zilg - that´s amore

International Journal of Applied Linguistics • Vol. 21 • No. 1 • 2011

THAT'S AMORE: brand names in the Italianfood marketAntje Zilg Justus Liebíg Uníversíty, Gíessen

Brand name analysis is a very promising field in linguistics. This examinationof the formal structure and the meaning of ltalian brand names is based on acorpus comprising 950 units referring to the food industry. The utmost aim ofthis analysis is to draw up a typology that can serve as a model for the creationof further brand names. The inductive approach focuses on graphic, phonetic,morphologic, semantic, and lexical aspects. The investigation will reveal thatfar-reaching results can be achieved when aspects of Applied Linguistics aredealt with in an interdisciplinary framework.

Keywords: advertising language, brand name, interdisciplinarity, namingstrategies, typology

Für die linguistische Forschung gelten Markennamen als wesentlicheBereicherung. Die Untersuchung der Bildung und Bedeutung italienischerMarkennamen basiert auf einem Korpus, das aus 950 Namen desLebensmittelmarktes besteht. Das Ziel der Analyse besteht in der Erstellungeiner Typologie, die Bildungsmodelle für die Kreation zukünftiger Namenenthâlt. Im Vordergrund der Untersuchung, die einem induktiven Ansatz folgt,stehen graphische, lautliche, morphologische, semantische und lexikalischeAspekte. Es wird deutlich, das weiterführende Ergebnisse erzielt werdenkônnen, wenn Aspekte der Angewandten Linguistik in eineminterdisziplinaren Rahmen behandelt werden.Schluseelioõner: Benennungsstrategien, Interdisziplinaritãt, Markenname,Typologie, Werbesprache

1. Introduction

Brand names are an important element of our daily linguistic environment.We come across them in press, radio, and TV advertisements as well as onbillboards, during our everyday shopping in the supermarket, and in our ownhousehold. The consumer is confronted with more than 300brands every day(see Latour 1992:140).Numerical computations of brand names worldwideare difficult to generate because of the ephemeral nature of many of thesenames, the high rate of new brands entering the market, and the multitude of

© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

1• Antje Zilg

existing names that are unprotected (see Wehking 1984:9). Nevertheless, itcan be assumed that the number of brand names in Italy amounts to aboutone million and is increasing steadily (see Botton, Cegarra, and Ferrari2002:9).

lhe necessity to find names for an increasing number of new productshas led to a criticallinguistic state (see Rõmer 1976:62). In order to providenames for new products, words from foreign languages are adopted, brandnames are made from abbreviations, words or syllables are separated andre-composed, and new sequences of sounds are created. lhe denotation ofproducts is probably the fastest-growing type of naming (see Platen 1997:11). While the etymologies of the names of people, places, and bodies ofwater often date back several centuries, brand names are considered assynchronous formations unrelated to diachronic evolution (seeKalverkâmpfer 1978:302).

In today's world of globalized markets,' growing internationalcompetitive pressure, as well as a consumer society characterized by anoverflow of stimuli, new products must gain their share rapidly in themarketplace (see Platen 1997: 162; Latour 1996: 177). In this context,communication psychologists have pointed out the crucial importance ofnames for the recognition of a product (Platen 1997:162).lhe name is almostconsidered as a cognitive anchor representing a whole set of values, thusproviding orientation for the consumer (Sprengel 1990: 410). A suitablebrand name has become the conditio sine qua non, the strategic success factor(Latour 1992: 140). lhe name, therefore, is the cornerstone for the entirecommunication of a product (see Latour 1996:177).

2. Corpus and methodology

Linguistic researchers value brand names for being practice-oriented andfor the diversity of the language material used. According to Altieri Biagi(1987:59):

Moreover, the language of advertising doesn't know any limits in terms ofthe variety of sources and linguistic levels it draws upon: technical termsand expressive language, common language, literary language, elevatedlanguage - they all provide material ... 2

lhe synchronic analysisof the language structure ofbrand names in the Italianfood market contributes to a description of the present-day Italian language,as well as to a closer cooperation between linguistic theory and practicalbusiness and jurisprudence.

A linguistic analysis of Italian brand names with regard ta synchranicaspects af their word formation and meaning required a reasonable selectianof material. lhe names af different types of gaads are significantly different


THAT'S AMORE: brand names in the Italian food market • 3

from each other. To ensure convincing results, only names of a single typeof goods were included in the name corpus. As Grünewald points out(1993:47): .

One learns that each product market is comparable to a country of its own.It is characterised by its own conditions, a specificclimate, typical customsand its own language.

A corpus consisting of 950brand names from the food industry is the basisfor the description of the formation and meaning of Italian brand names.'Popularity and vividness served as criteria for the selection of names. Fieldresearch in Italy made it possible to compile names of products which wouldprobably never be advertised in popular consumer magazines, since theadvertising costs exceed the budget of many small enterprises. Someproducts, foreign from an Italian viewpoint, are very important consumergoods in Italy and must not be missing in a brand name analysis.Thisexplainswhy names like DANONE or BONDUELLEwere considered in this corpus.lhe advantage of field research lies in the detailed knowledge of the productreferred to, while the products in a corpus based on published lists ofregistered brand names can only be determined roughly. A detailedknowledge of the products is essential for the correct determination of theformation and meaning of numerous names.

lhe collected names were compiled in a database and distinguishedaccording to whether they stand for a product, provably for several products,or for a company.

lhe linguistic analysis of Italian brand names follows an inductiveapproach. lhe individual formation techniques are explained theoreticallyand illustrated by examples. lhe investigation focuses on graphic, phonetic,morphologic, semantic, and lexical aspects. Key questions are:

• Are there peculiar features in the graphic and phonetic structure of brandnames?

• Is it possible to grasp these names with the terms and criteria of traditionalword formation? If this is the case, what types of word formation areproductive?

• What is the semantic structure of brand names and what semantic relationsdo exist to specific domains?

• Where do the names get their lexical material from? How strong is thepresence of elements from foreign languages?

lhe result is a typology of brand names which may serve as a model for thecreation of future names (Zilg 2006).

50 far, there have been descriptions of the ltalian advertising language aswell as investigations of brand names of general nature or concerning specificareas in German and English. There also exists marketing-oriented literature


4 • Antje Zilg

on brand names in Italian. However, an explicit linguistic analysis of Italianbrand names has not yet been carried out."

