for bravery.

This type of anti-Semitic policy therefore caused dismay for

many Jews who considered themselves to be proud and

patriotic Germans.

Stage Two: 1935–1938 (from the Nuremberg Laws leading up to Kristallnacht)


Sept

1935

Nuremberg

‘Race’ Laws (Law

for the Protection

of German Blood

and Honour and

Reich Citizenship

Law)

Announced at the Nazi Party annual rally at Nuremberg,

these race laws restricted German Jews in most walks of life.

They included:

• Depriving Jews of German citizenship

• Forbidding marriage or sexual relations between Jews

and non-Jews

• Banning Jews from professions such as teaching,

medicine and lawyers

As a result, half of all German Jews were unemployed by

1936.

This chart explaining the Nuremberg Laws shows the systematic approach the Nazis used to single out and label Jews

Stage One

Stage Two



1936 Berlin Olympic

Games

Anti-Semitic policies were covered up from the international

community by the Nazi Party. Hitler used the games as an

opportunity to show off the strength of the ‘master race’,

banning non-Aryans from competing in the German team.

However, German crowds cheered the black American athlete

Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals, including the 100

metre sprint.

Jesse Owens running to victory in the Berlin Olympics

Aug

1938

Law regarding

names

German Jewish men had to add ‘Israel’ and women ‘Sara’ to

their names, thus singling them out for further persecution.

Sept

1938

‘Aryan’ doctors

could only treat

‘Aryan’ patients

This made it very difficult for Jews and other minorities to

obtain qualified medical help, as Jewish and other minority

doctors had been banned previously.

Oct

1938

All Jewish passports

had to be marked

with the letter ‘J’

This singled out German Jews further. It also created anxiety

by the few who travelled abroad and who wanted to return

that Nazis might refuse re-admittance.

Stage Three: 1938–1939 (from Kristallnacht leading up to the outbreak of the Second

World War)


9th to

10th

Nov

1938

Kristallnacht

(Crystal

Night / Night

of the Broken

Glass)

Approximately 7,000 shops and businesses and up to 300

synagogues were badly damaged by anti-Semitic rioting. Over a

hundred Jews were murdered and a further 25,000 were sent to

concentration camps. The Jewish community had to pay for repairs.

Kristallnacht is widely viewed as Nazi revenge for the shooting of a

German official by a Polish Jew in the Paris Embassy. Heydrich (as

leader of the Gestapo) had ordered the attacks, which involved both

Nazis and non-Nazis.

Many survivors of Kristallnacht claim that this single act confirmed

to them that German Jews were doomed.

A picture postcard of Nuremberg, Germany in 1938. The synagogue in the background

was destroyed by the Nazis in 1938.

Stage Two

Stage Three



Nov 1938

Jewish children

could only

attend Jewish

schools and Jews

not allowed to

use public

spaces

Following Kristallnacht, other Jewish restrictions occurred,

including:

• Jewish children were expelled from other schools

• Jews not allowed to use public places such as parks,

swimming pools, cinemas or certain restaurants

Jan 1939

Jews forbidden

to own

businesses and

Jews were

encouraged to

emigrate abroad

Jewish unemployment rose again. Many Jews who

emigrated from Nazi Germany were forced to leave

property and savings behind. Many fled to Britain and the

USA. Approximately 500,000 Jews emigrated during 1930s.

Autumn

1939

Removal of

Jewish driving

licences, curfews

imposed and

radios

confiscated

At this time, Nazi Germany had invaded several European

territories and Britain had declared war. The Nazis argued

that Jews were more likely to work as anti-Nazi spies, which

became an excuse for these further restrictions.

Many of the policies outlined above affected other minority groups in Nazi Germany, such as gypsies

and the disabled. Although Hitler had a particular hatred of the Jews, Nazi ideas and policy about racial

purity affected all Germans (and later on those throughout Nazi occupied Europe) not considered

‘pure’ racially.

Policies included:

• Forced sterilisations to make women infertile

• Confiscation of property and assets

• Internment in concentration camps

• Mass killings in extermination camps

In addition, Nazis often used these minority groups for inhumane experiments. Additional information

on groups that were persecuted under the Nazi regime can be found throughout this resource.

Disabled German Jews interned in Buchenwald Concentration Camp after Kristallnacht

Stage Three




KEY QUESTION ONE– ACTIVITIES

a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. The Importance of Nazi Beliefs in Aryan Supremacy and the ‘Master Race’ b. Approximately how many German Jews were there when Hitler became Chancellor in 1933? c. Describe these views already held by some Germans before Hitler became Chancellor:

Social Darwinism | Anti-Semitism | Aryan Race | Master Race

d. Explain Hitler’s views about race under the headings ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’. The Treatment of Minority Groups between 1933 and 1939 e. What effect would each of the following six key Nazi actions have had on German Jews? Copy and complete

the table.

Date Action against German Jews Effect on German Jews

April 1933

Boycott of Jewish shops, cafes and businesses

April 1933

Law for the Re-establishment of the Professional Civil Service

Sept 1935

Nuremberg ‘Race’ Laws (Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour and Reich Citizenship Law)

Nov 1938

Kristallnacht (Crystal Night / Night of the Broken Glass)

Nov 1938

Jewish children could only attend Jewish schools and Jews were not allowed to use public spaces

Jan 1939

Jews forbidden to own businesses and Jews encouraged to emigrate abroad

f. German Jews who survived the Nazi regime often claim that ‘Kristallnacht’ marked a turning point in their

persecution. Why do you think this was? g. What other groups suffered increasing persecution in Nazi Germany? h. List four actions taken by the Nazi regime against minorities (a fifth has been completed for you).

