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LAND USE PLANNING SECTION I

CHAPTER 3 105

Chapter 3FOREST CONCESSION LAND USE PLANNINGForest Concession Land Use Planning: Lessons Learned from the CARPE ProgramCléto Ndikumagenge

CARPE

Case study 1 Lessons Learned from the Cameroon Segment of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape 111Synthesis Forest Concession Land Use Planning: Lessons Learned from the CARPE Program 104

Case study 2 Lessons Learned from the Enzyme Refiners Association (ENRA) Forest Concession 122Case study 3 Lessons Learned from Congolaise Industrielle des Bois (CIB) – PROGEPP Project 129

SECTION I LAND USE PLANNING

Synthesis - CHAPTER 3106

1. IntroductionThe area covered by forest concessions in Cen-tral African forest countries (Cameroon, DRC,Gabon, Congo, CAR and Equatorial Guinea) isestimated today to total 50 million ha, which isabout 25 percent of the evergreen rainforest ofthe region. All lands belong to the State andconcessionaires simply manage the resourcesfor a set period of time. In most of the countries,Cameroon excepted, the zoning process has notyet been finalized. Nonetheless, there has beennoticeable progress in the gazettement of forestconcessions in these countries.In its strategy of implementing the policy ofconservation and sustainable management of na-tural resources in the Congo Basin, and more es-pecially in accomplishing its Intermediary Result2, CARPE is working with partners at all levels –micro-, meso- and macro-zone , but also at na-tional and global level – to make the most of the

lessons learned in its various areas of interven-tion, especially those to do with forest conces-sions. The purpose of this paper is to present a sum-mary of the history of the development of forestconcession management in Central Africa, fromcolonial days up to the present; to highlight themain challenges (former and emerging) for betterland-use planning (LUP) in forest concessions; tooutline the main lessons learned from case stu-dies analyzed in the Democratic Republic ofCongo, in the Cameroon and Congo segments ofthe Sangha Tri-National Landscape; and to pro-vide some guidelines on current trends.

Forest Concession Land Use Planning : Lessons Learnedfrom the CARPE ProgramCléto Ndikumagenge


CHAPTER 3 - Synthesis 107

2. Development of forest ma-nagement from the colonialperiod to the present2.1 From mining management to sus-tainable management of forestThe history of forest management in CentralAfrica demonstrates the evolution of sylvicultureand land management since the 19th century.In fact, from the 18th century to the 1950s, poli-cies on the management of forest resources wereState-driven and all forest management was gea-red towards the promotion of logging without anyreal concern about regulating logging nor preser-ving wildlife. Most of the logging was for house-hold use. Forests were, in almost all cases, thesole responsibility of the State.In the 1950s, the situation started to change asforest management and logging were mostlygeared towards the reconstruction of Europeafter the 2nd World War. For a long time, loggingactivity was concentrated mostly around the co-astline because of problems of transportation.In the 1960s and 1970s, with the coming of mo-bile saws and better means of transportation, anincrease in demand saw logging activity expandfurther and further inland although most of theland still remained unexploited.A few trials were carried out in natural forests andthey revealed that sylvicultural treatments beforeand after logging could significantly improvegrowth rates and consequently the volumes ofmarketable species.Prompted by organizations such as IUCN, thenecessity of taking conservation needs intoconsideration started to be felt. In 1975, the IUCNGeneral Assembly organized in Nsele gave freshimpetus to the recognition of the importance oftropical forests to conservation.In the 1980s, enormous efforts were made to de-velop programmes aimed at promoting conser-vation and regulating forest logging. This

gradually evolved into programmes relating theconservation of forest resources to the develop-ment of local communities.In the 1990s, some governments started to adoptlaws to enable local communities to be involvedin the management of forest resources.During this period, concessionaires started toplay an important role in management includingthe role hitherto entrusted to governments suchas that of being responsible for the managementof lands on which concessions had been granted.The obligations of concessionaires continued togrow and included various responsibilities:• Technical responsibilities such as the pre-paration of management plans followed bydirectives and standards, management offelling plots, etc.;

• Social responsibilities through the creationof jobs, the provision of goods and servicesto administrations and the local populations,contributions to local projects, etc.;

• Economic responsibilities through thecontribution of processing units, and thecreation and maintenance of roads;

• Social responsibilities through the paying ofa number of fees and taxes in addition tothose stipulated by law;

• Environmental responsibilities geared to-wards respect for biological diversity espe-cially wildlife in production zones.

2.2 Progress made on certification Over the past 10 years, a new era has been bornwith the advent of forest certification. Concessio-naires and States are doing quite a lot for the cer-tification of natural forests. Presently, the surfacearea under FSC certification has grown from 0hectare in 2006 to more than 4 million ha in2010.

3. Major challenges in forestconcession management 3.1 Forest concessions and land tenureIn spite of significant progress within the frame-



work of forest management, aspects of forest te-nure are not yet harmonized in Central Africancountries. When it comes to large-scale zoning,apart from Cameroon, the other countries havestill to complete their zoning plans.With regard to domestic policies on granting ofconcessions, the period granted to concessio-naires varies depending on regulations in force:30 years and above. Do investors feel safe?Community claims on these lands will thereforeno be on the increase.3.2 Challenges of biodiversity conser-vation in production forests: 10 com-mandments for managing wildlifeA study carried out in the south of Cameroon in2003 in a forest concession managed by a log-ging company called FIPCAM has shown that itis large mammals (gorillas, chimpanzees and ele-phants) that are facing the most pressure fromlogging.Besides logging (that has as its corollary the dis-ruption of habitats and the gradual disappea-rance of animal and plant species), there aremany other pressures that are for the most partfound outside of forest concessions. They include:- the economic crisis of which one of theconsequences is the decline in jobs in thepublic and private sectors, and the subse-quent return of unemployed city dwellers torural areas;

- the devaluation of the CFA Franc in 1994and structural adjustment measures impo-sed by the World Bank and the IMF;

- new economic difficulties related to the re-duction in oil revenues and associated jobs,thereby creating an attractive economicniche for the trade in bushmeat;

- the fall in price of cash crops (cocoa, cof-fee), coupled with poor sales of these ex-port products, again causing the bushmeattrade to become a more important sourceof income for rural households in forestzones;

- the proliferation of more efficient huntingweapons aggravated by armed conflicts in

the sub-region;- the opening of new road networks by log-ging and mining companies thereby facilita-ting access to forest zones that werehitherto not accessible to hunters;

- the development of more efficient means oftransportation;

- the growing demand for bushmeat in cities;- the opening up of some regions that has ledto an increase in outlets for the sale of bush-meat;

- the development of transborder trade andmarkets for bushmeat in urban areas;

- human immigration into logging and miningsites, and agro-industrial plants;

- huge inadequacies in the implementation ofthe law.

Some concessionaires have, in collaboration withconservation partners, set up some basic rules toreduce the loss of biodiversity and especiallywildlife. These rules, that have been dubbed the“ten commandments”, were outlined at Lopé,Gabon, in 2000. They are :1) Promote knowledge and respect for thelaws in force inside and outside the forestconcession through close collaboration bet-ween all actors;

2) Create between funding bodies, administra-tions, logging companies and conservationcommunities, true partnerships with rightsand obligations that are known and accep-ted by all;

3) Mainstream the problem of “wildlife mana-gement” in designing and implementing ma-nagement plans;

4) Restrict access to the concession;5) Ban all commercial hunting or hunting usingnon-selective techniques in the forestconcession;

6) Manage immigration to the forest conces-sion with relation to living quarters, perma-nent camps and industrial sites;

7) Put up strict regulations and instruments forefficient control in the concession;

8) Establish awareness-raising and educationprogrammes on the issue of overexploita-tion of wildlife;

9) Promote the use of alternative sources ofprotein to satisfy the dietary needs of the



populations;10) Never give up!

3.3 How to reconcile the landscape ap-proach with the management of forestconcessions?Landscapes are geographical areas where thereis human activity and where there are physicaland biological specificities for a given region, ins-titutions and people who influence the latter, aswell as cultural and spiritual values. Their scopehas to be determined in terms of the targeted ma-nagement objectives.Among the main principles of forest landscaperestoration, there is: (i) the identification of zonesto be restored within landscapes taking intoconsideration the preservation of biodiversity,species, their habitats and ecosystems, and fos-tering the resilience of ecological systems; (ii) thepromotion of a holistic vision while taking intoconsideration the management of large mosaicsand the entire landscape; and (iii) the promotionof multi-actor platforms (government, civil society,communities and the private sector) for land-scape management, to facilitate good moral, so-cial, ethical and professional relations.In the case of Central African forest concessions,most of them are contiguous to protected areasand are part of these large mosaics. Landscapedevelopment and management has to take intoconsideration the interactions between protectedareas and forest concessions. The security ofprotected areas within a landscape depends onhow sustainably they are exploited, the dynamicsof the peripheral zones as well as the manage-ment of relations between the actors involved.3.4 Emerging issuesThere are emerging issues that have not beenlooked at in the case studies but that will haveshort and medium-term impacts on forestconcessions.Forest concessions and energyThe 13th World Forestry Congress in Buenos

Aires (October 2009) highlighted the importanceof bio-energy and its impact on the use of land-scapes. In fact, bio-energy is used by at least 10percent of the world’s population and has prideof place in all developing countries.As a result of the subsidies provided for researchinto first-rate bio-fuels, it is possible that land cur-rently occupied by forest concessions will begiven over to the production of bio-fuels.The World Congress recognized the potential ne-gative impact of the development of bio-fuels onagricultural and forest lands.Importance of large plantations and their im-pact on forest concessionsWith the development of environmental aware-ness due partly to climate change and the currenteconomic downturn; there is good reason to askif current land-use plans will be respected. No-body can predict the evolution of the annualgrowth of plantations in the context of climatechange. Will the trend be to produce timber in ar-tificial plantations and leave natural forests for theconservation of biodiversity and carbon seques-tration?Similarly, with the much awaited development ofbio-fuels in Africa, will large palm plantations thatprovide the opportunity, in the short term, forgreater financial rewards than those provided byforests, not have the tendency to replace naturalforests?Impact of the REDD process on the manage-ment of forest concessions The international community acknowledges theimportance of Congo Basin forests in carbon se-questration. Although they represent only a rela-tively small percentage as compared to othertypes of forests in the world (especially temperateforests), they stock a relatively large volume ofcarbon as compared to these other types of fo-rests.The REDD process that consists of paying com-pensation to developing countries that have a netreduction of emission of greenhouse gases in



order to mitigate climate change is topical today.The Congo Basin countries that manage forestconcessions want to have credits for the prelimi-nary measures of sustainable management al-ready undertaken, to develop suitable policies,incentives and reference scenarios that take intoconsideration demographical evolution, food se-curity and energy needs.The issue at stake in the long term is the futureof management plans and land-use plans if theREDD mechanism is implemented.The position of the congo Basin countries on thisissue is that “degradation in forest concessionsshould be taken into account on the same basisof deforestation”.Also, only the carbon market mechanism can ge-nerate the necessary financial resources forREDD and ensure sustainable funding.