3. Brand names in the context of branding

lhe term 'branding' stems from (North) American settlers, who used it as anexpression for the marking of their cattle. Since there were no fencedmeadows, each cattle was marked with the brand of their owner for theclarification of ownership. Thus, it was possible to identify runaway cattle bythe brand and to return them to their owner (Langner 2003:3). According toEsch and Langner (2001a: 441), 'branding' in terms of marketing isunderstood as:

AlI measures which are suited to ralsmg a product above a mass ofproducts of the same kind, and which allow an unmistakable associationof products to a specific brando

In saturated markets with interchangeable products, branding plays a keyrole as a means of differentiation among competitors. In past years, brandinghas gained more and more importance and actuality in practical marketing.lhe brand name, the brand logo, the shaping of the product, and its packagingdistinguish a brand from other competitive brands and allow a clearassignment of what the product has to offer (Langner 2003:5). Kapferer andlhoenig define the brand as a concentrate of information about thecharacteristics of the offer, so to speak the memory of the product (1991:103).

lhe brand name is the verbally reproducible, articulable part of a brand(Kotler and Bliemel2001: 736).A brand's name has a central communicationfunction, as it serves as an identifier for what a brand has to offer and enablesconsumers to verbally identify a brand (Langner 2003:27).

lhe logo is the visual component of the brand and has special importancefor the branding. Brand logos can be differentiated into pictures and letters.Picture logos are separated into concrete and abstract ones (Esch and Langner2001b: 497f.).Logo creation has to meet the following requirements. Brandlogos must draw attention, must please, must communicate associations thatare relevant to the positioning and must be easy to perceive and to remember(see Esch and Langner 2001b:498f.).Since customers are increasingly seekingpleasure and stimulation, the brand aesthetics plays a key role in theconsumers' evaluation of brands. Event-oriented brand communication andaesthetically designed packagings or product designs become more and moreimportant as distinguishing features in saturated markets with functionallyinterchangeable products (Esch 2003:196).

Branding requires an integral consideration taking into account theinteractions between the different brand elements that explicitly lead to thecreation of a new brandoUnder normal circumstances the recipient will notice



the brand name, the brand logo, the product design, or the product packagingnot as isolated elements but as a whole. This interplay of brand name, brandlogo, product design, or product packaging is crucial for the success of abranding (Esch 2003: 157ff.). Name, logo, and product packaging shouldcommunicate the same associations as intended by the positioning strategy(Esch and Langner 20mb: 506).In this context, Dogana (1991:25) suggests theterm segni verbo-visivi, expressing a mixture of the verbal and the figurativecode. The branding triangle shown in Figure 1 illustrates this relationship.Examples of integrated branding are given in Figure 2.

brand name

product logo product design / productpackaging

Figure 1. The branding triangle (Langner 2003: 27)

Figure 2. Examples of 'integrated branding': CAPPUCCINE and DIAMANTE

Advertisements often accentuate values which prevail in a certain society(Runge and Sword 1994:4; Platen 1997:147).5Keller (1999:106)terms such asystem of internalized values 'culture'. The distinctive ltalian religiosity" isevident in the logo used for the brand PANEANGELI (see Figure 3).Furthermore, a pronounced emotionality is typically ltalian, which is alsoreflected in various brands (see Klüver 2004:66f.).In the case of ABBRACCI('embraces'), a pastry that consists ofhalf cream and half chocolate, the subjectof tenderness can be found in the product name as well as in the product


6 • Antje Zilg

.<=>~=Jlbbracci~. -"'-'~"-

Figure 3. The themes of religiosity and tenderness in Italian branding

design. The shape and the twofold colouring of this biscuit create theimpression of an embrace (see Figure 3). This concept is supported by thedescription of the product: 'gli ABBRACCI Mulino Bianco, il piacere unico di duebiscotti insieme. [. .. ] Ad ogni morso un'emozione, per una colazione sempre nuovae piena di dolcezza. [. .. ] Lasciati coccolare dagli Abbracci, l'ideale per te e per tuttala [amiglia/ (ABBRACCIby Mulino Bíanco, the unique pleasure of twobiscuits together. [... ] Sweet emotions with every single bite, a breakfast fullof tenderness which feels new every time. [... ] Be caressed by ABBRACCI,ideal for you and your family.)

Today's methods of brand name development are very complex, since thedemands on brand names have increased considerably both from a marketing-oriented and from the trademark legal side (Platen 1997:167).The process ofprofessional name development is complex and multi-staged (Platen 1997:162).According to Kohli, LaBahn, and Thakor (2001:456ff.), the process ofbrand naming includes the following phases: specification of the aims of thebrand naming; development of alternative brand names; assessment ofalternative brand names; selection of brand names; brand registration.

4. Formation and meaning of Italian brand names

Brand names in the ltalian food market evidence a very high levei of linguisticcreativity. The following section will present graphícal, morphological,semantic, and lexical peculiarities of ltalian brand names.

4.1. lhe graphic structure of brand names

A protectable name can be achieved with a slight graphic change of a lexeme.The direct reference to the denotation of the lexeme is kept, but the divergent



written form makes the new name easy to remember and further associationscan be assigned. Thus, the brand name FAGOLOSIhas been generated fromfavolosí 'fabulous' and contains the adjective golosí 'sweet-toothed, tasty'. Theslight graphical modification of a lexeme can also convey a hint at the namedproduct. The grapheme <w> in WUOI? and in WULEVÚ?refers to the productwürstel 'sausage'. The diverging written form is achieved at different levels:

• omission of a grapheme, e.g. MAMA MIA (mamma)• substitution of a grapheme, e.g. FAGOLOSI (javolosí)• substitution of a grapheme with a combination of graphemes, e.g. SUILLO

(suíno)• diacritic, e.g. POLLÍ (polli)• combinations, e.g. NÁTTÚRA (natura).

When looking at brand names, the phonemic orthography of someformations is noticeable (see Table 1).This is especially the case with creationscontaining material from foreign languages. We encounter omissions ofgraphemes that do not have a phonetic equivalent as well as substitutions ofgraphemes.