Forced sterilisations to make women infertile

i. What do you think Hitler’s intention was in persecuting minority groups such as the Jews between 1933

and 1939? j. Describe the Nazis ‘T-4’ programme. k. Approximately how many people were exterminated this way by 1944?

?


KEY QUESTION TWO

How did the Nazi Party’s treatment of Jews change from 1939 to 1945?

The Persecution of the Jews and the Final Solution

Before the outbreak of war, the Nazis had tried to rid

Germany of its Jewish population by making life unbearable

and encouraging emigration. They tried to encourage other

countries to take them as refugees, without much success.

They had even discussed a plan to forcibly move the Jews to

settle in Madagascar. The idea of creating a ‘super-ghetto’ on

the island of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean proved to be

logistically impossible in 1940 and the plan was then dropped.

Persecution against the Jews increased following the outbreak

of the Second World War in 1939.

This was due to several factors:

• War allowed for more severe treatment of Jews as Germany did not have to be concerned about its

international relations with other countries.

• War increased the number of Jews under Nazi German control. The invasion of Poland in September

1939 brought another three million Jews under Nazi rule. This increased again when Germany

occupied parts of Western Europe and launched an invasion against the Soviet Union (Russia) to

the east.

• Technology such as Zyklon B meant that many people could be exterminated in a short space of time.

Einsatzgruppen (Nazi Death Squad) shootings of Ukrainian Jews

KEY PERSON: ADOLF EICHMANN (1906–1962)

After taking on a number of jobs as a young man, Eichmann joined the Nazi Party in 1932 (just prior

to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor). He worked in various roles in the Gestapo and SS, receiving

praise and promotions for his organisational skills and loyalty. Specialising in Jewish affairs from

1937 onwards, he attended the Wannsee Conference of 1942. Working closely with Heydrich and

Himmler, Eichmann was placed in charge of transporting Jews by train to concentration camps and

extermination camps in Poland. He was later responsible for sending Hungarian Jews to the camps.

Eichmann famously went against Himmler’s orders to stop killing Jews and to destroy Jewish

documents in 1945, as the Soviet (Russian) armies retook captured Nazi territories. Eichmann

escaped to South America following the war, where he lived in disguise until 1960. Discovered by

the Israeli Secret Police (MOSSAD), he was smuggled to Israel and found guilty of crimes against

humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and war crimes. Eichmann was executed in 1961 for

playing a key role in the extermination of six million Jews.


The Nazis’ first moves to mass murder minorities had taken place with

Jewish patients in hospital through the euthanasia programme. Known as

T-4, it also included killing disabled children by starvation, lethal

injections or by gassing them in mobile vans. It has been estimated that by

1944, around 200,000 people had been murdered in this way. These

methods contributed to the Holocaust, because of the techniques and

staffing that had been developed by the Nazis. Mass murder was to take

on a huge scale in the Nazi persecution of the Jews and other minority

groups during the Second World War.

The four stages below show the trend of increased persecution to extermination throughout the war years.

Stage One

Action

Taken Description of Action

Jews were

placed in

Jewish

Reservations

/ Reich

Ghettos.

These were walled-off areas of towns and cities

which people could not leave. Many people

died from starvation and disease (such as

typhus) in the ghettos. Many others also died

from hard physical work in the nearby labour

camps.

The largest ghetto (1940–1943) was in Warsaw,

Poland. Many of the Jewish inhabitants had

been transported to camps such as Treblinka

Extermination Camp in 1942. The clearance of

the ghetto in early 1943 led to fierce fighting

between soldiers and Jewish resistance

fighters. After several months of fierce street-

to-street fighting, crack combat troops

destroyed the ghetto and killed the remaining

inhabitants.

The Lodz ghetto was the area of a Polish city

where Jews were brought in from Germany

and Austria. It later served as a staging post

before Jews were transported to the

extermination camps at Auschwitz and

Chelmno. The Lodz ghetto remained until the

summer of 1944 when the remaining 60,000

Jews were sent to Auschwitz.

German soldiers clearing a ghetto

These empty gas canisters were discovered by Allied forces in an extermination camp

Walls like this were built to segregate the heavily policed ghettos from other parts

of cities


Stage Two

Action Taken Description of Action

The German invasion

of Soviet Russia

leads to wide-scale

murder of

approximately two

million Jews.

In June 1941, the Nazi Party launched an invasion of

Soviet Russia (codenamed Operation Barbarossa).

Einsatzgruppen (highly mobile Special Task Forces)

travelled behind German armies to round up and kill

Jews and other groups. The numbers of Jews executed

by the Einsatzgruppen can only be estimated, but is

thought to be over two million. The forces were

ordered to kill any

Jews captured in towns and villages. Other people

were killed, including church leaders, university

lecturers, communists and gypsies.

However, the vast numbers of Jews in Germany and

the newly occupied territories in Europe and Russia

remained a problem for the Nazis. They decided to use

a more systematic and efficient method.

An Einsatzgruppen soldier

about to shoot a Jew in Ukraine

Stage Three

Action Taken Description of Action

In 1941, senior Nazi

leaders debated a

permanent and ‘final

solution’ to the

‘Jewish question’.

During the early years of the war, restrictions on German Jews still living in the

country increased. In 1941, German Jews had to wear a Jewish star. A wide

range of restrictions were put in place, including bans on using telephones, taxis,

hairdressers and libraries. Jews also had to hand in any typewriters or bicycles.