4. Synthesis of main lessonslearnt from on-going expe-riences4.1 Experiences may vary but somecommon lessons can be learnedWithin the framework of capitalizing on expe-riences and lessons learned by CARPE, threecase studies on planning forest management inconcessions were carried out: • Land-use planning by the Wildlife Conser-vation Society (WCS) and the Enzyme Re-finers Association (ENRA) in the Ituri-EpuliLandscape of the Democratic Republic ofCongo;

• The gazettement process and managementof forest concessions in the Cameroon seg-ment of the Sangha Tri-National (TNS)Landscape, by the World Wide Fund for Na-ture (WWF); and

• The multi-organizational model of land-useplanning and management of forest re-sources in forest concessions in the TNSwithin the framework of the Project for theManagement of Ecosystems around the

Nouabalé Ndoki National Park (PROGEPPin French).

In spite of the diversity of the landscapes and thecomplexity of contexts, in the analysis there issome convergence of the main lessons learnedin the management of forested lands of which themost important are :4.2 Act locally and think globally to in-fluence policies at national and regio-nal levelsLUP processes always require the involvementof communities, local authorities, local, nationaland sub-regional administrations. In the case ofENRA, it is reported that despite the weaknessof local authorities, they nonetheless representthe legal authority and ignoring them can com-promise the conduct of other planning initiatives.Collaboration with local authorities has facilitatedgradual collaboration with the Administrator of theMambassa Territory through quarterly meetingsand other strategic meetings. In the case of Cameroon, it has been observedthat supposedly “weak actors” can constitute a si-gnificant threat to biodiversity if they believe thatmanagement rules are detrimental to their inte-rests. From this participatory process of gazettingforest concessions, it is clear that conservation isnot a technical process but also and mostly a so-cial process.4.3 Promote the landscape approachand multi-actor partnershipsIn the countries covered by the case studies, ithas been observed that forest concession mana-gement and development must take into consi-deration the contiguous protected areas (VirungaNational Park for the DRC, the Nouabalé-NdokiNational Park for Congo and Lobéké NationalPark for Cameroon). In Cameroon and Congo, ithas been proven that the management of protec-ted areas within a landscape depends on how theperiphery is managed. Tripartite partnerships involving the private sec-tor, conservation NGOs and the local administra-



tion are often presented as a model to other sub-regions. It is thanks to multi-actor partnerships(CIB, WCS and the Ministry of Forest Economyfor the Congo; ENRA, WCS and the Ministry forthe DRC; and WWF, CEFAC and the Ministry incharge of Forestry for Cameroon) that manage-ment plans and land-use plans are developed. In these partnerships, spelling out clear roles andresponsibilities is crucial. In fact, conservationagencies must avoid conflicts and possible com-petition with administrations acting as technicalsupport/advisory agencies to other actors.The TNS experience in the Cameroon segmentbrings to the flore the fact that the landscapeconservation approach is a “science of compro-mises” and that no actor has enough power to im-pose rules that others cannot understand orshare in.If well carried out, these partnerships result in thesigning of collaboration agreements such as the“Mambele Agreement” (between local communi-ties, safari hunting companies and the forestryadministration that spells out the roles and res-ponsibilities of each party with regards to sustai-nable management of wild fauna, and access tothe various allocation units) and the anti-poa-ching agreement called the “LAB Agreement”(between logging and safari hunting companies,local communities, forestry administration andconservation NGOs). In the DRC, these partner-ships have made it possible to sign collaborationagreements with ENRA and WCS. This alsomakes it possible to put in place and strengthenconsultation fora between the forestry adminis-tration, conservation NGOs and forest conces-sions to evaluate and direct efforts towards thesustainable management of forest concessions(e.g., WWF and the SAFEC Company).4.4 Acknowledge traditional land-usesystems and the immediate interests oflocal communitiesRegardless of the context, case studies haveshown the need to master and take into conside-ration traditional land management systems andto preserve the immediate interests of communi-

ties.In Cameroon for example, it is important to notethat the difference between land tenure appliedto local communities vary from those of migrantswho want to secure as much land as possible inprotected landscapes (protected areas and forestconcessions), and this creates conflicts betweenthe various ethnic groups.The experience has shown that it is only thanksto sincere and open collaboration between actorsthat a zoning plan may be developed on whichthe boundaries of non-conflicting usage can besuperimposed. The process of landscape zoningis much more likely to succeed if all actorsconcerned can discuss and agree on how theboundaries of non-conflicting allocations can besuperimposed (and overlap) rather than focusingall their attention on exclusive allocation. In North Congo, PROGEPP is working to streng-then formal recognition of the rights of communi-ties in hunting zones and to formally recognizethe rights of pygmy communities in forest conces-sions. 4.5 Increasing role of South-South dia-logue and sharing between landscapesThanks to the harmonization of sub-regional po-licies under the coordination of COMIFAC, therehas been an important promotion of discussionand transboundary management to enable newexperience sharing in concession and zoningmanagement; those countries that are more ad-vanced in land-use planning should aim to inspireothers. 4.6 Role of science and new tools andmethods to monitor landscapesThe complexity of landscapes requires the inter-vention of scientists who work in close collabora-tion with professionals and the administration todefine new tools to monitor landscapes that allowfor the various achievements (natural, social, fi-nancial, human, cultural, infrastructural) to bemeasured. The example of the Groupe Sanghathat follows up the annual evolution of the TNS



landscape is quite illustrative, for it makes it pos-sible to capitalize on development and conserva-tion using indicators or benchmarks.Thanks to this group, there are several new toolsto monitor landscapes such as modelling that al-lows for simulation of various scenarios; monito-ring development indicators that allow for themonitoring of the evolution of landscape; visuali-zation that allows communities to express theircurrent and future views of the landscape throughsessions; and the cyber tracker that makes it pos-sible to improve on how to plan and carry out log-ging operations. The success observed maycontribute to improving regulation.

5. Conclusions• Thanks to the harmonization of policies andthe commitment of partners such asCARPE and others, the Congo Basin hasmade considerable efforts to manage forestconcessions in a sustainable mannerthrough the drawing up and implementationof participatory management plans;

• Multi-actor partnerships allowing for the in-volvement of the private sector and NGOswill be strengthened in order to facilitate theimplementation of management plans;

• In spite of efforts made in countries throughthe COMIFAC, the issue of forest tenureand access of communities to land is not yetclear, given that some countries are moreadvanced than others;

• As a result of market pressures and climatechange, the role of forest concessions inproviding fuelwood will become more impor-tant;

• Forest plantations and agro-industries, es-pecially of palm trees and other plants usedto provide bio-fuels, are playing an increa-singly important role in countries;

• Opportunities and uncertainties generatedby the REDD process will have conse-quences for the development of forestconcessions. In fact, the future of the forestconcessions is not limited solely to carbonsequestration or environmental servicesthat are essential for the future of the plan-tations; in addition, the human and econo-

mic dimensions of this area are inescapa-ble.

BibliographyKarsenty, A., Jégou, C. and Singer, B. 2008. So-cial Policies of Forest Concessionaries in Westand Central Africa. Washington DC: Rights andResources Initiative.Makana, J-R. 2009. ENRA Forest concessionland-use planning. [In press]Makon Wehiong, S., Ndikumagenge, C. andNgantou, D. 2005. Bilan et analyse des partena-riats en gestion forestière dans le Bassin duCongo. OIBT, UICN, CEFDHAC. Minnemeyer, S., Dkamela, G.P., Kabamba, F.and Stolle, F. 2009. Des forêts du bassin duCongo pour le climat global. Questions et ré-ponses pour appréhender les défis du REDD.WRI. Nzooh Dongmo, Z., Ngniado, A., Defo, L.,Usongo, L. and Akwa, G. 2009. Processus declassement et d’aménagement des concessionsforestières dans le segment Cameroun du TNS.WWF. [In press]COMIFAC, 2008. The Forests of the Congo.State of the forests 2008. Poulsen, J.R., Clark, C.J. and Curran, B.K. 2009.Multi-Organizational Model of Land-Use Planningto Conserve Wildlife and Forest Resources in Fo-restry Concessions in Congo. [In press]Sayer, J.A., Ndikumagenge, C., Campbell, B. andUsongo, L. 2005. “Wildlife, Loggers and Liveli-hoods in the Congo Basin”. In: Sayer, J.A., Ma-ginnis, S. and Laurie, M. (Eds) Forests inlandscapes: ecosystem approaches to sustaina-bility. London: Earthscan.