Table 1. Phonemic orthography in Italian brand name formation

Phonemic orthography

Type Brandname Transcription Complete form

Omission of graphemes BIGFRUT /fru:t/ fruitBREK /brEk/ breakFURRINI /furr'ini/ fQurr(er)

Substitution of graphemes BgB!RISO /'bEbi! bªbyLAVAZZADEK /dEk/ deçíaffeinato)PANBRIOSCE /briO'Se/ brioché

Substitution and GRAN BISQUI~ /bis'kúi! biscuitomission of graphemes KYR /kyR/ cure

SNgK /znEk/ snack

The graphemes <i> (SALSí, MIRT!), <k> (CUml"S,IÇREMLIQUIRIZIA),<x>(FRUI& CEREAL!X), and <y> (CREMy MOZARX) as well as the letter h(HALTA,HOLÉ) hold a special position in Italian brand name formation.

4.2. lhe morphological structure of brand names

In formal, purely structural aspects, many brand names can be described bymeans of derivation, composition, and formation of abbreviations. As far asbrand names resulting from derivation are concerned, the term '(free) basic


8 • Antje Zilg

lexeme' turns out to be problematic. Often the lexical meaning is not obvious,since the basis is very much shortened or altered, as in the case of VANETTA.lhe same applies to the shortened constituents of a number of compositions,e.g. FRUTTAPEC(pectina).

Suffixation is much more productive than prefixation (e.g. SUPERUOVO,SUPER FRITZ). lhe ltalian language is very rich in suffixes which can give asemantic nuance to a noun or an adjective. lhere are four different groups ofthese so-called modifying suffixes (gli alterati): diminutives (diminutivi),augmentatives (accrescitivi), affectionate forms (vezzeggiativi), and suffixeswith a pejorative meaning (peggiorativi). Since the meaning of a derivation isinfluenced by the meaning of the root, it is often difficult to classify a suffix asbelonging to one of these groups. Sometimes it is necessary to consider thecontext of a derivation in order to be able to assign the suffix to one of thesecategories (see Reumuth and Winkelmann 2001:380).

In the course of the morphological analysis it was necessary to showwhich suffixes are of importance for the formation of ltalian brand names.Some suffixes are very productive, i.e. they can be assigned to a multitude ofbasic lexemes. In order to exemplify the productivity of the single suffixes,the study examined, on the basis of the mono lingual Lo Zingarelli dictionary(1998),whether brand names in which these suffixes occur correspond witha lemma in a monolingual ltalian dictionary, i.e. whether they can be calledlexical adoptions, e.g. LA CREMERIA, SPAGHETTERIA, POLARE,CREMOSO. This was the case with 55 of the 116 suffix formations detectedin the material.

lhe productivity of single elements becomes particularly obvious in thecase of modifying suffixes. Apart from simple modifying suffixes, compoundforms can also be found in the brand name corpus. In brand name formation,modifying suffixes are not exclusively used for derivation. Such a suffix maysubstitute another one. In advertising language, modifying suffixes are alsoused in the nominalization of verbs (see Table 2 below). lhe brand namesformed by means of modifying suffixes are distinguished as:

1. (Parts of)brand names which correspond to a lemma, e.g. GRANELLO,LE NUVOLETTE,GOCCIOLE, CONCERTINO.

2. (Parts of) brand names which correspond to the diminutive oraffectionate form of a lemma and are not listed separately but underthe respective lemma in the dictionary, e.g. FIORELLI, MAGRETTI,GALLETTINE.

3. (Parts of) brand names of which the derivation basis is listed in thedictionary but which occur neither as lemma nor in the diminutive oraffectionate form of a lemma. lhese are regarded as creations of advertisinglanguage in a stricter sense. Furthermore, a differentiation can be madebetween names in which the gender of the derivated noun basis remainsunchanged (e.g.ACETELLI- aceto s.m. 'vinegar', TRANCETTO- trancio s.m.'slice', FRÚTTOLO- frutto s.m. 'fruit', GHIACCIOLINI - ghiacciolo s.m. 'icecube'), and names with a change of gender (e.g.LATTELLA-latte s.m. 'milk',



TAGLIETTE- taglio s.m. 'cut', CREMOLO- crema s.f. 'cream', NASTRINE-nastro s.m. 'ribbon'). The derivation may also be based on an adjective listed inthe dictionary (e.g. NOSTRANELLE - nostrano 'home, regional, loca!',POLARETTI - polare 'polar', GHIOTTOLI - ghiotto 'fond of sweet things,tasty', SOFFICINI - soffice 'soft'). It is interesting that the registered brandnames SOTTILETTE(sottile 'thin), for slices of cheese, and CREMINO (crema'cream), for ice cream, have found their way into the dictionary (see Zingarelli1998: 1718, 462). De Mauro (1987: 54) gives the folIowing reason for theformation of brand names according to already existing patterns:

In line with the newness of the product, the expression has to suggestsomething new. However, just as it is required for the promoted productto be sold, the expression must also correspond to the linguistic trends andskills that have already been firmly acquired.

Brand names in which the suffix -issimo - used to form the absolutesuperlative (elative)- is linked to a substantive instead of an adjective are verypopular. About this type of formation, Folena (1989:115)states:

A typicalIy Italian characteristic is the use of the absolute superlative-iseimo, applied also to substantives, often with a playful note. [... ] a typethat is spreading more and more in everyday language.

Examples from the corpus are the folIowing: CONISSIMO (cono 'cone'),CUBISSIMO(cubo 'cube), FAGIOLISSIMA(jagiolo 'bean), INSALATISSIME(insalata 'salad), POMODORISSIMO(pomodoro 'tomato"). In only 2 of 11casesin the research material does the suffix -issimo have its Standard Italianfunction (FRESCHISSIMI - fresco 'fresh', LEVISSIMA - lieve 'light').According to Dressler and Barbaresi (1994:495):

Nouns rarely function as bases for elative formation. To be eligible, theymust have a salient gradable property [... ]. These elatives are restricted toparticularly favorable speech situations, for example, the folIowing [... ]:a) Advertisements [... ] offert-issima [... ] occasion-issima 'bargain-ELAT'[... ]. In all of these, the respective salient property is advertised as beingpresent to an extreme degree. In semantic representations [... ] thisintensification applies to an abstract semantic feature MAGN, lexicalizableinto different adjectives in colIocation with the nouns concerned. b)Journalistic occasionalisms [... ] c) Proper names [... ] a) and c) arecombined in Dior-issimo (brand name of a perfume), Parmissimo (brandname of a tomato sauce by Parmalat) [... ].