The first deportations of German Jews were to the ghetto in Lodz in1941.

KEY PERSON: RUDOLF HÖSS (1900–1947)

Höss became an underaged German soldier in the First World

War, was wounded in battle and received the Iron Cross for

bravery. A member of the Freikorps after the war and a

member of the Nazi Party, he was sentenced for his part in a

politically motivated murder. After his release in 1928, Höss

joined the SS. Working first at Dachau Concentration Camp in

1934 then Sachsenhausen in the late 1930s, he became the

dreaded commander of Auschwitz Concentration Camp from

1940. Once the ‘final solution’ to the ‘Jewish question’ had been

agreed at the Wannsee Conference in 1942, Auschwitz became

the main extermination camp. Höss was responsible for the

building of the gas chambers and ovens and the subsequent

deaths of at least two million Jews during the following years. After being found guilty at the

Nuremberg Trials, Höss was sentenced to death in Poland and executed at Auschwitz in 1947. Höss

had claimed that he was an ordinary man who had fulfilled orders to the best of his ability.

Rudolf Höss was hanged in 1947 for war crimes committed at Auschwitz


Stage Four

Action

Taken Description of Action

The Final

Solution

In January 1942, Heydrich summoned senior

Nazis to a meeting at Wannsee to agree a

permanent solution to the ‘Jewish problem’.

The outcome was clear: the intention to kill

all Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. The SS set

up five extermination camps in remote areas

of Poland. The camps at Belzec, Treblinka,

Chelmno, Sobibor and Auschwitz-Birkenau

were all linked to other parts of Nazi-

occupied Europe via train. This made

transportation of people to the camps easier.

By the summer of 1943, Jews from all over

Nazi-occupied Europe were being

transported to the camps.

They were transported in goods wagons (sometimes lasting several days with little or no

food or water). Arriving in the camps, they were then taken to a large shower room, ordered

to undress and take a shower. They were sometimes given soap and towels. In reality, the

showers were giant gas chambers.

At Auschwitz-Birkenau, the prisoners attended a selection process. Medical staff divided

them in to two groups. Those that were fit were selected to work in Auschwitz I. Many

became slave labourers, such as in the factory making synthetic oil and rubber. Those that

were seen as unfit for work (the old, sick and young children) were taken to Auschwitz II

(Birkenau). Those that were imprisoned or killed at Auschwitz-Birkenau came from

countries including Poland, Germany, Belgium, France, Greece and Hungary. Russian and

Polish prisoners of war also died there.

By 1945, approximately six million Jews had been murdered in the extermination camps or

at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen. In addition, many communists, gypsies, homosexuals

and members of other religious groups were also murdered. Although numerically a much

smaller group, gypsies were also sent to concentration camps in 1939 before being sent to

Auschwitz in 1942, where there was a specific gypsy camp. Approximately 11,000 gypsies

were gassed there.

In November 1944, Himmler ordered the end of gassing of prisoners at Auschwitz and the

destruction of Auschwitz. The remaining prisoners were to be marched west away from the

advancing Soviet troops. However, killings of Jews and other prisoners continued. By the

end of the war, approximately two thirds of European Jews had been exterminated.

The villa at Wannsee where the ‘Final Solution’ was discussed by leading Nazis in 1942


Reactions in Germany to these Developments from Different Individuals and Groups

There has been much debate amongst

historians as to whether or not the

majority of people in German society

were responsible for the persecution and

extermination of Jews and other minority

groups. There is no easy answer to

this question.

The issue of responsibility becomes even

more complicated when considering that

many more Jews and minority groups

were persecuted in many countries across

Nazi-occupied Europe. For example,

many Polish and Russian Jews were

exterminated whilst their countries were

under Nazi rule. Also, the wide-scale persecution and extermination of these people occurred during a

brutal world war which resulted in the suffering of many people on all sides of the conflict and spread

across many countries worldwide. Some people who witnessed these events, and others who

participated in them, suggested that they had happened amidst the ‘fog of war’. Amongst these

testimonies were many German soldiers. Some who were involved (including

concentration/extermination camp guards and members of

the Einsatzgruppen) claimed that they were simply following

orders. However, murder is murder even in wartime.

An overwhelming majority of people living in Nazi

Germany were far removed from the events of the

Holocaust itself. Most of these Germans claimed that they

did not know what was happening. It is important to

remember that the wide-scale extermination occurred in

countries to the east (e.g. Poland and Russia). However,

almost all German Jews who remained in Germany at the

outset of the Second World War were eventually

transported to the ‘killing fields’ in the east. For this reason,

some historians claim that most people living in Nazi

Germany would have had some idea about what

was happening.

KEY PERSON: DR JOSEF MENGELE – THE ‘ANGEL OF DEATH’ (1911–1979)

Mengele studied philosophy and trained as a doctor. Believing that careful breeding of Germans

would create the perfect ‘master race’, he met and became obsessed with Hitler’s similar vision in

the late 1920s. Joining the Nazi Party and enlisting in the Waffen SS in the late 1930s, he first served

as a medical officer, then as doctor at Auschwitz. He oversaw the selection process, deciding on

which Jews could work and which would die. Mengele and other camp doctors used some

prisoners (especially twins) for cruel experiments, intending to turn his vision of a master race into

a reality. Escaping to South America after the war, he evaded capture. Some reports suggest that he

died in 1979, after having been on the run for 34 years.