CHAPTER 3 - Case study 1 113

Overview of forest conces-sionsThe Cameroon segment of the Sangha Tri-Natio-nal (Tri-National de la Sangha – TNS) Landscapecovers an area of 1,470,799 ha, divided into per-manent forest estate (1,197,707 ha) and non-per-manent forest estate (273,092 ha). Thenon-permanent forest estate (also called theagro-forestry zone) is intended, among otherthings, for the development of community fores-try, community hunting and the agricultural acti-vities of the local people. The permanent forestestate includes the Lobéké National Park(217,332 ha) and forest concessions (980,375ha). Forest concessions devoted to logging of

hardwood include 14 forest management units,alongside seven hunting zones (ZIC)1 and sixcommunity-based hunting zones2 (ZICGC). On the phytogeographical level, these loggingconcessions are situated in the transitional zoneof the Dja evergreen forest, and the semi-deci-duous forest containing specimens from the Ster-culiaceae and Ulmaceae families. On the whole,the semi-deciduous forests are relatively greaterin size. In all, 11 types of vegetation have beenrecorded. This diversity of vegetation brings with it a relati-vely high level of biological diversity. In terms offlora, there are over 764 plant species including440 tree and shrub species. In terms of wildlife,

Case Study 1 - Forest Concession Land Use Planning : Les-sons Learned from the Cameroon Segment of the Sangha Tri-National LandscapeZacharie Nzooh Dongmo, Alphonse Ngniado, Louis Defo, Leonard Usongo and George Akwa

1 ZICs (Zones d’Intérêt Cynégétique) are hunting concessions that the State grants to business operators for safari hun-ting. 2 ZICGCs (Zones d’Intérêt Cynégétique à Gestion Communautaire) are hunting areas that the State grants to local com-munities mainly to satisfy subsistence hunting needs and for safari hunting.


Case study 1 - CHAPTER 3 114

there are about 45 species of large and medium-sized mammals, over 300 bird species, 134 spe-cies of fish and 215 species of butterflies. Othertaxonomic groups are also well represented.Amongst the mammals, the flagship (and highlythreatened) species, such as elephants, gorillas,chimpanzees and duikers, occur in relatively highdensities in some forest concessions. The area is sparsely populated, with a total po-pulation of approximately 63,150 individuals, anaverage of 4.29 inhabitants/km2. This populationincludes the minority Baka people (17 percent),the Bantu divided into several indigenous ethnicgroups (Bakwele, Bangando, Boman, Mbimo,Konambembe and Mvon-Mvon) and severalother outside ethnic groups. The populations ofthe urban areas and semi-industrial timber-pro-cessing sites are relatively high (21 percent and15 percent of the total population respectively).

Process of gazettement of fo-rest concessions : methodo-logy and main outcomesInitial backgroundOver the years up until 1995, the Cameroonianforest was gradually distributed amongst loggersthrough the allocation of exploitation licences. Inthe Cameroon segment of the TNS Landscape,16 operators had licences, and only a small arearemained unallocated, made up essentially ofareas of swamp forest, and including Lake Lo-béké (see Figure 1). During this period, variousbio-ecological and socio-economic studies werecarried out by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)and the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). The results of these studies, coupled with inter-pretations of aerial photographs and satelliteimages, led to the proposal by the Canadian Co-operation Office (for the Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency – CIDA) for a preliminaryland-use plan (LUP) for the southern part of Ca-meroon; a plan that was adopted in 1995 (DecreeNo. 95/678/PM of 18 December 1995 establi-shing the indicative framework for land use in thesouthern forest zone).

This preliminary plan divides the Cameroon seg-ment of the TNS Landscape into permanent fo-rest estate (1,186,120 ha), non-permanent forestestate (224,000 ha), and an extractive zone of54,256 ha. The permanent forest estate is madeup of the Lobéké National Park (208,559 ha) and14 forest concessions (977,560 ha) (see Figure1). Process of negotiating the boundariesof forest concessionsThe process of gazetting forest concessions fol-lowed the steps laid down by Decision No.135/D/MINEF/CAB of 26 November 1999 – “Tolay down the procedures for the gazettement ofthe forests of the permanent forest estate of theRepublic of Cameroon”, which are : • A preliminary technical report is prepared;• The general public is notified;• Local communities are made aware;• The Gazettement Commission examines allfeedback from the various consultations;

• Final texts are presented to the Prime Mi-nister.

Preparation of the preliminary technical re-portAfter the preliminary land-use plan, WWF, WCSand German Technical Cooperation (DeutscheGesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit –GTZ) carried out further studies including bio-ecological aspects, socio-economic aspects andparticipatory mapping. The main outcomes ofthese studies were : • Identification of the critical area of conser-vation which is now the Lobéké NationalPark on the basis of high concentrationsand high densities of large and medium-sized mammals and other taxonomicgroups such as birds;

• Mapping of areas used by local communi-ties;

• Better knowledge of the distribution of wild-life and certain non-timber forest products(NTFPs);

• Identification of the main threats and pres-sures on the biodiversity of the area, andtheir origins;

• Establishment of a database on the demo-



graphy of the local populations, areas ofhigh concentrations (logging sites), the lo-cation of inhabited areas, and levels of de-velopment of different communities;

• Evaluation of the perceptions of the localpopulations about conservation and fores-try, and the potential benefits;

• Development of consultation fora and of anetwork of local actors to promote consul-tation and knowledge sharing based on thesocial dynamics of the region.

The main findings obtained have helped to refinethe boundaries of various allocation units and atechnical report has been drafted for each ofthem, including the following items :• The objectives of gazettement;• The boundaries of the forest to be gazetted;• A brief description of the area (topography,hydrography, vegetation, population, humanand industrial activities in the area, acces-sibility, and a programme of work for the fu-ture);

• The description of normal use rights;Public noticeBased on the technical report, a notice signed bythe minister in charge of forestry was made publicvia the press and posters, together with a map(scale 1 : 200,000), and a deadline given for thereceipt of any reservations or claims from localcommunities, to be addressed to the appropriateauthorities (regional administrative headquartersand the Ministry of Environment and Forestry’sregional officials). Raising the awareness of administrative au-thorities, interest groups and the local popu-lationMeetings were held with the administrative au-thorities and other stakeholders (including repre-sentatives of logging companies and local NGOsalready operating in the area) who have a role toplay in the gazettement of forests to explain thework to be done and what is expected of them. Ameeting was scheduled in the two districts (Yo-kadouma and Moloundou) affected by the propo-sed gazettement. Discussions at the meetingsfocused on the objectives of the proposed gazet-

tement, the principle of public participation in themanagement process of the forest stand, thenext steps (including a tour to raise public awa-reness and a consultation meeting on the gazet-tement) and the work plan of the GazettementCommission. As regards raising the awareness of local people,all the villages peripheral to the forest conces-sions to be gazetted were visited. During themeetings, following the presentation of the gazet-tement project and the role that the local peoplewould have in the future management of theseforest concessions, the various opinions, claimsand grievances were collected and incorporatedinto the minutes. The negotiations focused interalia on: (i) how to respect the use rights of thelocal population; (ii) compliance with the commit-ments of business operators, the forest adminis-tration and conservation NGOs vis à vis the localpopulation; (iii) collaboration between local com-munities, logging companies and safari hunting;(iv) mechanisms for mitigating the repercussionsfrom safari hunting and logging; (v) recruitmentof local people as workers by the logging compa-nies and safari hunting operators; (vi) the contri-bution of these companies to communitydevelopment projects; and (vii) community ac-cess to the meat of animals killed by safari hun-ters.During this consultation process with various in-terest groups and local communities, the local fo-restry administration, WWF and GTZ faced anumber of obstacles, including (i) conflicts overland use; (ii) resistance on the part of local com-munities, logging companies and safari huntingguides to take part in discussions with conserva-tion organizations; (iii) poor governance withinthe local administrations; (iv) weakness of tradi-tional authority; (v) the level of poverty amongstthe local people (average annual income belowUS$ 850); (vi) the high rate of illiteracy withinlocal communities making awareness raising ra-ther difficult; and (vii) the breakdown of socialstructures.Work of the Gazettement CommissionArticle 19 of Decree No. 95/531/PM of 23 August1995 lays down detailed rules for implementing



the forestry regulation, and a regional Gazette-ment Commission was created bringing togetherthe representatives of all relevant administra-tions, local members of parliament, mayors andtraditional authorities. The meetings of this commission were held in theheadquarters of the districts of Yokadouma andMoloundou. During these meetings, the minutesof various awareness-raising meetings, as wellas the views of third parties (deposited with ad-ministrative authorities following the publicationof the draft gazettement), were examined. All re-levant claims were dealt with, either by modifyingthe boundaries of the various forest concessions,or by revising the technical reports on them (es-pecially by taking into consideration the role andinterests of the population in the future develop-ment of the various concessions).The minutes of the Gazettement Commission, to-gether with their opinions and the entire gazette-ment file for each forest concession, wereforwarded to the minister in charge of forestry.Preparation of texts submitted to the PrimeMinisterBased on the minutes of the Regional Gazette-ment Commission, the final texts of the draft ga-zettement were prepared by the minister incharge of forestry and forwarded to the Prime Mi-nister. This draft decree, outlining the objectivesof gazettement as well as the boundaries of theforest to be gazetted, was accompanied by thefollowing items :• A basic map showing the boundaries ofeach forest concession, together with amore detailed map to the scale 1 : 200,000;

• A technical report detailing the objectives ofthe gazettement and outlining the use rightsapplicable to each of the concessions;

• The minutes of the meetings of the Regio-nal Gazettement Commission;

• Reports taking into consideration the grie-vances aired by the local people.

Main outcomesThis participatory gazettement process, as com-pared to the initial project that was aimed at ga-

zetting national parks only, culminated in the fol-lowing outcomes (see Figure 1) : • The agro-forestry zone or non-permanentforest estate for the land-use needs of localpeople has been expanded, from 224,000ha to 273,092 ha;

• The extractive zone of 54,266 ha has beenredesignated, partly as a forest concessionand partly as an agro-forestry zone;

• The number of forest concessions (14) re-mains the same, but their boundaries havebeen reviewed, and the total area has in-creased from 977,560 ha to 980,371 ha;

• The southern part of Lobéké National Parkwas expanded with the integration of a ha-bitat complex, including the Bolo clearing,increasing its total area from 208,559 ha to217,332 ha;

• The traditional use rights of the local popu-lations were reinstated in each of the forestconcessions;

• In the particular case of Lobéké NationalPark, an area has been created to take intoconsideration the wishes of the local popu-lation with regards to NTFPs (medicinalplants, wild yams, honey, wild fruits).