Table2 gives an overview of the different possibilities of suffixation inItalian brand name formation. Apart from the suffix frequency, the total


10 • Antje Zilg

Table 2. Creatians of advertising language through suffixatian

Suffixes Total No. offormationsfromadvertisinglanguage

Noun suffixes-aio/ -aro / 4 O-ata VONGOLATA PRONTA 2 1-eria ANTICA PASTERIA; LA BRACERIA; 8 4

NUOVA FORNERIA; RISOTTERIAAdjective suffixes-ale, -ano, CRODINO 14 1-are, -ino,-osoSingle modifying suffixes-ello ACETELLI; BRUSCHELLE; 19 11

CRUSCHELLE;LATTELLA;LEPATATELLE; NATURELLA;NOSTRANELLE; NUTELLA;PREALPINELLA; SELENELLA;SPUNTINELLE

-etto CIUFFETTI; LE FUSETTE; NUSSETTOS; 18 9POLARETTI; PROVOLETTI;SOFFICETTE; TAGLIETTE; TRANCETTO;VANETTA

-ino CROISSINI; FILATINO; GHIACCIOLINI; 21 13LE BABY PANATlNE; LE PANATINE; LEPANATINE STICK; LE PROSCIUTTINE;NASTRINE; NIDINA; SOFFICINI;TEGOLINO; TRANCINO; VIPINO

-% CREMOLO; FRÚTTOLO; FRÚTTOLO 7 5DRINKI; GHIOTTOLI; TOCCOLI

-otto GOCCIOLOTTI; IL TONNOTTO 2 2-one / 2 OCompound modifying suffixes-ello + -ino BRUSCHELLINE 1 1-otto + -ino SACCOTTINO 1 1-otto + -ello PIZZOTTELLA 1 1Modifying suffixes used to nominalize verbs-ino, -ello FURRINI; LE ROSOLINE; 5 3

SCOTTARELLESuperlative suffix-issimo CONISSIMO; CUBISSIMO; DANISSIMO; 11 9

FAGIOLISSIMA; INSALATISSIME;PARMISSIMO; PECORISSIMO;POMODORISSIMO; SORBISSIMO

116 61



Table 3. Suffixation in Standard Italian

Suffixes Meaning Example

-one AugmentationCompound modifying suffixes-ello + -ino Diminutive/ affectionate fiorellino (little flower)-oiio + -ino form bassottino (quite small)-otio + -ello grassottello (chubby)Modifying suffixes used to nominalize verbs-ino, -ello Nominalization ritornello (refrain)Superlative suffix-issimo Intensification

Noun suffixes-aio / -aro-aia-eria

Job, occupationContent, entity, actionPlace of production or

distributionAdjective suffixes-ale, -ano, To be connected with-are, -ino,

-asa QualitySingle modifying suffixes-ello Diminutive / affectionate-euo form-ino-olo-oiio

orologiaio (watchmaker)cucchiaiata (spoon(jul), a full spoon of>libreria (bookshop)

musicale (musical), italiano (Italian),parlamentare (parliamentary),cristallino (crystal)

rabbioso (jurious)

asinello (small donkey)bacetto (little kiss)ragazzina (little girl)montagnola (little mountain)leprotto (leveret)librone (weighty tome)

bellissimo (very lavely)

number and examples of formations from advertising Ianguage are listed.Table 3 lists the suffixes used for the formation of brand names and theirmeaning in Standard Italian.

The popularity of compounds in advertising language can be explained bythe principie of linguistic economy. Even if the distinction betweencompounds and syntactical composition is problematic, brand names alwaysrepresent a conceptual unity. They are supposed to clearly convey a praductconcept and hence provide an essential contribution to the positioning of thebrando Table 4 lists the types of compositions which were identified in theresearch material.

The analysis of the morphological structure of the brand names revealsthat one graup of brand names has opening ar closing elements that areformed from full forms of substantives (e.g. latte 'milk': BONLAT,CHICCOLAT, PRIVOLAT, PARMALAT) and adjectives (e.g. grande 'big':GRAN AROMA, GRANCEREALE, GRANSORPRESA, GRANRICETTE).


12 • Antje Zilg

Table 4. Composition in the formation of Italian brand names

Composition Example

Composition, strictly speaking:noun+ nounnoun + adjectiveadjective + nounverb + nounnoun + preposition + nounadjective + adjectivenoun + adverbadverb + nounSyntagms and sentences:nominal syntagmprepositional syntagmcoordinationsentences:declarative sentence - completedeclarative sentence - ellipticalinterrogative sentenceimperative sentenceexclamatory sentence

CONO FIORE; GOCCIAMENTAAMICA VERDE; MAREBLUDOLCI FIOCCHI; PRIMOSOLEGIRAVOLTE; SCOTTADITOCUOR DI MELA; POLPADOROFRESCO TENERO; FRESCOBLUPIZZASÚ; OROPIUPIU GIORNI; PIU GUSTO

LA TAZZA D'ORO; LE TRE MARIEDEL MONTE; IN LINEAPRENDI E VAI; PIU & PIÜ

TI VOGLIO; THAT'S AMOREMEGLIOCOSt; PRONTI PER VOIWUOI?; WULEVUFRIGGI BENE; PRENDI E VAIVIVA LA CREMA!

Like prefixes and suffixes, these elements are creating series but they have alexical meaning. Another group of brand names is characterized by the factthat the full form of a substantive (e.g. menta 'mint': MENTALIQUIRIZIA,GHIACCIOMENTA, GOCCIAMENTA), adjective (e.g. fresco 'fresh':FRESCOBLD, FRESCOCOLLE, FRESCONEVE), preposition (e.g. up:DAN'UP, PIZZ'UP, PRESS DP), or adverb (e.g. piú 'more': PIÚINTEGRALI,PIÚLEGGERI, OROPIÚ, POLPAPIU) is creating a series. This analogousformation of series based on shortened and complete forms can be consideredas a morphological construction principie in the formation of brand names.Here we are confronted with the difficulty of a clear-cut boundary betweenderivation and composition. Table 5 shows which elements can be consideredas branch-typical elements in the advertising language of the food industry.