A British bulldozer pushing bodies in to a mass grave after the liberation of Bergen-Belsen

Concentration Camp in 1945


There is much debate amongst historians on the

origins and implementation of the Holocaust. Some

historians argue that the book Mein Kampf is proof that

Hitler had intended to exterminate the Jews from the

outset. Other historians see the Holocaust as a direct

result of the war. The Second World War definitely

did increase the speed at which extermination took

place as it closed off other solutions to the ‘Jewish

question’, such as the Madagascar Plan. Also, the Nazi

conquest of Eastern Europe meant that there were now

millions more Jews under Nazi control.


In recent years, research into the Holocaust has identified countless examples of bravery and personal

sacrifice by Germans in helping Jews and members of other minority groups to escape persecution.

Some sheltered those on the run from Nazis at great personal risk to themselves and their families.

Others helped them to escape to neutral countries. Similar acts of bravery and self-sacrifice occurred

throughout Nazi-occupied Europe. A famous example is that of Anne Frank’s family, but there are many

others. To date, there have been over 20,000 verified accounts of non-Jewish people putting their lives at

risk to help Jews escape. The actual number is probably far greater. Some other historians have argued

that many Germans were too scared to help, as they themselves were living under a dictatorship.

Resistance from the Jews themselves was not uncommon; it was just not very effective as they could not

mount any military opposition. The active attempts they did make were usually isolated and as at the

Warsaw ghetto (see page 101) were eventually crushed by the Nazis. Their lack of equipment was

usually their downfall. Other forms of resistance were on a smaller scale; groups of partisans would

engage in guerrilla warfare against the Nazis, for instance sabotage and ambushes; there was also

passive resistance, for instance assisting Allied intelligence.


Although not much effective opposition by Germans to the

deportation of German Jews existed, one case stands out. In

1943, approximately 1,800 German Jewish men who were

married to non-Jewish German women were arrested. They

were to be deported to the camps. However, their wives and

relatives mounted a week-long protest in a bitterly cold Berlin,

under threats of being shot. The Nazis finally conceded and

released the men, most of whom survived the war. That

unarmed women managed to successfully overturn Nazi

Party policy using non-violent means was nothing short of

miraculous. This has led many people to question what would

have happened if more Germans had protested over more Nazi policies.

A column commemorates the achievements of the protestors




KEY QUESTION TWO – ACTIVITIES a. Read through the section and underline key points and words.

b. What three methods did the Nazis attempt to use to get rid of German Jews before the outbreak of the Second World War? Encouraging German Jewish Emigration

Drawing up plans to create a Jewish ghetto on Madagascar

Exterminating Jews in extermination camps

Offering German Jews large payments to resettle abroad

Encouraging other countries to take German Jewish refugees

Members of the Nazi Party taking German Jews to other countries and leaving them there

c. List three factors that contributed to increased persecution of Jews after the outbreak of war.

d. Briefly describe the four stages of persecution of German Jews and others throughout Nazi-occupied Europe: • Stage One (approximately 1939–1943) • Stage Two (1941 onwards) • Stage Three (1941) • Stage Four (1942 onwards)

e. Describe what ‘Reich Ghettoes’ were and what purpose they served.

f. Describe the main forms of Jewish resistance.

f. How did the Einsatzgruppen branch of the SS contribute to the persecution of Jews and other minority groups?

g. What do you think is meant by the Nazis’ argument that they needed a more systematic and efficient method to exterminate the Jews?

h. What was significant about the Wannsee Conference, 1942?

i. Why do you think Himmler ordered executions to stop in Auschwitz in late 1944?

j. Choose one of the Nazis below and outline their involvement in the Holocaust: Adolf Eichmann

Rudolf Höss

Josef Mengele

k. In what ways did people in Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe contribute to helping minority groups escape persecution?

l. Why might it have been difficult for many people to resist the persecution of minorities throughout Nazi-occupied Europe?

m. Why is an understanding of the opposition protest against Jews being deported to the camps in 1943 Berlin important to historians?

n. Which one of the following statements do you most agree with? Explain why you chose this statement, giving at least three examples. European Jews were systematically persecuted by the Nazis from 1933 to 1945.

German Jews were systematically persecuted by the Nazis from 1939 to 1945.

Jews were systematically persecuted by the Nazis, firstly in Germany between 1933 and 1939, then throughout all of Nazi-occupied Europe during the Second World War.

o. What do you think is meant when historians refer to the Holocaust as ‘The Final Solution’?

?


Some Existing Views Before Nazism:

Nazi Rise to Power (1933): German Jews and other ethnic groups (e.g. gypsies) were a minority.

Anti-Semitism existed before Nazism.

‘Social Darwinism’: many misinterpreted to justify rightful struggle for strongest, fittest and cleverest.

Some viewed ‘Aryans’ as superior ‘master race’ and ethnic minorities as weaker ‘inferior races’.

How Nazism Developed These Views:

Therefore Hitler did not invent anti-Semitism, but combined some existing views claiming that:

Strong and superior Germanic ‘master race’ of ‘Aryans’ existed and had a natural right to rule.

Other groups were weaker and inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies) and should be removed from Germanic

society.

From 1933 until 1945, the Nazi Party systematically used every opportunity to

increase the persecution of Jews and other minorities.

Most Germans had little, if any, involvement in the Holocaust. Some risked their lives to help minorities.

By 1945, the failed Nazi regime had exterminated six million Jews (approximately three quarters of

European Jewry) and many other minorities.

From Restrictions and Persecution to Extermination

From 1940

Jewish Ghettos

created (e.g.