In general, this gazettement process has resultedin :• A reduction in tensions and disputes bet-ween parties related to land use;

• The signing of a cooperation agreementknown as the “Mambele Convention” bet-ween local communities, safari hunters andthe forestry administration – an agreementthat clarifies the roles and responsibilities ofeach party towards the sustainable mana-gement of wildlife, and access in the diffe-rent units allocated;

• The signing of an agreement to combatpoaching called the “LAB Agreement” bet-ween the logging companies and safarihunters, local communities, the forestry ad-ministration and conservation NGOs. Thisagreement clarifies the roles and responsi-bilities of each player and puts in place me-chanisms by which they can contribute tothe fight against poaching;

• The establishment of consultation fora bet-ween the forestry administration, conserva-tion NGOs and forest concessionaires to



Figure 1. The evolution of land allocation in the Cameroon segment of the TNS Landscape

evaluate and channel efforts towards sus-tainable management of forest conces-sions. Within this framework, relationsbetween WWF and the logging companieshave greatly improved, and a partnershipagreement has now been signed betweenWWF and the SEFAC Group to combinetheir efforts towards sustainable manage-ment and certification.

Lessons learnedThe forestry administration, WWF, GTZ and otherpartners have adopted a flexible approach in thegazettement of forest concessions in the Came-roon segment of the TNS Landscape, given thecomplex character of the zone. Feedback on themonitoring process highlights the following les-sons to be learned :General observations• A sincere and open collaboration betweenstakeholders can lead to a land-use plan(LUP) in which the boundaries of areas for

non-conflicting use may overlap; • The process of land-use planning in thelandscape is more likely to succeed if allstakeholders are able to discuss amongstthemselves how the boundaries of non-conflicting allocations can overlap ratherthan focusing exclusively on the allocation.

The vision and attitudes of conserva-tion agencies• The landscape approach to conservation isa science of compromise. No one playerhas enough power to impose rules thatothers can not understand or share and, in-deed, the weaker players can become a se-rious threat to biodiversity if they believethat management rules are being madeagainst them. The conclusion to be drawnfrom this participatory process of forestconcession gazettement is that conserva-tion is a social process;

• Developing and managing landscapes goesbeyond the concept of protected areas. Thesecurity of protected areas within a land-scape depends on the sustainable use and



dynamics of the peripheral zone as well asthe management of relations between ac-tors involved or affected;

• The process of negotiating the LUP is morelikely to succeed if it is driven by the admi-nistrative authorities and facilitated by neu-tral resource persons. Conservationagencies should act as agents who providetechnical advice, and should not be percei-ved as competitive agencies that advocatefor conservation at the expense of the pu-blic interest.

Lessons learned from the methodologyof the LUP negotiation process• The experience of gazetting forest conces-sions has shown that multi-stakeholder col-laboration in the process has a role to playin the resolution/prevention of conflicts ups-tream, in the consolidation of each stake-holder’s right to natural resources, and thatit catalyzes action and establishes a climateof trust between actors. It may seem a longand costly process, but it offers a long-termguarantee that the LUP obtained will beconsistently defended by the parties invol-ved, who have clearly understood their in-terest in protecting and ensuring theavailability of resources on which their sur-vival depends, as well as that of future ge-nerations;

• The methodology used to develop the LUPmust include mechanisms to resolveconflicts of use, secure the use rights anddevelopment needs of all stakeholders, andensure the creation of a climate of trust.Through this methodology, the negotiatedLUP offers a better chance for actors to beinvolved in the development and executionof management plans of the various useunits in a complex context such as that ofthis Cameroon segment of the TNS Land-scape;

• The commitment of public institutions at themicro, meso and macro levels is a prerequi-site for a successful LUP development pro-

cess and for the management of the varioususe units;

• The multidisciplinary approach, based onbetter knowledge of the environment by thefacilitator (s) offer (s) potentially a good per-formance and strong commitment of the ac-tors in the process of drafting andnegotiating the LUP.

Process of drawing up deve-lopment and managementplans for forest concessions:methodology and main out-comesThe 14 forest concessions of the Cameroon seg-ment of the TNS Landscape were awarded tonine logging companies. These companies arepart of four major groups: (i) the THANRY/VIC-WOOD Group, made up of the CFC, SBEC andSAB companies, who were allocated 364,565 ha;(ii) the SEFAC Group (SEFAC, SEBAC, FilièreBois) – 406,815 ha; (iii) the ALPICAM -GRUM-CAM Group (Alpicam, Habitat 2000) – 129,673ha; and (iv) the STBK Group (STBK) – 89,322 ha(see Figure 2).MethodologyThe process of developing a five-year manage-ment plan and annual operational plans for log-ging concessions follows the guidelines of thelegislative and regulatory framework in force3.The process differs according to which type ofplan is being developed. Management plans Management plans for forest concessions, gene-rally drawn up by approved consultancy firms, willusually include the following steps :• Carrying out additional surveys as required(socio-economic, management inventory,etc.);

3 Law No. 94/01 of 20 January 1994 on forestry, wildlife and fishery regulations; implementation Decree No. 95/531/PMof 23 August 1995 which lays down terms and conditions for implementing the forestry regulations; and subsequent sun-dry decrees and decisions.



• Identifying management options based onthe findings obtained from the surveys;

• Presenting a public summary of manage-ment options to the main stakeholders af-fected;

• Validation of the document by an inter-mi-nisterial committee.

a. Carrying out additional surveysThe process of gazetting various concessionshas provided considerable data on the land-scape. For each forest concession, the informa-tion available is analyzed, then additionalsocio-economic surveys and management inven-tories are carried out if needed, together withmapping of vegetation types. Within this frame-

work, WWF has a large database that helps inidentifying the specificities of each concessionand what additional information needs to be col-lected.Socio-economic surveys include demographicdata, and data on the use of landscapes and na-tural resources by the local population. Manage-ment inventories of tree and shrub species aremade on the basis of a sampling plan approvedby the administration in charge of forestry; thesampling rate ranges from 0.5–1 percent. Allstems of trees and shrubs with diameter at breastheight greater than 10 cm are identified and trea-ted differently according to their diameter class.The vegetation maps are drawn from analysis ofaerial photographs. b. Defining management options based onfindings obtained Based on the findings of the various surveys, themanagement plan document is developed, andis made up of the following parts:• Biophysical features of the forest;• Socio-economic environment;• State of the forest (history, tree and shrubdensity, gross inventory volume and pro-ductivity of the forest);

• Development objectives for production fo-rests that could either be exploited for com-mercial purposes or local communitiesallowed access for subsistence activities;

• Participation of the population in manage-ment (reminder of the rights and duties ofthe local population, peasant-forest commit-tees);

• Duration and review of the managementplan;

• Economic and financial balance sheet.c. Presenting a public summary of manage-ment options to the main stakeholders affec-tedA summary of management options is presentedand made public a month later during a meetingof all stakeholders. The purpose of this meetingis to present the expectations and duties of eachstakeholder in the validated implementation ofthe plan.

Figure 2. Distribution of forest concessions



d. Validation of the document by an inter-mi-nisterial committeeIn keeping with the regulatory framework, theadoption of the draft management plan takesplace during a session of the inter-ministerialcommittee, whose members are appointed by thePrime Minister. This committee’s mission is toexamine the contents of the document and givetheir opinion. Annual operational plansThe five-year management plan summarizes theactions outlined in the management plan for eachfive-year block. It deals with the major operationsto be carried out (main infrastructure to be put inplace, boundary demarcation of series of protec-tion4, etc.). The annual operational plan describes all the in-terventions and the terms and conditions of theirexecution on an annual basis. Determining theseinterventions is done on the basis of exploitationinventories at 100 percent of the annual allowa-ble cut. According to the regulatory framework,information collected should include the speciesexploited by the concessionaire, and having rea-ched the minimum management diameter, follo-wed by the quality of their trunk and topographicfeatures of the environment (swamp, steep slope,running water). Counting is carried out using plotsof 250 x 1000 m. The information is recorded ona grid, based on chaining after every 50 m. Thegathering of these data results in distributionmaps of tree stands, species to be logged andthe road network; topographic and vegetationmaps; and tables of stands and trees to be log-ged, with the volumes expected from each ofthem.

Main outcomesGeneral frameworkThe management plans of 13 of the 14 forest

concessions of the Cameroon segment of the theTNS Landscape have been validated and arebeing executed. The annual operational plans foreach of them are being developed in accordancewith the regulations in force.Some gaps observed and measurestakenFrom analysis of the management plans of thevarious concessions, it seems that wildlife mana-gement measures are not sufficiently taken intoaccount. In the case of annual operational plans,the emphasis is on species to be exploited by theconcessionaires; however, for sustained and in-tegrated logging, other layers of information areessential. These are distribution maps of (i)seeds; (ii) saplings (for the next round of plan-ting); (iii) areas of high concentrations of fragileanimal species; (iv) areas of high ecological valuesuch as clearings and bays; (v) NTFPs; and (vi)cultural and sacred sites for the local population. To overcome these shortcomings WWF, with fi-nancial support from USAID/CARPE, has deve-loped partnerships with two forestconcessionaires interested in sustainable forestmanagement and certification (SEFAC Groupand CFE ceded to Habitat 2000 – ALPICAM). Wi-thin the framework of these partnerships, in orderto enrich the management plans by better takinginto consideration bio-ecological aspects and es-pecially fauna, and the socio-economic aspectsof sustainable logging, additional wildlife invento-ries and socio-economic surveys were carried outby WWF in six concessions with joint funding oftwo partners (40 percent for WWF and 60 percentfor the concessionaire). The findings have led tothe identification, in each concession, of areas ofhigh concentrations of animal populations, corri-dors for migrating animals, sensitive habitats,areas containing resources essential to the Bakapeople which should be considered when plan-ning logging operations. Based on these recom-mendations and those of the socio-economicsurveys, the SEFAC Group has made the follo-wing structural, organizational and functional