The efficiency of the shortening process consists in the creation of close-fitting correlates that can be easily remembered. It became apparent that,particularly in the field of shortening, detailed knowledge of the productreferred to is essential for the deduction of a formation pattern. Table 6illustrates how manifold the possibilities are of creating a brand name byusing a shortening processo

In the course of analysing the morphological structure of ltalian brandnames, special attention should be given to the formation of new names thatare based on existing company narnes, assortment names, or product linenames. Table 7 illustrates the variety of formation patterns.



Table 5. Elements forming series in the formation of Italian brand names

Shortenedforms

ACTI-; -BON-; -CAO / -KAO; CHOCO-; CONDI-; -CREM- /-CREM / KREM-; GRAN-; -LAT / -LÁT; -PAN-; PATA-; SAN-;VAL-

-DELIZIE; -FETTE; -LATTE; -MARE-; -MENTA-; -MIX-; -NEVE-;-ORO-; ORTO-; -POLPA-; -ROLL-; -SOlA / -SOYA; -SOLE;-SNACK-; -TOAST /-TOST

DOLCE- / DOLCI-; FRESCO-; -GHIOTTO-; -PRONTO- / -A-PIU-; FlOR DI-; -UP

Completeforms

Shortening process

Table 6. Shortening processes in the formation of Italian brand names

Example

Apocope:substantivaladjectival

CONDI (condimento, seasoning)NIPIOL (nipiologico, nipiologic (branch of

paediatrics) )Apocope + aphaeresis:adjectival BIOTIK (probiotico, probiotic)Syncope: ,substantival BUFFLO (buffolo (dialect) buffalo)Compound with shortened element(s):1. constituent shortened PATAFETTE (patata + fetta, potato + slice)2. constituent shortened FRESCOMAR (fresco + mare, fresh + sea)1+2. constituent shortened FRUBETTO (frutto + sorbetto, fruit + sorbet)Haplology:1. constituent shortened2. constituent shortened1+2. constituent shortened1+2. constituent not

shortenedAcronym:acronymacronym + adjective / nounnoun + acronym

NATURICCHI (natura + ricchi, naiure + rich)MANDORLAT (mandorla + latte, almond + milk)MIELIZIA (miele + delizia, honey + delight)ORZORO (orzo + QIQ, barley + gold)

IASA - Industria Ittica Alimentare Salerno- - - -ACE ROSSO (red)VITA-C (life)

Table 8 gives an overview of how the 713 brand names created by meansof word formation processes are distributed according to the formationpatterns.

4.3. The semantic structure of brand names

The analysis of semantic aspects of brand names of the Italian food market hasrevealed a number of onomastic and lexical adoptions. Among the onomastic


14 • Antje Zilg

Table 7. Formation of brand names on the basis of existing brand names

Formation on the basis ofexisting names

Examples

Affixes:prefix + brand namebrand name + modifying suffixbrand name + foreign suffixbrand name + superlative suffixComposition, strictly speaking:brand name + nounnoun + brand nameadjective + brand namebrand name + adjectivebrand name + adjective + nounnoun + preposition + brand nameSyntactic constructions:nominal syntactic constructionShortening:plain formationcompound with shortened element(s):1. constituent shortened2. constituent shortened1+2. constituent shortenedhaplology:1. constituent shortened2. constituent shortened1+2. constituent shortened1+2. constituent not shortened

SUPERCIRIO (Ciria)BIRACHETTE (Biraghi)DANETTE (Danane)DANISSIMO (Danane)

SANTALMOUSSE (Santal)ZOO-DORIA (Daria)BIANCA PREALPI (Prealpi)SANTAL SUNNY (Santal)SANTAL ACTIVE DRINK (Santal)VITA DI SANCEMINI (Sangemini)

LE MANIE DI EHRMANN (Ehrmann)

CALBI (Galbani)

DORIBAR (Daria + bar)CIDAMELLE (Cida + caramelle)DORICREM (Daria + crema)

BISCOLUSSI (biscatta + Calussi)CIMAS (Gim + mascarpane)SFIZIOLI (sfiziasa + Olivali)CISOIA (Gis + saia)

transfers, patronyms (COLUSSI, CALBANI, PERONI), which serve ascompany names, are the most important category. Apart from the use of familynames, brand names are als o formed by making use of Christian names suchas ALLECRA, ANNABELLA, and BENIAMINO. When Iooking at personalnames, the Iarge number of names of saints that have entered the list of ltalianbrand names is striking: S. CIORCIO, SAN BENEDETTO, SAN CARLO,SAN CIULIANO, SAN MARTINO, SANTA LUCIA, SANTA ROSA,SANT'ORSOLA. A Iarge number of brand names combine Christian nameswith the designation of female famiIy members: MAMA MARIA, MAMMAANTONIA, NONNA ISA, NONNA MARIA. The fact that the mother is thecentre of many ltalian families is reflected in the formation of these brandnames (see Brütting 1997: 310). Plain formations prevail with regard totoponyms (SCOZIA, SICILIA, TICULLIO). The advertising Ianguage hardIyknows any limits in the use of further proper name types for the formation ofbrand names. The variety ranges from the names of Iiterary personalities such



Total Types

Table 8. Distribution of brand names according to formation patterns

% Absolute distributionand distribution (%)

4 2.8116 80.017 11.78 5.5

23 11.030 14.327 13.05 2.4

33 15.73 1.45 2.42 1.0

52 24.84 1.98 3.8

18 8.6

9 8.77 6.71 1.01 1.0

32 30.87 6.7

14 13.57 6.73 2.96 5.85 4.8

12 11.5

108 63.263 36.8

17 27.018 28.62 3.23 4.8

10 15.94 6.32 3.24 6.31 1.61 1.61 1.6

Derivation145 15.3 Prefixes

SuffixesPrefixoidesSuffixoides

Composition210 22.1 Composition, strictly speaking

N+NN+AA+NV+NN+Prep+NA+ANs-AdvAdv+NSyntagms and sentences:Nominal syntagmPrepositional syntagmCoordinationSentences