Warsaw): walled-off

areas of towns and

cities.

Many died from

starvation and

disease or from hard

physical work in

labour camps.

From 1941

Einsatzgruppen killed

many Jews and other

minorities following

the German invasion

of Russia (Operation

Barbarossa).

Restrictions on

German Jews

increased.

From 1945

The ‘Final Solution’ to the ‘Jewish

Problem’ agreed at Wannsee, the Nazi

intention to exterminate all Jews in Nazi-

occupied territories – the Holocaust was

under way.

Extensive train networks transported

people to extermination camps, where

most were worked or starved to death or

executed in gas chambers. Countless

others died also.

1935–1938

Nuremberg ‘Race’ Laws

Law regarding names

(German Jews had to include

Jewish names)

‘Aryan’ doctors could only

treat ‘Aryan’ patients

All Jewish passports had to

be marked with the letter ‘J’

1938–1939

Kristallnacht (Night of Broken

Glass)

Further restrictions included:

Jews removed from non-

Jewish schools and Jews

forbidden to own businesses,

use public spaces, hold driving

licences or own radios

Jews encouraged to emigrate

abroad

1933–1935

Boycott of Jewish shops,

cafes and businesses

Law for the Re-

establishment of the

Professional Civil Service

(many Jews sacked)

Jews forbidden to join the

German Armed Forces

SUMMARY – HOW IMPORTANT WERE NAZIS’ IDEAS ON RACE IN GERMANY?


Section 5: Culture and Propaganda

5.1 How did the Nazis change the cultural climate of Weimar Germany?


Understand the key features of ‘Weimar culture’ between 1919 and 1933

Explain why the effective and systematic use of Nazi propaganda was so important to Hitler and the Nazi Party

Describe the cult of the Führer / describe the key features of Hitler’s role as Chancellor and then Führer

SPECIFICATION FOCUS

The cultural climate of Weimar Germany as represented in entertainment and the arts, 1919–1933

Reactions and responses to ‘Weimar culture’

The effects of the Nazi regime on the cultural climate of Germany, 1933–1945

The role and success of Nazi propaganda in sport, leisure, the media, entertainment and the arts

The cult of the Führer

KEY TERMS

Nazi Press/Media – The printed press were newspapers and magazines controlled by the Nazi Party

only reporting on issues they believed to be important. The media (including newspapers, radio and

film) were all forms of Nazi communication with the masses.

Censorship – By controlling the media, the Nazis gave or refused permission for works to be published.

They also used their own editors to change works so that they appeared more pro-Nazi.

Propaganda – The deliberate spread of ideas and information to influence peoples’ beliefs and way of

life. Under Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Party used propaganda very effectively; first to win the

democratic support needed to win seats in the Reichstag, then to control all walks of life in Nazi

Germany.

‘Big Lie’ – Goebbels understood that by constantly telling huge lies, many people in a dictatorship will

accept them as true.

‘Total War’ – When a war is fought with the use of all available resources (both material and human).

Nazi invasions included terror tactics, such as the targeting of civilians, whilst the Second World War in

general is often referred to as a ‘total war’.

Cult of Personality – When many people in society unquestioningly accept a person as their leader.

Dictators encourage this with use of propaganda, although cults of personality also exist around leaders

and celebrities in democratic countries as well.


KEY QUESTION ONE

What role did Nazi propaganda play in changing the culture of the ‘Golden Era’ and promoting the Nazi state?

The Cultural Climate of Weimar Germany as Represented in Entertainment and the Arts, 1919–1933

The early years of the Weimar Republic (approximately

1919–1923) had experienced many political and economic

problems. Political problems had included the Spartacist

Uprising, the Kapp Putsch, the invasion and occupation

of the Ruhr and Hitler’s Munich Beer Hall Putsch.

Although they had failed, they showed the weaknesses of

the new constitution. Likewise, economic problems had

started with the harsh conditions imposed on Germany

by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 and continued with the

hyperinflation that crippled Germany’s economy in 1923.

These had limited cultural movements, such as the arts

and entertainment in the early years.

However, Germany became more politically and economically stable in the following years (especially

from 1923/24 to 1929). During this period problems still existed, including high unemployment and high

taxes. However, although many Germans remained poor throughout the 1920s, standards of living rose

for many people. The period is often referred to as the ‘Roaring Twenties’ and as the ‘Golden Era’ or the

‘Jazz Age’. Now conditions had stabilised, having fun and ‘letting one’s hair down’ was the first thing

on their minds. These times were best represented in the new look architectural projects led by the

‘Bauhaus’ group, in cinemas across the country (as Germany was developing a film industry), in theatre,

music, fashion and literature. The now infamous cabaret style of musical theatre played to packed

audiences in Berlin. Many Germans and other people worldwide flocked to cities like Berlin to have fun

and experience cultural highlights. In fact, Berlin became famous worldwide for its flourishing arts,

fashion and culture scene.

Reactions and Responses to ‘Weimar Culture’

The popular image of Germany during the ‘Roaring Twenties’ suggests that everyone became involved

in it. However, this was far from the case. Away from the large towns and cities, where the action took

place, life remained much the same as it had always been. Many Germans also reacted against the

movement and the people who were involved in it. This led to many calling the ‘Roaring Twenties’

degenerate (worsened/declined).

Reasons for this included:

Many older people believed that Germans should live more traditionally.

Others were concerned that too many foreign influences were gripping Germany (e.g. music, films,

literature and clothes were imported from the USA) and that their cherished German culture would

be lost forever.