4 A protection series is a perimeter aimed at protecting a fragile ecosystem or an area of social and ecological interest(Law No 94/01 of 20 January 1994).



changes : • Strengthening the technical managementunit (which already has a forestry engineeras coordinator), with the recruitment of (i) asociologist charged with the co-manage-ment and other social aspects of sustaina-ble logging; (ii) a cartographer charged withthe management of the GIS database, thedrawing of various maps (micro land-useplanning map, road network map, lumbe-ryard map, …); (iii) a forestry works engi-neer to guide logging technicians (fellers,haulers, drivers, …) on complying with ma-nagement rules; and (iv) an environmentalengineer to guide and monitor compliancewith environmental standards;

• Setting up an anti-poaching committee tocombat illegal hunting in their concessionsand trade of bushmeat in populated areas(e.g., Libongo and Bela). The activities ofthis committee will include the organizationof awareness campaigns, internal staffcontrol, reporting of instances of involve-ment in poaching, and providing informationto the local services of the Ministry of Fo-restry and Wildlife (MINFOF) to enable bet-ter organization of patrols to combatpoaching;

• Logistical and financial support increasinglysignificant to the local services of MINFOFto organize patrols to fight against poa-ching. These contributions are estimated atUS$ 20,000 to 30,000 per year;

• Better consideration of the specific needsof the indigenous Baka people in loggingoperations, including (i) developing a frame-work document for interventions for theBaka people; (ii) identifying and mappingtheir resources landscape within theconcessions; (iii) the signing of co-manage-ment agreements for these areas; and (iv)increasing the number of Baka in the com-pany’s personnel;

• Facilitating, on the basis of socio-economicsurveys, the creation of peasant-forest com-mittees – fora for dialogue between the

concessionaire and local communities;• Drawing up a micro land-use map for thewhole concession, highlighting areas ofhigh animal concentrations, sensitive habi-tats, migration corridors for elephants, andBaka resource landscapes. Rules havebeen set to minimize the impact of loggingoperations.

To address the shortcomings observed in the in-ventories of logging sites, WWF has developeda database of multi-resource inventories usingthe CyberTracker5 programme, and trained tech-nicians of the SEFAC group to use it. The uniquefeature of this programme is that prospecting isdigital and not on cards as provided by the regu-latory framework, and all information is geo-refe-renced. This information includes: all stems oftree species with a diameter of more than 50 cm,signs of the presence of species of large and me-dium-sized mammals, NTFPs, special ecologicalareas, sacred and cultural sites for local popula-tions, elements of topography (swamps, runningwater, slopes) with their features, signs of humanactivities (hunting, fishing and gathering), and oldlogging infrastructure. According to the regulatoryframework, only some of these data (stems oftree species with the minimum diameter, specialecological zones and elements of topography)are noted on the grid-scale cards.The gathering of these layers of information col-lected with the CyberTracker allows for betterplanning of logging operations (for example, theroad network map overlapping with areas of highconcentrations of wildlife or the location of sensi-tive sites within the annual allowable cut area(see Figure 3)). Moreover, taking into account thenumber of future seedlings by diameter class al-lows the concessionaire to make projections forthe next planting season, based on the estimatedvolume after 30 years with the combination of thediameter growth rate and mortality rates.In the particular case of the SEFAC Group, thecombined efforts of partners has led to the latterobtaining an FSC certificate for four of its conces-

5 The CyberTracker is a programme that works on a set made up of a small pocket computer linked to a GPS, that fa-cilitates note taking on the ground and their direct transfer to a computer upon return to base. It makes it possible tocollect simultaneously several types of data that are difficult to collect using standard data collection sheets.



sions, covering an area of 314,655 ha. Within theframework of this partnership, WWF has focusedon conducting additional surveys (on the basis ofjoint funding) and capacity building of techniciansof the Group on various aspects of sustainablemanagement. The SEFAC Group has committeditself to improving its logging operations by imple-menting the required standards following the re-commendations of various studies, pre-auditsand audits by approved firms.Lessons learned• In the light of the various phases of the de-velopment and implementation of develop-ment and management plans for forestconcessions, it is evident that sustainableforest management and certification are

complex processes that require variouskinds of expertise. The forest concessio-naire alone cannot have all the specialtiesand implement all the requirements. It istherefore necessary to develop partner-ships with organizations that can provideinput into the process. In the case of FSCcertification of the SEFAC Group, the part-nership developed between WWF and theGroup is a case in point. It follows in thefootsteps of the partnership developed bet-ween WCS and the CIB which has resultedin the certification of the KABO Forest Ma-nagement Unit, located in the Congolesesegment of the TNS Landscape;

• The experience of partnership betweenWWF and SEFAC has shown, among otherthings, that if well managed and with a littledetermination, logging companies can

Figure 3. Map of the road network overlapping with areas of high concentrations ofwildlife, and the location of sensitive sites within the annual allowable cut (AAC) area



make operational and technical changes tosupport the process of sustainable mana-gement;

• The innovative CyberTracker experiencepresented above is not inconsistent with theregulatory framework and makes it possibleto improve on how to plan and carry out log-ging operations. The success observed cancontribute in improving regulations;

• When forest management is almost all, orcompletely, done internally, by a serviceequipped with all the necessary skills (fores-try engineers, a social science specialist, aGIS specialist ...), it has more chance ofachieving satisfactory results in terms ofsustainable management.



Introduction : Overview ofENRA forest concessionWith its large tracts of tropical rainforests, the De-mocratic Republic of Congo has been attractingmany logging companies that are eager to tapinto its enormous timber resources that are stilllittle exploited to date. The near total breakdownof transport infrastructure, however, limits large-scale timber exploitation to forests along naviga-ble sections of the Congo River and its maintributaries, confining industrial logging to westernregions of the country. In eastern DRC, most log-ging is carried out by small-scale operators usingchainsaws and selling timber to neighbouringcountries. ENRA (Enzyme Refiners Association)is the only industrial logging company operatingin the region and is located east of the city of Ki-sangani, along the easternmost navigable sec-tion of the Congo River.ENRA forest concession is situated south-east of

the Ituri-Aru Landscape in the north-eastern partof the Congo Basin forest block. The initialconcession of 52,190 ha was granted to the com-pany in 1982. Because of large-scale forest des-truction in this concession by illegal settlers,ENRA requested and was granted an additional28,800-hectare forest block to the west of the firstconcession in 2005. The ENRA concession is entirely contained in theadministrative collectivity of Babila-Babombi,Mambasa Territory, Ituri District in Orientale Pro-vince. The company’s headquarters and woodtransformation facilities are based in Beni, Nord-Kivu Province, just to the south of the Landscape.The topography of the forest concession is gentlewith occasional rolling hills. Elevation rangesfrom approximately 800 m in the west to 950 min the east. The concession is covered by adense network of rivers and streams that feed theUpper Ituri River and constitute natural limits ofthe forest concession.

Case Study 2 - Forest Concession Land Use Planning : Les-sons Learned from the Enzyme Refiners Association (ENRA)Forest ConcessionJean-Remy Makana, Wildlife Conservation Society



Figure 1. Okapi Faunal Reserve and the IturiLandscape

The vegetation in the area is a mixture of ever-green forest, including extensive areas of mono-culture forest dominated by Gilbertiodendrondewevrei, and semi-deciduous forest with a ca-nopy containing higher representation of majortimber tree species including Iroko, Sapeli, Sipo,Tiama, and African mahogany. Secondary forestscover significant portions of the concession.These originate from both natural and anthropo-genic causes. In the eastern and southern partsof the concession, forest degradation has acce-lerated over the past two decades leading to theconversion of large areas of closed forest into amosaic of logged forests, regenerating vegetationand active farming fields.The forests in the ENRA concession contain highdiversities of fauna and flora. Prior to logging ope-rations, these forests harboured several speciesof large mammals important to conservation suchas Forest elephant, Okapi and Chimpanzee.Other large mammals that were present in the fo-rest concession included the Leopard, Forest buf-falo, Giant ground pangolin, Bush pig, Forestaardvark, Giant forest hog, Baboon and several

species of Cercopithecus and Colobusmonkeys,and Mangabeys. Informal interviews with Mbutipygmies dwelling in the concession indicates thatmost of these large mammals have gone locallyextinct, particularly those that require large tractsof undisturbed forest such as Forest elephant,Okapi, Leopard and Forest buffalo. The disap-pearance of those species in the concession canbe largely attributed to the conversion of matureforest areas into farmland1. As indicated above,the concession is also rich in high-value timberspecies. The most abundant and commonly har-vested species are Iroko, Sapeli, African maho-gany, Tiama, Olovongo, Kosipo, Mukulungu andLimbali.In addition to its high plant and mammal diversity,the forest in the ENRA concession is importantas a corridor between two forested protectedareas, the Okapi Faunal Reserve and the nor-thern sector of Virunga National Park. Prior to commercial logging operations, the fo-rests of the area were very sparsely settled. A fewvillages were located along an old mining roadlinking Beni to Mambasa that bisects the conces-sion in a north-south direction. However, that haschanged as the concession borders the heavilypopulated Kivu highlands that are a major sourceof immigration into the concession. The rebuil-ding of the Beni-Mambasa road for logging pur-poses in the earlier 1990s has facilitated humanintrusion into the forest concession, dramaticallyincreasing the human population density2 andaccelerating the rate of forest degradation. Majorethnic groups inhabiting the concession are theBila, the natives of the land, and Nande immi-grants who settled in the area after roadconstruction by ENRA in the early 1980s. Thereis also an important population of nomadic, hun-ter-gatherer Mbuti pygmies. While the latter ge-nerally inhabit the forest interior, most of thepopulation is located along the main transportroutes. A few major population centres have re-cently developed in the concession because of

1 Recent wildlife surveys indicated that Forest elephant, Okapi, Chimpanzee and other large mammals have disappearedin the logged and degraded forests of the concession. Chimpanzee presence was recorded in the new forest block, witha higher nest density than ever seen before in the Ituri Forest. 2 Rapid socio-economic surveys conducted in 2006 indicated that the human population density was ~ 34 people/km2in the concession.



immigration pressure. Biakato, the most impor-tant population centre in the concession, boastsa population of over 13,000 people.The major subsistence activities in the conces-sion are agriculture, mining, bushmeat huntingand small-scale trade in manufactured goods.Animal husbandry is minimally developed in thearea. Major food crops grown in the concessioninclude cassava, plantain, upland rice, maize andgroundnuts. A few cash crops are commonlygrown by immigrants and include coffee, oil palmand papaya. Cacao is only recently being cultiva-ted in the concession area. Agriculture and bush-meat hunting constitute the main threat to theforests of the ENRA concession.ENRA started logging operations in 1984 and hassince continued without major interruption untilthe present day. ENRA is a relatively small com-pany (almost 200 employees) harvesting on ave-rage less than 10,000 m3 of logs a year3. The major strength of ENRA, which makes itunique in DRC, is its production of a wide varietyof processed products. The company has a par-quet flooring plant that produces high-quality de-corative parquet floors and panels for woodenceilings from a wide range of species. Parquetfloors produced from Iroko are the leading pro-duct of the company and they are mainly expor-ted for European markets. In addition, ENRA runsa joinery/carpentry workshop that makes decora-tive doors and windows and high-quality furniture.