Shortening104 10.9 Substantival apocope

Adjectival apocopeApocope + aphaeresisSyncopeContamination - Shortening FCContamination - Shortening SCContamination - Shortening FC and SCHaplology - Shortening FCHaplology - Shortening SCHaplology - Shortening FC and SCHaplology - FC and SC not shortenedAcranyms

Formations using affixoides from advertising language171 18.0 Full forms (22)

Shortened forms (12)Formations using brand names63 6.6 Brand name + affix

CompositionNominal syntagmShortening from company nameContamination - Shortening FCContamination - Shortening SCContamination - Shortening FC and SCHaplology - Shortening FCHaplology - Shortening SCHaplology - Shortening FC and SCHaplology - FC and SC not shortened

Numbers20 2.1713 75.0


16 • Antje Zilg

as OTELLO, or historical personalities such as DANTE, to the name of apalace such as ARNABOLDI,or the name of a ship such as DORIA?

At the assignment of lexical elements to products, a particular unit of thevocabulary receives an additional meaning, i.e. the meaning of the productwhich this unit is supposed to denote. Regarding lexical transfers, nounsdominate (e.g. ABBRACCI'embraces', FAVOLE'fables', SORRISI 'smiles').However, adjectives (CROCCANTE 'crunchy', IDEALE 'ideal', POLARE'polar'), verbs (RISTORA'boosts, fortifies'), adverbs (ECCO 'here you are'),and pronouns (MIO 'mine') can also function as brand names.

In the field of lexical transfers, brand names can be grouped with regard tocontent. The brand names AMBRA ('amber'), DIAMANTE ('diamond'),SMERALDA ('emerald'), for example, belong to the semantic field ofmineralogy. The term 'semantic field' (or 'lexical field') was introduced byTrier in 1931(seeBuísmann2002:753).In a paradigmatic sense, semantic fieldsare groups of words from the same part of speech with shared elements ofessential core meaning yet exceeding the meaning relation of synonymy (seeSchippan 1975:158).

Triers theory of semantic fields is based on the following premises:

1. The meaning of a word depends on the meaning of the other words in thesame semantic field.

2. A semantic field is made up like a gapless mosaico In its entirety, thecomplete set of semantic fields of a language is a complete reflection ofreality.

3. A change of the meaning of a word within a semantic field results in achange of the whole structure of a semantic field (seeBuísmann2002:753).8

In this examination it seems more appropriate to use the term 'donorfields' rather than 'semantic fields'. Brand names range somewhere betweenproper names and appellatives. With regard to part of speech they all havethe same status, but the lexical material fulfils diverse functions within abrand name. The noun nonno ('grandfather') in COPPA DEL NONNO, forexample, belongs to the semantic field of 'family'. However, as it onlyfunctions as a deierminans for another noun it cannot be evaluated in thesame way as other words from the semantic field of 'family', e.g. nouns likenonna ('grandmother') in NONNA MARIA. Trier's posit of the gaplessnetwork is also problematic. The vocabulary units used in lexical transfersserve to denote new products. This leads to an expansion af the meaning ofthese lexical units. However, in many cases a connection between the nameand the product is not perceptible (e.g. DUETTOfor cream, CONCERTINOfor ice cream), and it is unclear how far the qualities and facts transmittedin the name express the meaning of the product it denotes. If the term'semantic field' were used, it would be difficult to determine the essentialelements of meaning shared by the elements of a so-called semanticfield.



Table 9. Danar fields in the forrnation of Italian brand names

Italy-specific danar fields Universal danar fields

Danar field Example Danar field Example

family MAMA MIA batany BUCANEVENONNAISA LIGUSTRO

religian ARCA DINOE animals GIAGUAROPANEANGELI LO SCOIATTOLO

tenderness ABBRACCI exatic BAMBUCOCCOLE COLIBRI

music DUETTO tales Imagic FAVILLERITORNELLI MAGIE

sea Zocean NOSTROMO snaw and ice FRESCONEVESKIPPER POLARE

sky Icelestial badies I SPICCHI DI SOLEcanstellatian STELLA BIANCA

time 10 E TRENTAMATIN

The danar fields can be differentiated inta thase reflecting characteristicsand values of the ltalian saciety and those which can als o be detected in brandnames in ather societies. Table 9 provides an overview of the donor fieldsdetected in brand names in the Italian food market.

In addition to the importance of religion, the marked emotionality referedto in section 3, and the important role of the family als o mentioned above,borrowings from the area of music have to be cited as well. A large part ofmusical terminology comes from the ltalian language (Dardano and Trifone1985: 406), so that the high occurrence of substantives from the field of musiccan also be considered a peculiarity of ltalian brand name formation. Thequestion remains open whether in other countries, which unlike Italy are notalmost exclusively bounded by the sea, as many trade names refer to thesubject are a of the sea as well: in Italy it is even namegiver for products whichhave no evident relation to it.

In the context af an analysis of the semantic structure of brand names inthe Italian food industry, it is apprapriate to disclose information andelements of meaning that are contained in the brand names. It is typical ofbrand names in the food industry to indicate the ingredients of the designatedproduct, in order to meet the consumer's need for information. In a number ofcases the indication of ingredients of a product leads to the creation ofcompeting products with similar names, as in the folIowing series:POLPABELLA, POLPADORO, POLPAPRONTA, TUTTAPOLPA - alI brandnames of tomato pulp.