There were serious concerns that many young people involved in the ‘Golden Era’ were living

dangerously ‘close to the edge’, with rises in excessive drinking, drug taking and prostitution.

Many Germans put their troubles aside during the ‘Roaring Twenties’


...promoting military

expansion into German

occupied areas (from the

mid-1930s onwards) and

the war effort (from 1939

onwards).

From the outset,

this vast Nazi

propaganda

machine served the

purposes of:

...creating a positive

impression of a unified

Germany under Nazi rule.

...promoting the Nazi Party

and the Third Reich.

...denouncing all opposition

and those considered to not

be pure Germans.

...censoring or banning

works they considered

dangerous.

The Effects of the Nazi Regime on the Cultural Climate of Germany, 1933–1945

One man who believed that German people, society and culture had become degenerate was Adolf

Hitler. He believed that Germany had been great before the Weimar Republic and that Germans should

return to more traditional ways of living. Once in power, he passed laws to ensure this would happen. It

could be argued that the Nazi youth movements, Nazi propaganda in education and the banning or

censoring of many arts-based products (including films, music, literature, etc.) were in part a reaction

against the ‘Roaring Twenties’.

The Restriction of Civil Liberties – Through the Press and Censorship

Hitler and Goebbels had always considered the press in particular and the media in general to be a vital

weapon in securing popular support. In the 1920s, there had been many press reports about the Nazi

Party, some positive but many negative. Although the Nazi Party had limited influence over the

reporting of some of their activities and ideas whilst still an opposition party, they wanted nothing less

than total control of what was printed. Now was their chance.

By the mid-1930s they had effectively transformed the Weimar Republic in to a Nazi dictatorship by:

• Using Article 48 to eliminate political opposition and dismantle the democratic process

• Building concentration camps to ‘re-educate’ opponents and get rid of those they didn’t consider

pure Germans

• Unleashing the ruthlessly efficient secret police of the SS and Gestapo

• Building up the armed forces

And by:

• Taking control of the press and censoring the flow of information

• Developing a highly effective propaganda machine to win the hearts and minds of Germans

In 1933, Goebbels became head of the new Reich Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda.

This was divided into much smaller sections for newspapers, radio, theatre, music and film. These were

all brought under direct government control, which in turn aimed to control all creative output in

Nazi Germany.


Existing artistic works (such as plays, music and literature) considered by the Nazis to be dangerous and

‘un-German’ were banned. Work by Jewish writers, composers and painters was forbidden. Thousands

of books were banned and their writers and publishers were refused publication rights. In May 1933,

there was a mass burning of books that either did not agree with Nazi ideas or were considered

subversive. Even famous historical novels that the Nazis feared would turn people off the Nazi regime

were burned. This became known as the ‘Burning of the Books’ (also known as ‘Auto-da-Fe’). Several

thousand novelists, playwrights and poets left Germany in the following years. Albert Einstein’s

scientific books were banned (simply because he was a German Jewish intellectual) and under fear of

arrest and even assassination, he emigrated.

The Nazi Party also promoted physical education and sports, as they believed that healthy people would

lead to a healthy country and an obedient people. It also ensured a large stock of future soldiers who

would be fit and disciplined, and future healthy mothers. Sports competitions provided the opportunity

for the Nazis to show off ‘Aryan’ talents. The highlight of this sports campaign was the 1936 Berlin

Olympics. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the events (called the ‘Olympia’). Her other work under Nazi rule is

discussed below. Germany won the most medals.

The Restriction of Civil Liberties – The Role of Goebbels

Goebbels remained a loyal and trusted supporter of Hitler and a close personal friend until their suicides

at the end of the war. His strategy to expand the Nazi propaganda machine had much success. He

continued to organise huge rallies and demonstrations across the length and breadth of Germany. Hitler

campaigned tirelessly across Germany travelling by aeroplane, whilst Goebbels skilfully sent pro-Nazi

messages to Germans using every means available, including newsreels, radio and the press. As

propaganda drastically increased Nazi support from ordinary Germans, leading industrialists came out

in support for Hitler’s determination for a rearmament programme (vital as they controlled the factories

that were to produce weapons for the expanding army). The military aggression of the Nazi war

machine was encouraged by Goebbels, as was the idea that ‘total war’ was necessary for Germany to

win the Second World War.

The ‘Burning of the Books’ ceremonies in 1933 and the removing of the rights of many intellectuals was

Goebbels’ idea. He was also a key player in the gradual and systematic persecution of ethnic groups and

in particular Jews (known as the Jewish question) over the following 12 years. He was involved in the

anti-Jewish ‘Nuremburg Laws’ of 1935, ‘Kristallnacht’ in 1938 (discussed elsewhere in this resource) and

the ‘Final Solution’. Goebbels’ ‘big lie’ propaganda methods were used at every opportunity to convince

ordinary Germans that every Nazi action was necessary for the health of the nation.


The Purpose and Effectiveness of Propaganda

The Use of Media, such as Films, Posters and Rallies

Children’s books contained anti-Semitic cartoons, such as

pictures of Jewish moneylenders. A vicious anti-Jewish

newspaper called Der Stürmer (The Stormer) was published

from the early 1920s until 1945. Goebbels encouraged the

production and cheap supply of radios in order to broadcast

Nazi messages to as wide an audience as possible. By 1939,

two out of every three German households owned a radio.