ENRA forest concession land-use planning methodologyand results achievedMethodologyThe CARPE Performance Management Plan re-

commends that each macro-zone4 in CARPElandscapes be covered by an integrated land-useplan (LUP). Currently, the ENRA logging conces-sion is the only active Extractive Resource Zone5in the Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape. The goal of theWCS land-use planning process in the ENRA fo-rest concession is to assist ENRA to produce amanagement plan for its concession. This plan isrequired by the new DRC forestry law and willpromote sustainable timber harvesting and biodi-versity conservation. Because the ENRA forestconcession has been settled by significant num-bers of farmers, it is vital to conduct micro-zoningwork to determine areas to be set aside for theneeds of local populations already inhabiting theconcession, and forest areas for timber exploita-tion. The major steps undertaken in the land-useplanning process for the ENRA concession are:• Collaboration agreement between WCS

and ENRA : The first step in WCS’s invol-vement in the ENRA concession’s land-useplanning process was to sign an agreementwith the company to determine the objec-tives of, and the principles guiding, our col-laboration, as well as the rights andobligations of each party.

• Assessment of the state of the forest inthe concession : A preliminary evaluationof the state of the forest was conductedthrough a series of meetings betweenENRA’s leadership and timber harvestingteam, and the traditional chiefs or custo-mary landowners in the forest concession.In addition, satellite images were used todetermine the scale of forest degradation inthe concession.

• Sensitization meetings : Through mee-tings with ENRA’s leadership, key stakehol-ders were identified. Informal and formalmeetings were held with key stakeholdersindividually or in groups to explain the needfor land-use planning to promote sustaina-

3 Due to the enormous distance to its export point in Mombasa (Kenya), ENRA only exports added-value products, par-ticularly parquet flooring, to Europe. All logs are processed locally in Beni, increasing logging benefits to the local popu-lation in the form of employment opportunities and access to high-quality wood products.4 Rapid socio-economic surveys conducted in 2006 indicated that the human population density was ~ 34 people/km2in the concession.5 An Extractive Resource Zone is an area designated for large-scale commercial exploitation of natural resources (i.e.,logging or mining concessions, large-scale agricultural plantations, safari hunting reserves, etc.)



ble forest utilization and to determine thepotential interests of local communities.Local state authorities at the collectivity andterritory levels, and the local forestry admi-nistration service, were brought in to facili-tate negotiations between ENRA and thelocal communities. This process has led tothe signature of a collaboration accord bet-ween ENRA and local communities in whichthe rights and obligations of each party arespelled out.

• Participatory mapping of the extent ofhuman settlements in the concession : Ateam composed of ENRA staff, the local fo-restry administration, and representatives ofpygmy communities mapped the limits ofhuman penetration into the forest conces-sion. During this work, the boundaries ofclan lands were delimited to help determinethe level of customary dues paid by ENRAto each clan.

• Signature of an agreement betweenENRA and local communities : Encroach-ment into the forest concession is facilitatedby traditional landowners who give lands tonew immigrants in exchange for meagredues paid annually in the form of a goat ora portion of agricultural production. WCS fa-cilitated the signature of an agreement bet-ween ENRA and traditional landownersaimed at stopping forest encroachment byprohibiting the “sale” of new lands to immi-grants. The agreement also spells outENRA’s contributions to local developmentprojects. Now the agreement has been si-gned, it must be validated by the district andprovincial authorities.

• Forestry and biological surveys : Rapidforestry and biological surveys were used toevaluate the abundance of major timberspecies and the presence/abundance ofkey mammal species, particularly ele-phants, Okapi and Chimpanzees, in orderto guide the process of micro-zoning of theconcession. During these surveys we alsogathered details on the level of forest degra-dation in the concession.

• Human population census and socio-economic surveys : These surveys were

conducted to document social organization,immigration pressures and human activi-ties. Key elements recorded were the distri-bution of residents by localities (or clans),ethnic groups, length of stay in the conces-sion (immigration pressure), major econo-mic/subsistence activities, agriculturalproduction, education, access to educationand health care, market opportunities foragricultural products, native-immigrant rela-tions, relationship with ENRA, etc. This ac-tivity was conducted by a mixedWCS-ENRA team.

• Participatory micro-zoning of theconcession : The human population cen-sus and socio-economic surveys indicate aheavy and increasing presence of humanswithin the concession limits, particularly im-migrants whose main activity is extensivefarming. It will therefore be vital to clearlydelimit areas devoted to subsistence agri-culture and timber exploitation zones. Ateam composed of WCS experts, ENRAstaff, and representatives of local commu-nities will map the front line of human set-tlement, evaluate the needs of the existingpopulations for farmland, and propose limitsfor the agricultural and timber harvestingzones.

• Validation of micro-zones : Once theabove step is accomplished, a meeting brin-ging together all key stakeholders will be or-ganized to evaluate and validate the limitsof the proposed micro-zones.

• Development of alternative activities incommunity development areas : ENRA,in partnership with ESCO-Kivu6 and WCS,is promoting shade cacao cultivation andreforestation projects in degraded forestareas as a means of increasing farming in-come and slowing down the encroachmentof people into new areas of mature forest.Other current or planned alternative activi-ties include artisanal timber exploitation inagricultural zones, promoting the educationof native children, and honey production bypygmies. Expert assistance from develop-ment organizations is critically needed withthese activities to ensure effective local

6 A private company dedicated to agricultural production.



community participation in land-use plan-ning processes.

• Production, implementation and monito-ring of a management plan : The ultimategoal of the land-use planning process forthe ENRA forest concession is the produc-tion and implementation of a managementplan for the concession, as outlined in theabove steps. Once the plan is produced andbeing implemented, it must be monitored toensure continued effectiveness.

• Validation of the plan by higher state andforestry authorities : ENRA and WCSwork closely with local state authorities atthe collectivity and territory levels. Once theforest concession management plan iscomplete, it will be submitted to district, pro-vincial and national authorities for valida-tion.

Results achievedThe land-use planning process is still at an earlystage in the ENRA forest concession. However,a few achievements have been accomplished :• Improved relationship between ENRA

and WCS : WCS is well-known in the Ituriregion as a conservation organizationconcerned with wildlife protection in protec-ted areas. Thus, there was a sense of sus-picion or mistrust from ENRA towardsWCS’s activities in its concession. Effectivecollaboration between WCS and ENRAstarted only a year ago after ENRA realizedthat WCS’s work in its forest concessionwas helping to improve the company’simage locally, nationally and internationally.The company has now entrusted WCS tooversee all zoning work in the forestconcession. This will certainly help accele-rate the process of land-use planning in theconcession.

• Strategy for the land-use planning pro-cess : A strategy document outlining thesteps and process of land-use planning forthe ENRA concession has been producedby WCS and approved by ENRA. This stra-tegy plans the writing of a managementplan for the forest concession by 2010.

• Collaborative platform for land-use plan-ning : A platform has been put in place to

coordinate and monitor activities related toland-use planning in the ENRA forestconcession. It includes ENRA, WCS, repre-sentatives of local communities and immi-grants, local state authorities (collectivityand territory levels), the local forestry admi-nistration, ESCO-Kivu, and local NGOs(PAP-RDC and SOS Nature). Significant re-sults achieved through this platform are :- Quarterly meetings of all key stakehol-ders since 2006;

- Signature of an agreement betweenENRA and local communities in 2007.

• Accurate data on the state of the forest andon human population in the concession:Through field evaluations, interviews, fores-try and biological surveys, and socio-eco-nomic surveys, precise information hasbeen gathered on :- The level of forest degradation;- The size and distribution of the humanpopulation, and its activities in theconcession;

- Timber abundance;- The presence and spatial distributionof key wildlife species.

• Fundraising to develop alternative activities:WCS has received a grant from the IUCNNetherlands to promote shade cocoa plan-tations and to support artisanal timber ex-ploitation by local communities in the ENRAconcession buffer zone.