When a name is designed to be legalIy protected, the protection of similar-saunding names shauld also be considered in order to protect the individual


18 • Antje Zilg

Table 10. Information in Italian brand names

Type of information Example

Product typeProduct componentsProduct properties:

shapetasteconsistencesizecolourcontent quantityquick preparationportabilitynaturalnessfreshnesstradition

Provenance

Target consumersTime of consumptionPurposeKind of preparationEffect

IL BISCOTTO DELLA NONNA; VEGETALBRODODELIZIE DI MAISj SELENELLA

CONISSIMO; SPICCHI DI PARMAFlOR DI LIMONE; VOGLIA DI FRAGOLACROCCANTE; I MORBIDICOPPA KING; I MACIMINIAMBRA (product); BLU (packaging)500 (500 grammes); SIX APPEAL (six slices)4 SALTI IN PADELLA; I PRESTOBUONILCl GO; POCKET COFFEENATURA AMICA; DOLCEZZE DI CAMPOFRESCOCOLLE; PIÚ GIORNI"COME UNA VOLTA!!"; IL VECCHIO MULINOFIOR DI MONTAGNARACCOLTO MEDITERRANEOBEBI RISO; IL PRIMO FRESCO10E TRENTA; PRIMI RAGGICONDIVERDE RISO; ZUPPALATTELA BRACERIA; LE ROSOLINERELAX; RISTORA

character of the name (see Sena 2001: 209f. on defensive trademarks imarchidifensivi) in ltalian trademark law). The name may indicate not onlyingredients contained in the product but also ingredients that are notcontained: GLUTEN STOP (gelato senza glutine, 'ice cream without gluten'),PRIVOLAT (prodotti senza latte e senza uouo, 'products without rnilk andwithout eggs'), ZEROGI (biscotti senza grasei, 'cookies without fat'),ZEROGRANO lfrollini senza glutine, 'pastries without gluten'). Table 10summarizes the various types of information that can be conveyed in a brandname.

4.4. lexical peculiarities of brand names

Brand naming makes use of foreign-language forms, especiaUy French andEnglish, as a creative element. However, exotic brand names are not only usedon advertising graunds. Their use also arises fram the internationalinterweaving of today's praduction world. It can be worthwhile for acompany to sell its products under the same name worldwide (see Lõtscher1992: 324).



Table 11. Anglicisms and Gallicisms in Italian brand name formation

Foreign language elements Anglicisms Gallicisms(total) (total)

simple foreign-language form; entry in the dictionary 12 (24) 4 (9)(e.g. STAR)

simple foreign-language form; no entry in the 12 5dictionary (e.g. DELIGHT)

foreign-language first constituent; entry in the 8 (12) 1 (1)dictionary (e.g. MIX CAROTA)

foreign-language first constituent; no entry in the 4 Odictionary (e.g. LEMON-SODA)

foreign-language second constituent; entry in the 24 (30) 9 (13)dictionary (e.g. LAVAZZA CLUB)

foreign-language second constituent; no entry in the 6 4dictionary (e.g. BANANA KID)

foreign-language first and second constituent (e.g. 25 (25) 9 (9)BRAN-STICKS)

Total 91 32

Four groups of foreign-language brand names can be differentiated:simple foreign-language forms (e.g. JOY), complex forms with a foreign-language first constituent (e.g. SPEEDY PIZZA), complex forms with aforeign-language second constituent (e.g. AMICA CHIPS), and complexforms with foreign-language first and second constituent (e.g. FRUIT JOY). Inthe case of entirely foreign names, it is possible that consumers who do nothave good command of the foreign language might have difficultiesunderstanding the name. However, other factors influence thecomprehensibility of a brand name as well; for example, a very muchshortened ltalian vocabulary element can lead to more difficulties inunderstanding than a widely known, unabridged foreign vocabulary element.

The foreign elements detected here were distinguished according to thedegree of strangeness vis-à-vis the Italian language. It was checked in eachsingle case whether the elements are listed in monolingual dictionary LoZingarelli (1998). Table 11 gives an overview of the number of English andFrench vocabulary elements found in the research material. Names in whichEnglish elements appear serve as examples of the different categories ofstrangeness vis-à-vis the Italian language. It can be seen that there are threetimes as many English as French elements. At this point we have to contradictCardona, who states that French is losing ground and is now reduced to thefield of cosmetics and to some aspect of fashion (see Cardona 1989: 185): it istrue that there are fewer French elements than English ones in the corpus, butFrench is nonetheless very present in the field of Italian food brand names.


20 • Antje Zilg

Table 12. lhe use of foreign languages in the formation of Italian brand names

Foreign Transfer Camplex Stem at word Morpheme Otherlanguages formatian formatian/

inflection

English 24 67 2 5 7(109) JOY SPRAYPAN NUTELLA CREMY BEN'SFrench 9 23 3 1(36) CAPRICE ESTATHÉ CROISSINI DANETTELatin 4 2(6) OPTIMUM COELSANUSGreek 1 1(2) NAUTILUS GALATINEGerman 1 11 1(13) KINDER ALTOSPECK NUSSETTOSSpanish 2 3 6(11) FIESTA PESCANOVA BANITAPortuguese 1 1(2) PAULISTA A'S DOMARFlemish 1(1) ACTIMEL

Table 12 gives an averview of the numerical accurence of foreign-Ianguageelements in the corpus. Individual categories are illustrated by an example. Inaddition to the numerous forms which contain English and French material,the relatively high number of complex formations containing German materialas well as the frequency of Spanish word formation morphemes are striking.

Finally, it should be pointed out that some brand names are a mixture ofdifferent languages to the extent that the name' s origin can hardly be detected,e.g. NUSSETTOS, consisting of a German stem, an Italian derivationalmorpheme, and a Spanish inflectional morpheme. In this context Folena(1989: 110) speaks about the whimsicalities of a lexical alchemy, of aninternational neo-Ianguage consisting of stubs of words from differentlanguages. The use of foreign language brand names has its limits, however,when the consumer who does not have good command of the foreignlanguage does not want to ask for a product because he or she is afraid ofwrongly pronuncing the name.

A number af nouns and adjectives recur regularly, and take a key positionin the train of thought and diction of Italian food advertising. According toGazzera (1989: 99f.), they possess a particular expressive power. The specialvalue of these terms derives from the fact that they evoke pleasant orinteresting emotions or sensations. They are subsumed under the term 'keyconcept'. They consist of a lexical unit that follows the written form of arespective language and can be shortened in different ways in brand names in



which it occurs. These lexical elements appear in various forms, even indifferent parts of speech. The key conceptfrutta 'fruit' finds expression in thefollowing brand names: FRUTTAYO, FRUTTAPEC,FRUITJOY,BIG FRUT,CROUSTY FRUITS, FRUTTOLO, FRUTTY, FRUBETTO, FRUCCHERO,FRUIX. The brand names AROMAT, FANTASIE AROMATICHE, GRANAROMA, MAGIA D'AROMI as well as LE VOGUE, BIOVOGUA, MINIVOGUE, VOGUA DI FRAGOLA,VOGLIADI PASTA!,TI VOGUO can alsobe grouped together on the basis of the term 'key concept'.