This was the highest amount in the world. Radios were also

set up in factories, cafes, restaurants and on the streets to

broadcast Nazi ideas and propaganda. Days for public

holidays and celebrations were held on occasions such as:

Mass rallies were filmed, carefully edited and broadcast to large

cinema audiences. Other films glorified German history, focusing

on the Teutonic Knights (medieval crusaders) and Frederick the

Great (an eighteenth-century Prussian king who oversaw successful

military campaigns against neighbouring countries). In doing so,

these films convinced many ordinary Germans that they and the

Nazis were natural descendants of a long-held tradition.

The Nazi propaganda machine produced many posters idolising Hitler and the Nazi Party. This one

from the late 1930s reads: ‘Give me four years time’.

Date Day of Importance

30th Jan The anniversary of Hitler becoming

Chancellor (in 1933)

24th Feb The anniversary of the founding of the

Nazi Party (in 1920)

20th April Hitler’s birthday (born in 1889)

9th November Munich Beer Hall Putsch Remembrance

Day (in 1923)

This cover from a 1934 edition of Der Stürmer is demonising Jews.


However, it is important to remember that the German people

were not just fed an endless chain of Nazi propaganda films

and messages. Goebbels and Hitler realised that effective

propaganda had to be subtle otherwise its message would

backfire. After all, they also needed to win the hearts and

minds of Germans. Much of the media output in Nazi

Germany focused on light-hearted humour or the day-to-day

lives of ordinary Germans, albeit with a pro-Nazi slant.




KEY QUESTION ONE– ACTIVITIES

a. Read through the section and underline key points and words. b. What problems had the Weimar Republic faced until and including 1923? c. Why did many Germans flock to cities like Berlin in the latter half of the 1920s? d. What were some of the names this period was known as? e. Give three reasons why some Germans thought that this period was bad for Germany. f. Which group of Germans did Nazi propaganda spread particularly negative images of?

g. Why was the production and cheap supply of radios for so many German homes very important to

Goebbels? h. The following dates became public holidays or celebrations in Nazi Germany. What did each date celebrate?

• 30th January • 24th February • 20th April • 9th November

i. How were films used as propaganda tools in Nazi Germany? j. What role did Leni Riefenstahl play in promoting the Nazis through propaganda? k. Write two sentences outlining why you think propaganda was so important to the Nazi regime?

KEY PERSON: LENI RIEFENSTAHL (1902–2003)

Riefenstahl was a German actress, dancer, photographer and film-

maker. Winning acclaim for the beautiful imagery of her films in the

early 1930s, she wrote, directed and produced films for the Nazi

Party during their reign. She is best remembered for her glorification

of the Nuremburg Nazi Party rally in her 1934 documentary film

‘Triumph of the Will’. In one scene, Hitler’s plane is seen descending

from the sky by enthusiastic supporters. A brilliant and evocative

piece of film-making in its own right, the propaganda message was

clear; that Hitler was the saviour of Germans. She also filmed the

1936 Berlin Olympics, again promoting a pro-Nazi view of the events. Hitler and Goebbels both

valued the propaganda content of her films, whilst film historians consider her to be one of the

most important female film-makers of her generation. In later years, Riefenstahl denied she had

supported the Nazi Party, claiming instead that she was naïve to their horrors and had only

wanted to make beautiful films.

?


Hitler addressing politicians in the Reichstag

KEY QUESTION TWO

Describe Hitler’s role as head of the Nazi Party, as Chancellor and as Führer.

The Nature of Hitler’s Role as Führer

From the 2nd August 1934, Hitler had positioned himself as the

one and only leader of Germany. As Führer, he had

successfully taken on the roles of President, Chancellor and

the Head of the Armed Forces all in one. His dreams had

come true and his moment had come. He had successfully

used the democratic system for over a decade to dismantle the

very same system that had put him in power. As President,

Hitler oversaw all political appointments. As Chancellor, he

ran the one-party Nazi government. As head of the armed

forces, all military personnel were essentially working for him

rather than for Germany. Every member of the military would

now have to swear an oath to Hitler. The ‘top-down’

hierarchical approach to running countries was not unusual

and remains today across the world. However, as Hitler

controlled all aspects of German politics and the military, it

left little – if any – room for others to question the

effectiveness or fairness of his policies over the next 11 years.

Hitler’s early ideas, outlined in Mein Kampf and developed throughout the following decade, could

now be put into practice:

• That the Weimar Republic had been a weak form of government that had ruined Germany.

• The harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles had crippled Germany financially and militarily.

• Successive coalition governments had not been powerful or unified enough to make important

decisions.

• That German people (Volk) were superior to other people and that they deserved to make Germany

strong again. This, of course, excluded many who were not considered Germans and those who

were physically or mentally weaker than others.

• That a strong government (the Nazis) and a strong leader (himself) would lead Germans to realise

their potential and lead them in creating a stronger country (financially, militarily, culturally

and socially).

As an opposition leader, Hitler had already proved himself in many ways. He was strong, resilient to

attacks from opposition and was prepared to see through short-term and long-term ideas and policies.


Hitler created a cult of personality around himself and the Nazi Party

Once Hitler had appointed himself as Führer, he ran Nazi Germany using these methods:

• The emergency powers President Hindenburg had granted to his government between 1933 and 1934

(Article 48, the Enabling Act, etc.) were to remain throughout the entire rule of the Nazis. Hitler used

these to ensure that all opposition to the Nazis and their dictatorial style of government would be

reduced, if not eliminated. Trade unions were also banned. Germany simply became a police state.

Countless people were beaten up, imprisoned, tortured, disappeared or were executed.