Lessons learnedThe importance of active involvementby the concessionaireThe concessionaire is responsible for producingthe management plan for the concession as re-quired by the new forestry legislation in DRC. TheCARPE programme recommends that CARPEpartners assist private operators or governmentorganizations responsible for the management ofeach identified macro-zone to produce manage-ment plans for their zones. However, the activitiesof CARPE partners can only be successful if thelegal management authority of the macro-zone isactively involved in the process. Initially, the majorconstraint encountered in the land-use planning



process for the ENRA concession was ENRA’sresistance to collaborate with WCS. This resis-tance was overcome after regular and public de-bates between ENRA and representatives oflocal communities with involvement of local au-thorities and state officials and with technical ad-visors from WCS. The land-use planning processis now progressing well. Thus, as we learned, thefirst step when working with private operators orgovernment agencies in land-use planning mustbe to convince them of the necessity of the pro-cess. In the case of timber concessions, the pu-blication by the central Government of applicationmeasures of the new Forestry Code related to fo-rest management in timber concessions was ofgreat importance for enticing timber operators toseek help in forest management processes.State authorities are key players in theland use planning processesIn Ituri-Aru, as elsewhere in DRC, local state au-thorities are generally weak and ineffective. Ho-wever, they represent the legal authority formanagement of natural resources. If ignored,they can seriously obstruct the successful reali-zation of land-use planning initiatives. In addition,the sustainability of land-use planning dependson the involvement of state officials and forestryservices in the process. In the ENRA concession,collaboration with local communities was movingvery slowly until the Administrator of the Mam-basa Territory threw his weight behind the pro-cess. Since then, quarterly meetings have beensystematically organized and an agreement hasbeen signed between ENRA and local communi-ties.It is therefore crucial to involve local state autho-rities and forestry administration in all activitiesrelated to the land-use planning process inconcessions to avoid the development of resis-tance to the process and to guarantee the sus-tainability of this work beyond the CARPEfunding period.The necessity of taking into accountthe regional contextEastern DRC has experienced many social pro-

blems in the recent past, the most importantbeing land shortage due to high human popula-tion density and growth, and civil unrest. Succes-sive rebellions have resulted in the almost totalcollapse of the government institutions responsi-ble for land management. This situation facilita-ted the uncontrolled settlement of sparselypopulated forests by immigrants in search ofavailable agricultural lands. The encroachment offorestlands in the ENRA concession has alsobeen exacerbated by the eviction of farmers fromthe Virunga National Park. It is difficult for anNGO to deal with such issues on a case-by-casebasis.Effectively dealing with issues of human en-croachment in production forests requires thatexternal forces and the regional context are takeninto account in the land use planning process.For example in this case, the regional LUP (e.g.,landscape-level LUP) should set aside areasdesigned to absorb immigration pressure, andput in place strategies to channel new immigrantsto designated areas in order to reduce pressureon the production forests.The importance of understanding tra-ditional and legal land tenure systemsIn the Kivu highlands, land belongs to individualsand can be rented or sold, whereas in the fores-ted regions of the Ituri Landscape, land belongsto the community. Although the traditional chiefsor clan elders in the Ituri Landscape have the au-thority to grant usufruct rights to outsiders, theyactually cannot sell the community land. Cur-rently, landless immigrants from the Kivu high-lands are flocking into the forested regions withthe aim of acquiring land for themselves and theirchildren, ignoring the local land tenure philosophy(this is different from the situation in the OkapiFaunal Reserve where immigrants tend to betemporary residents because they cannot ac-tually acquire forestland for themselves). Theland acquisition rush is accelerating forest degra-dation because new immigrants are widely scat-tered in the forest concession to ensure that eachhas enough land area for his descendants. Thisdifference in land tenure systems between thenative population and the immigrants has a po-



tential to create ethnic clashes in the future whennative people realize their previous generationssold out their traditional forestlands to immi-grants.These views totally ignore DRC forestry laws thatstipulate that all forestlands belong to the State,which has the exclusive right to rent or sell landto private individuals or companies. WCS, in part-nership with the local forestry administration, isconducting a sensitization campaign with bothlocal communities and immigrants to increasetheir knowledge of national forestry laws. Theseefforts are however hampered by the unavailabi-lity of the application or enforcement measures7of the forestry code.The need to understand both individualand community interestsENRA interventions in local development activi-ties are generally oriented towards communityprojects that benefit the wider society (e.g.,constructing schools and dispensaries, fixingroads, etc.). However, traditional chiefs with cus-tomary authority to allocate land to immigrantshave personal needs that are not satisfied bycommunity projects. Thus, the chiefs use theircustomary rights to grant the concession forest-lands to immigrants and they receive direct pay-ments. It is crucial that this cultural aspect betaken into account in the land-use planning pro-cesses, particularly in logging or mining conces-sions where a private company is claimingcontrol of the land by the virtue of a contract si-gned with a “distant” government institution withlittle local community involvement.Even members of the community do not alwaysvalue the long-term benefits of community pro-jects and land-use planning. It is important tothink about immediate benefits, such as hiringlocal residents in logging teams or as labourersfor construction work, and financial support forthe education of selected native youth.

7 Enforcement measures are detailed regulations and procedures taken by a ministerial decree and intended to ex-plain how a law will be applied.



Introduction to PROGEPPIn the Republic of Congo, the Project for the Ma-nagement of Ecosystems in the Periphery of theNouabalé-Ndoki National Park (PROGEPP inFrench) manages wildlife in four forestry conces-sions surrounding the Nouabalé-Ndoki NationalPark. PROGEPP, a partnership of the CongoleseMinistry of Forestry Economy (MEF), the WildlifeConservation Society (WCS) and the CongolaiseIndustrielle des Bois (CIB), was established in1999 with two objectives: 1) to protect the Noua-balé-Ndoki National Park (NNNP) from huntingpressure coming from logging operations and in-creasing numbers of immigrants; and 2) to ma-nage wildlife in the concessions for sustainability.Unlike conservation of most protected areas,PROGEPP’s goal is not to reduce hunting tozero. Rather, the idea is to reduce hunting to sus-tainable levels, which likely means the eliminationof commercial hunting, so that indigenous peopleand CIB workers have access to wild meat. Theproject seeks to evolve towards a locally-mana-

ged solution where sufficient incentives exist toensure that local people and local law enforce-ment work towards the sustainable managementof wildlife.Together the concessions (Kabo, Pokola, Loun-doungou and Toukoulaka) and NNNP form alandscape that covers approximately 20,000 km2

and comprises a vast stretch of lowland forestrich in African mahoganies and home to some ofthe continent’s most endangered species: Forestelephants, Western lowland gorillas, Chimpan-zees and Bongo. The park largely protects thebiodiversity of the region, but the survival of wide-ranging species such as elephant and Bongoalso depends on their protection outside the parkborders. The forests of the logging concessionsalso provide natural resources (food, constructionmaterials, animal protein) critical to the liveli-hoods of indigenous forest peoples. To conservethese natural resources, PROGEPP created awildlife management system based on four keyprinciples: regulating access to wildlife resourcesthrough forest-use planning; promoting selective

Case Study 3 - Forest Concession Land Use Planning : Les-sons Learned from Congolaise Industrielle des Bois (CIB) –PROGEPP ProjectJohn, R. Poulsen, Connie J. Clark, and Bryan K. Curran



hunting through law enforcement; involving com-munities in wildlife management; and developingeconomic and protein alternatives to hunting andbushmeat.First, we work with the MEF, CIB and local com-munities to establish formal hunting zones basedon the traditional hunting territories of local peo-ple. Second, we collaborate with the MEF to en-force wildlife laws, with the goal of protectingbiodiversity and endangered species and kee-ping hunting at sustainable levels. Third, we workwith communities to help them manage their ownwildlife resources and to arm them with informa-tion about ecology and conservation. Fourth, weexperiment with alternative activities to hunting toprovide protein and income to local people. Ma-nagement activities are constantly adapted to thereality on the ground, which is assessed throughthe analysis of monitoring data on wildlife popu-

lations and human threats to them. PROGEPPuses a variety of research and monitoring me-thods to quantify hunting pressure, bushmeatavailability and consumption, densities and dis-tributions of wildlife populations, and ecologicalprocesses critical to forest regeneration. Monito-ring results guide management decisions and aidin the formulation of regional and national policy.

Land-use planning in the CIBconcessionsLand-use planning within the CIB concessionshas occurred at two different levels. The first levelof planning defines where logging can take place,is driven by an interest in maximizing timber pro-duction and economic profit within the limits ofsustainable forestry norms, and is defined by Na-tional Forestry Management Directives. These di-

Figure 1. Map of the project area, including the Kabo, Pokola, Loundoungou, and Mokabi conces-sions and the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park



rectives define five types of “series”, or land-usecategories: 1) the production series is set asidefor logging operations and economic production;2) the conservation series guarantees the exis-tence of timber species and protects biodiversity,wildlife and landscapes; 3) the protection seriessafeguards fragile habitats, particularly water-sheds, watercourses, swamps and soils thatcould be degraded by erosion; 4) the communitydevelopment series is reserved for use by localpopulations to exploit natural resources for theirlivelihoods and community development; and 5)the research series delimits areas that can beused for ecological and forestry research. In theKabo concession, 72.3 percent (2,140 km2) ofthe area is included in the production series, 20percent (593 km2) in the protection series, 5.1percent (151 km2) in the conservation series, and2.6 percent (76 km2) in the community develop-ment series. The entire area is included in the re-search series.The second level of land-use planning involvesthe creation of hunting zones within the produc-tion and community development series. Othernon-timber forest products (NTFPs) can be ex-ploited throughout the concessions, with the ex-ception of the protection series which, byCongolese law, is off-limits to any form of exploi-tation. Through a series of meetings with local vil-lages, PROGEPP created three types ofwildlife-use zones: village hunting zones, conser-vation zones and protected zones. Village hun-ting zones reserve access to the forest forhunters from the adjacent village and are subdi-vided into zones for indigenous villagers, resi-dents of logging sites and the controlled hunt (amonthly hunt organized for CIB Congolese em-ployees). Based on traditional hunting territories,the demarcation of village hunting zones tookplace following months of discussions with localvillages and after careful identification and des-cription of traditional land-use patterns for bothMbenzélé (Pigmy) and Bantu inhabitants.Conservation zones prohibit hunting with fi-rearms, but permit hunting and trapping with tra-ditional weapons; fishing and gathering areallowed throughout the year. Protection zonesconserve areas of particular importance for largemammals (e.g., the buffer around the park bor-ders and large natural forest clearings) and all

