© 2010 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. children cognitive development in...

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Children

Cognitive Development

in Middle and Late Childhood

12


Concrete Operational Thought

• Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11– Reversible mental actions applied to real,

concrete objects– Focus on several characteristics at once– Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a

quantitative dimension– Transitivity: the ability to logically combine

relations to understand certain conclusions

What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?


Classification: An Important

Ability in Concrete

Operational Thought

A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational

child has trouble classifying the

members


Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

• His conclusions have been challenged:– Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/later– Stages not unitary structures of thought– Some can be trained to reason at higher stage – Culture and education exert stronger influence

• Neo-Piagetians: he got some things right



Applications to Education

• Teach children:– Take constructivist approach– Facilitate rather than direct learning– Consider child’s knowledge and level of

thinking– Use ongoing assessment– Promote student’s intellectual health– Turn classroom into setting of exploration and

discovery



Applications to Education

• Applying Vygotsky’s ideas– Encourage child to internalize and regulate

self-talk– Provide opportunities to learn in real-world

settings– Kamehameha Elementary Education Program

(KEEP)• Small group activities, ZPD emphasis,

question-and-answer format• Outcomes are impressive



Memory

• Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood

• Knowledge and expertise– Expert: extensive knowledge in specific area– Strategies (aka: control processes)

• Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain information

What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?


Memory

• Strategies – Mental imagery used by young children

– Elaboration used by older children

– Fuzzy trace theory:

• Two types of memory representations:

– Verbatim memory trace: precise details

– Gist: central idea of information



Thinking

• Critical thinking– Thinking reflectively and productively– Evaluate evidence, develop deep understanding– Successful grades is not indicator of critical

thinker

• Creative thinking– Think in novel and unusual ways– Produce unique solutions– Intelligence and creativity not the same



Thinking

• Creative thinking and intelligence– Convergent thinking – intelligence reflected on

conventional tests; produce one correct answer– Divergent thinking – creativity; produce many

answers for one question

• Research: – No Child Left Behind harms creative thinking;

teaching to content of standardized tests



Caring for Children

• Strategies to increase creative thinking– Encourage brainstorming– Provide stimulating environments– Don’t overcontrol, build child’s confidence– Encourage internal motivation– Guide child to be persistent, delay gratification– Encourage taking intellectual risks– Introduce children to creative people



Thinking

• Scientific thinking– Reasoning to identify causal relations

• Need understanding of how things occur• Analyze before and after the effect

– Reasoning of children differs from scientific• Scientists design experiments, hypotheses• Scientists separate evidence and theory• Child has many concepts incompatible with

science and reality; not routinely taught



Metacognition

• Cognition about cognition – Most focus on metamemory

• Children ages 5 to 6– Familiar, related items easier to

remember– Gist of a story is easier to remember

– Focus on knowledge about strategies• Effective planning aids problem solving• Application of effective strategies is key



Intelligence and Its Assessment

• Intelligence– Problem-solving skills and ability to learn from

everyday experiences that allow adaptation– Individual differences exist– Verbal ability and problem-solving skills– Can only be measured indirectly

• Intelligence tests– Binet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests)

How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?




• Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development

• Intelligence quotient (IQ)

• Normal distribution

MA

CAX 100 IQ


The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores



• The Wechsler Scales– Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of

Intelligence III – (WISC-III)– Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – IV

Integrated (WISC-IV integrated) – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)



Types of Intelligence

• Sternberg’s Triarchic theory– 3 main forms; individual patterns vary

• Analytic intelligence• Creative intelligence• Practical intelligence

– Some patterns favored conventional schooling– Creative patterns not always ‘top-of-the-class’– Wisdom concept added in 2009

• Tested through problem solving



Types of Intelligence

• Gardner’s eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of mind)– Verbal– Mathematical – Spatial – Bodily-Kinesthetic

• Everyone has all to varying degrees


– Musical– Interpersonal– Intrapersonal– Naturalist


Evaluating Multiple Intelligences

• Controversial views– Stimulated educators to think more about

children’s competencies– Motivated new educational program

development and assessment– Some critics say views go too far– Controversy exists: multiple vs. general

• Culture– Conceptual differences exist; cultural values

influence what is learned, rewarded



Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores

• Influence of genetics– Comparison of identical and fraternal twins

• Identical twins: reared together and apart• Effects of environmental change

– Heritability: variance due to genetics• Controversial; not without flaws

• Environment affected by many factors• Parenting, education, ongoing change in

culture/society, personal experiences




• Environmental influences– Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly– Emphasis on prevention, not remedial– Early interventions

• High-quality child care• More focus on poor children• Continue programs into adolescence

– Gaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groups• Gap narrows in college




• Creating Culture-Fair Tests– Tests free of cultural bias– Two types devised

• Items known in all SES/ethnic backgrounds• No verbal questions

– Difficulty in creating• Time limits may create bias• Language differences/picture unfamiliarity• Individual differences of experiences




• Using Intelligence Tests– Effectiveness depends on user’s skills– Avoid stereotyping and expectations– IQ is not sole indicator of competence– Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores

• Extremes of intelligence– Mental retardation (organic, cultural-familial)– Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more)




• Characteristics of giftedness– Three criteria

• Precocity• Marching to their own drummer• A passion to master

– Product of both heredity and environment– Currently, controversy over definitions– Negative consequences for being ‘gifted’



Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness

• Children gain new skills in school– Alphabetic principle: sounds of language– Begin to categorize vocabulary; mastery

increases with age– Learn to use language in complex manner,

producing connected discourse– Metalinguistic awareness

• Knowledge about language• Pragmatics: culturally appropriate uses

What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood?


Reading


Phonetics approach

Whole-language approach

Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials

should be whole and meaningful

Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve

simplified materials


Bilingualism and Second Language Learning

• Sensitive periods for language learning vary across different language systems– May be easier for late learners like adults– Adults may learn faster than children– Children’s final attainment level is higher

• U.S. behind in children using 2nd language– Bilingualism has positive effect on child’s

cognitive functioning, reading abilities



Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic: external rewards, punishments• Intrinsic: internal desires, perceptions

– Emphasizes self-determination

• Motivation can be enhanced– Create engaging environments– Encourage self-responsibility

• External and intrinsic can operate together

What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?


Mastery Motivation and Mindset

• Mastery motivation: task-oriented– Focus on learning strategies, process of

achievement– Remember, adapt what worked before

• Helpless orientation: trapped by difficulty– Blame difficulty on lack of ability– Become anxious, failure becomes reality

• Performance orientation– Focus on outcomes, goal is ‘winning’



Mastery Motivation and Mindset

• Mindset: cognitive view of one’s self– Fixed mindset

• Belief that qualities are ‘carved in stone’ and cannot change

• similar to helpless orientation– Growth mindset

• Belief that qualities can change; efforts can improve performance

• similar to mastery orientation



Self- Efficacy

• Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes– Common with mastery motivation and intrinsic

motivation– Linked to effort and persistency– Critical factor in achievement

• Self-efficacy influences selection, choices



Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation

• Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are:– Specific– Proximal– Challenging

• Long-term and short-term are needed• It is important to:

– Monitor progress– Evaluate outcomes



Social Relationships and Contexts

• Achievement affected by:– Relationships with parents, peers, teachers

• Child-rearing practices are very important• Home activities/experiences important• Peers can have positive or negative effect• Teachers’ roles can help/harm motivation

– Social contexts of ethnicity and culture• Minority disadvantages or deficits?• Distinct cultural differences have impact



The End

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