The key concepts contain elements to describe the kind, the form, theflavour, etc. of the respective products, e.g. crema 'cream', fior 'bloom', latte'milk',limone 'lemon', yogurt 'yoghurt', and elements used to qualify the taste,e.g. aroma 'flavour', boniã/buono 'good, fine', fresco 'fresh', ghiotto 'fond ofsweet things, tasty', gustoso/gusto/sapore 'tasty, taste', delizia 'delicacy'. Inaddition, they contain suggestive elements such as amico 'friend', mare 'sea',neve 'snow', sole 'sun', stella 'star', 'value-adding' elements such as grande 'big',oro 'gold', piic 'more', and elements that can be considered as conveyingltalian characteristics, e.g. dolcezza/dolce 'sweet', tenerezza/tenero 'tender', voglia'desire', santo 'Saint'. There are also elements detected that concem thecurrent trend towards healthy living, such as cereale 'cereal', fitness 'fitness',sano 'healthy', soia 'soya', vita/vivere/vivo 'life, to live, lively', or all-naturalelements such as cascina 'dairy, farmhouse', macina/mulino 'mill', natura'nature', orto 'vegetable garden', oaltle) 'valley'.

5. Closing remarks

The synchronic analysis of ltalian brand names is an integrative contributionto a closer cooperation between linguistic theory and practical business andjurisprudence.

There is a need for linguists outside of academia. [..] The field ofadvertising (as other professional fields) needs linguists, or people whohave more than an intuition about language. (Smith 1982:189)

In addition to a typology of brand names that might serve as groundwork forthe creation of future names, different aspects for further research can beidentified.

If one pursues the aim to find the 'right' name for a company, a productassortment/line, or a single product, which contributes to reaching theconsumer and to making him prefer the brand over the competitors' brands,the consideration and inclusion of the consumer's perspective constitutean urgent research desideratum. This holds, for example, for brand namesbuilt on existing names, like BIRAGHI: BIRAGHETTE, BlRAGHINI, ILBIRALUNGO.An impact analysis could give information about the extent towhich the use of an existing name within a new name contributes to the


22 • Antje Zilg

success of the new name. Does it help to sell the new brand faster? Is it easierfor customers to memorize the new name, and - in consequence - does itincrease their willingness to buy? Beyond that, an empirical study could focuson the analysis of the degree to which an existing name might be shortened ordefamiliarized while still fulfiUingits identification function.

Furthermore, an intercultural comparison could provide interestingexplanations about the naming practices in different countries. Trends in thefield of fantasy names like YUMA, JOMI, YOMO and JOCCA, that mightincrease in the context of a growing Europeanization, could also be examined.

As brand names are a reflection of particular social and economicconditions, the question arises of how trends in the food market can bederived from trade names, e.g. tendency to convenience products, increasedhealth awareness, distinctive leasure behaviour, and on what linguistic levelsof description this happens.

Notes

1. See Klein (2001) for a critical discussion of globalization and the operations ofmulti-national companies. Ferraresi, in turn, deals with the effects of globalizationon promotional communication (2002: 189-227).

2. AlI translations are mine.3. Corpus compilation: (1)Field research in various ltalian super markets during a stay

in ltaly (several weeks in 2003); (2) advertisements and articles in ltalian consumermagazines; (3)visiting several ltalian exhibitors at the ANUGA (Trade Fair for theInternational Food Industry) in Cologne (12 October 2003); (4) additional researchand validation of all findings on the Internet.

In 2002, 36,559 brands were registered at the Ufficio Italiano Brevetti e Marchi inltaly. The lniernaiional Classification of Goods and Services for the Purposes of theRegistration of Marks is divided in 34 trade and 11 service classes. In 2003, a total of8,167 Community Trade Marks were registered within classes 29-33, which arerelevant for the food market (see www.oami.eu.int).

4. Special attention should be paid to Platen's (1997) analysis of European productand brand names. For an introduction to the topic of naming, see CelIotto (2005) andBotton et al. (2002). Concerning ltalian advertising language, Jacqmain (1973) andthe collections by Baldini (1987) and Chiantera (1989) deserve mention. Cortelazzo(1988) introduces peculiarities of the advertising language in a mass media context.The anthology by BelIino et al. (1991) is another comprehensive study of ltalianadvertising language. In his dictionary-like publication, Fanfani (1995) introducesessential advertisement terms. Castagnotto (1970) is concerned with semanticaspects of advertising messages, while TacconelIi (1988) focuses on the perceptionof advertising messages. Dogana (1983; 1990) analyses the relation between soundstructure and meaning in advertising language. BorgarelIi Bacoccoli(1995) analysesthe advertising spot. For an introduction to the topic of advertising communication,see Fabris (1994) and Ferraresi (2002). A good reference work on advertising isAbruzzese and Colombo (1994). Kapferer and Thoenig (1991) focus on economic,Sena (2001) on legal aspects of brand naming.



5. For more detailed information about Italian customs and mentality, see Gambino(1998).

6. The rate of positive answers on questions concerning the existence of God, theobligations listed in the Ten Commandments, attendance at public worship, andacceptance of clerical authority is 10-20%higher in Italy than the European average.This exceptional situation has two reasons: unlike other countries, Italy has neverexperienced a schism, and Italy is the domicile of the Pope (see Brütting 1997:688).

7. Beforebeing the name of a ship, DORIAwas the family name of the famous GenoeseadmiralAndrea Doria (1466-1560).The classification of this name as being the nameof a ship is in line with the information given by the marketing department of thecompany: 'Comunichiamo che il nome Doria deriva dalla passione dei suo jondatore per Iamitica nave Andrea Dona.'

8. For detailed information on the theory of semantic fields, see van der Lee andReichmann (1973)and Tóth (2004).

Abbreviations

FC: first constituentSC: second constituent

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emaí/: antje.zílg@romanístík.uní-gíessen.de


zilg - that´s amore

Documents

number of brand names

names of people

introductionbrand names

meaning of ltalian brand

new products

increasing number of

new sequences of sounds

high rate of new brands