• All aspects of German life (i.e. the arts, religion, law, etc.) were to be subservient to the Nazis and to

Hitler. These were expected to follow the ‘party line’ at all times. German regions came under the

direct control of Nazi governors.

• Goebbels vast propaganda machine set to work glorifying Hitler (as politician, as soldier, as man

from humble background made good; even as the ‘father’ of all Germans). All Germans were

expected to greet officials and important people with phrases such as ‘Heil Hitler’ (hail Hitler) and

‘Sieg heil’ (hail victory). Civilians were also encouraged to use Nazi salutes. This arguably led to an

unquestioning acceptance of Hitler as rightful leader of Germany and built a ‘cult of personality’

around him.

• Hitler’s ‘cult of personality’ was also self-made. His tireless campaigning and powerful speeches

arguing that Germany would be a strong country appealed to many Germans after the political and

economic problems experienced in recent years. He claimed that the ‘Third Reich’ (following the

German Empire and the Weimar Republic) would last a thousand years.

• Hitler’s private police force and unofficial army, the SA, had served the Nazi Party well until 1934.

However, Hitler realised they were becoming too powerful for even the Nazis to control completely.

Many were simply thugs and criminals. By dismantling the SA and handing over special powers to

the SS (originally Hitler’s personal guard from 1925 and growing from strength to strength by 1934),

Hitler now had a loyal, effective and ruthless political police force. The Gestapo became the secret

police, working alongside the SS.

• Hitler delegated the running of Germany to his faithful party members (Goebbels, Göring and

Himmler, etc.). Each created and had control of his own office of government, so long as he followed

Hitler’s broad guidelines.

• Hitler had promised German rearmament many years before. This he did, first secretly. By the mid-

1930s onwards, he built up a vast army supported by military technology (this was against the terms

of the Treaty of Versailles).

However, even with all aspects of the state machine

at his fingertips, Hitler never gained the full support

of all Germans. Opposition to the Nazi Party in

general and Hitler in particular never completely

ceased throughout the following 12 years. It took

many forms and came from all walks of life (this will

be discussed in detail throughout this resource). Also,

some historians claim that Hitler’s lifestyle and

personality made it difficult for Nazis to make

important decisions once in power. Meetings usually

had to be scheduled for afternoons (as he was a late

riser), whilst he was frequently away from Berlin and

his ministers (often visiting his Bavarian retreat).

Hitler became far more involved in foreign policy

and rearmament than in the daily running of the

country. He was also often short tempered, making

delivering bad news a difficult task.






b. As Führer, Hitler had combined several roles previously shared out amongst different people. Describe the powers he had as: President Chancellor Head of the Armed Forces

c. Below are some of the main methods Hitler used to control Germany as Führer. Choose three and explain how he used them to his and the Nazi Party’s advantage.

Emergency Powers | Rearmament | Propaganda | Controlling all aspects of German life Cult of Personality | Delegating Nazi Party Members | SA/SS|

d. Although Hitler was Führer of a Nazi one-party state, did he ever gain complete control of Germany? Give a reason for your answer.

e. Can you think of two reasons why some members of Hitler’s own Nazi government found it difficult to work with him?

?


SUMMARY – HOW DID THE NAZIS CHANGE THE CULTURAL

CLIMATE OF WEIMAR GERMANY?

This led to the cult of the Führer Hitler’s Role – Strengths:

Hitler’s had used his early ideas from Mein Kampf as and when it suited the Nazi Party.

He displayed leadership, decision-making and oratory (making speeches) skills.

Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 many didn’t listen to Hitler’s views that the Weimar Republic

was a weak form of government and the Treaty of Versailles had ruined Germany.

After the Wall Street Crash these same arguments won Hitler many more votes between 1932 and

1933 as Germany suffered from the Great Depression.

Hitler had successfully used the democratic process for over a decade to dismantle it.

Hitler’s Role – Weaknesses:

Hitler never gained the full support of all Germans and opposition never completely ceased.

Hitler’s lifestyle and personality made it difficult for important decisions to be made by Nazi leaders

(he was a late riser and was often away from Berlin).

He was more involved in foreign policy and rearmament than in domestic affairs in Germany. He was

also often short-tempered, making delivering bad news a difficult task.

The Nazi

Party

effectively

used

propaganda

to provide

Germans

with their

version of

culture

The Cultural Climate of Weimar Germany as Represented in Entertainment and

the Arts, 1919–1933:

Problems in the Weimar Republic had limited culture in the early years.

From 1923 onwards the German economic and political situation improved.

The flowering of the arts and culture was known as the ‘Roaring Twenties’.

The Nazi Party had effectively used propaganda to increase their vote in the years

to 1933

Nazi Party members were trained as skilful speakers.

Hitler campaigned tirelessly across Germany at huge rallies.

Goebbels became a highly effective election campaign manager.

Pro-Nazi publicity appeared in many newspapers.

Many industrialists supported Hitler and his views on rearmament.

Once in Power, the Nazi Party effectively used propaganda to establish their own

version of German culture:

From 1933 Goebbels ran the highly effective Propaganda Ministry

All media outlets (i.e. newspapers, radio, theatre, music and film) came under

Nazi control, reaching out to all Germans

Racist and anti-Semitic messages were sent out to pure, ‘Aryan’ Germans

Mass rallies were filmed and radios transmitted Nazi messages to families

The message was clear: Hitler and the Nazis were the only way forward for

Germans and Germany

z educaion germany 1919 1945 - corby technical school revision... · key question two ... part...

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