hunting, either modern or traditional, is prohibited.The conservation and protection zones serve toprotect populations of game and key habitat, andpresumably serve as a source of wild animals toreplenish wildlife stocks in neighbouring huntingzones. The Kabo concession, for example, is di-vided into village hunting zones (1,396 km2, 47percent of the concession), conservation zones(1,154 km2, 39 percent of the concession), andprotected zones (413 km2, 14 percent of theconcession). It is important to emphasize thathunting by traditional techniques (spear, cross-bow, hand-woven nets, etc.) by Bantu or semi-nomadic pigmy communities (Mbenzélé) canoccur year-round in both the village huntingzones and conservation zones (86 percent of theconcession).The adoption of the management plans by thegovernment formalized both land-planning sys-tems in the Kabo and Pokola concessions. Land-use planning within the Loundoungou concession(which has been merged with Toukoulaka to forma single concession) has already been accompli-shed, and in theory, should be legally establishedwith the adoption of a management plan in thecoming years.PROGEPP conservation and wildlife manage-ment activities take place within and in conside-ration of these different access zones. Within thecommunity hunting and NTFP zones, PROGEPPworks with local communities to raise awarenessof hunting laws and conservation principles likesustainable off-take, threatened and endangeredspecies, and adaptive management. Awareness-raising efforts include teaching formal environ-mental education classes in local schools, villagemeetings, and the use of multi-media sourcessuch as television, radio, posters and theatre. Wealso work with local communities to increase ca-pacity and involvement in the management oftheir natural resources through the organizationof resource management committees in local vil-lages and semi-nomad camps. Resource mana-gement committees offer a conduit forinformation exchange with local communities anda structure for involving people in the develop-ment of hunting rules and zones. PROGEPPseeks to empower communities to make and im-plement wildlife management decisions (e.g., de-



veloping hunting rotations around villages, redu-cing harvest of rare species or developing sys-tems to restrict the use of hunting zones byoutsiders, if necessary). The forest lifestyle andsemi-nomadic culture of the Mbenzélé have ledto a relative lack of formal organization and re-presentation compared with villagers. At present,policy decisions (e.g., determining which areasare to be set aside from logging or hunting, or

where and how CIB workers can hunt) are prima-rily made by the logging company, the govern-ment, the project, and elite members of villages.Resource management committees will hopefullyensure that the Mbenzélé, like villagers, will beinvolved in policy decisions.Across the concessions, PROGEPP ecoguardsenforce Congolese wildlife laws. CIB company

Figure 2. Map of project area with the hunting zones in the Kabo and Pokola concessions, andproposed zones in the Loundoungou concession



rules prohibit the transport of hunters and bush-meat in logging company vehicles; therefore,ecoguards stop and search all vehicles at road-side posts at intersections along the logging roadnetwork. Ecoguard forest patrols focus on areaswithin the concession where illegal hunting isthought to be taking place, or in areas with highdensities of protected species like elephants, go-rillas and Chimpanzees.

Synthesis of lessons learnedLand-use planning within the CIB concessionssurrounding the NNNP has been a multi-yearprocess, involving many different actors from in-dustry to government to international conserva-tion organizations to local communities, includingsemi-nomadic peoples. Through this process, se-veral important lessons have been learned.1. Multiple actors should be involved inland-use planningLogging concessions generally serve multiplepurposes in addition to timber production. Mostforestry concessions served as home to indige-nous peoples and as habitat for wildlife long be-fore concessionary rights were sold to loggingcompanies. Before logging began in the CIBconcessions, for example, nearly 12,000 peoplelived in permanent villages and temporarycamps, making their living from the forest. The-refore, timber production should be perceived asan economically important activity introducedonto a previously existing landscape of ecologi-cal, livelihood, economic and cultural activities.As such, multiple stakeholders have interests inthe forests within timber concessions and all mustbe incorporated in land-use planning process. To incorporate all actors, there must be a platformby which they can express their interests, parti-cularly local communities that tend to be less em-powered than formal organizations likecompanies, NGOs and worker unions. By wor-king directly and frequently with local communi-ties, PROGEPP social teams helped promoteindigenous people’s rights (including conserva-tion of their traditional territories) to the companyand the government. In this way, their interestsand needs in terms of natural resources were in-

corporated into the management plan. Later,once the formal plan was drafted, village leadersand local people were invited to open fora to ex-press their opinions, opposition, interests andneeds. In addition to making the land-use pro-cess as open as possible, there should also be amechanism for conflict resolution for situationswhen stakeholders simply cannot come to agree-ment.2. Land-use planning should be basedon data and balanced by economic andsocial needsIn addition to listening to the voices of local ac-tors, zoning should be based on rigorous biologi-cal and socio-economic data. First, inventoriesneed to be conducted to determine the abun-dance and spatial distribution of animal species,timber species, and NTFPs across the conces-sion. Just as logging companies base their an-nual exploitation on the location of their targettimber species, hunting off-take, natural resourceharvest and/or the designation of protected areaswithin concessions should be based on surveysof wildlife and other natural resources. Second,once the different types of land-use zones havebeen designated, it is important to determine pro-cedures for harvesting the resources. For exam-ple, if natural forest clearings are protected ashabitat for animals, then buffer zones aroundthem where logging and/or hunting is prohibitedmust be based on an analysis of both animal be-haviour and their habitat needs. In many cases,the optimal conditions for conservation (e.g., abuffer of 15 km around forest clearings used byelephants) are not achievable, and must be ba-lanced by the economic and resource needs ofthe timber company and local people. 3. Land-use planning should be forma-lizedLand-use plans must be formalized and madepublic. Even if all stakeholders have participated,negotiated and agreed upon the zoning and rulesfor exploiting resources, the procedures and prin-ciples must be incorporated into a formal mana-gement plan. First, this ensures that the plan isin agreement with national (and sometimes inter-



national) laws and standards. Second, this en-sures that outside actors respect the plan. Forexample, after the adoption of the Kabo conces-sion management plan in 2006, a MEF official de-livered a large game (buffalo, Sitatunga, etc.)hunting permit to a group of expatriate hunters.However, by consulting the Kabo managementplan, which does not include provisions for safarihunting, the mistake was immediately recognizedand the hunters were quickly directed to a diffe-rent forestry concession where hunting is permit-ted.4. Roles of stakeholders should beclearly definedThe roles of all the actors operating within thelogging concession should be well defined by for-mal protocols describing rights and responsibili-ties. The definition of roles not only assignsresponsibility for certain aspects of managementto the appropriate stakeholder, it also preventsoverlap or duplication of effort by different orga-nizations. This is particularly important for wildlifemanagement and enforcement of hunting laws.For example, if ecoguards are employed to en-force hunting laws, it must be clear who managesthem and who is responsible for their actions andfailure or success. This protects other actors whocould be blamed for their failure to accomplishgoals or follow laws and procedures. For naturalresource management, other responsibilities thatmust be clearly assigned to a stakeholder in-clude: 1) assuring food security of concessionworkers and local people; 2) collecting the biolo-gical and socio-economic data necessary tomake decisions; 3) incorporating local peoplesinto resource management; 4) managing differentforest resources: wildlife, timber, NTFPs, fishe-ries, etc.; and 5) resolving conflicts among insti-tutions and other stakeholders.A final note on the definition of roles and respon-sibilities, it should also include an explicit reco-gnition of all the actors to be consulted during amanagement activity or decision. Even thoughthe logging company may be responsible for theconstruction of roads, it must consult other sta-keholders to guarantee that roads do not crossimportant habitat for gorillas or traverse a ceme-

tery sacred to the Mbenzélé people. The list ofactors to be consulted should be defined andclear and should be based on criteria such as theproximity of people to an activity, their livelihoodinterests, etc.

Conclusions and recommen-dationsThe land-use planning process has largely suc-ceeded in the CIB concessions because it incor-porates multiple actors and is based on datacollected over many years. Before managementplans were written, WCS, CIB and MEF had com-pleted studies on wildlife populations, bushmeat,NTFPs, and timber species in addition to socio-economic studies of the movements of semi-no-madic peoples, their traditional territories, andannual demographic censuses of the human po-pulations within the concessions. The govern-ment-adopted management plans formalized theland-use planning and defined the roles of diffe-rent actors through individual protocols of colla-boration (e.g., the PROGEPP protocol definingroles of MEF, WCS and CIB in wildlife manage-ment within the CIB concessions). While land-useplanning for the Kabo and Pokola concessionshas been completed, planning for the remainingconcession is advanced and will be completed inthe coming couple of years.Land-use planning in forestry concessions comeswith its own set of challenges: the first and mostdifficult challenge is to find common ground andcommon goals. It is possible that a logging com-pany adopts the attitude that its lease of theconcession makes the company the only legiti-mate actor. But local communities and local or in-ternational NGOs should not be dissuaded fromworking with the company because 1) it may bethe only option for mitigating environmental da-mage and resource loss; and 2) a strong partner-ship means that multiple organizations can sharethe responsibilities and cost of resource mana-gement. Moreover, logging companies have agreat deal to gain by partnering with conservationorganizations. By collaborating with NGOs thatseek to manage natural resources, protecthuman rights, or improve food security, the com-pany can benefit from an improved image and



have access to new sources of financial re-sources (e.g., loans from the World Bank). Agreener image can attract new clients and opennew markets, allowing the company to earn grea-ter profits from its wood (see discussion of certi-fication below). In addition, where publicorganizations work to improve living conditions,health care and food security, the company be-nefits from a healthier and more effective work-force. There is a trend towards better land-use planningand forest management in central Africa. CentralAfrican governments have recognized the needfor management plans for concessions, and atleast in the case of the Republic of Congo, theexisting forestry laws correspond to or even sur-pass internationally recognized standards. Mo-reover, the Congolese government is slowlystarting to enforce its own legislation: nine mana-gement plans are advanced in their development,including the Kabo and Pokola concessionswhich have been adopted and received ForestStewardship Council (FSC) certification. Of the69 forest management units, 50 percent are com-mitted to the process of sustainable forest mana-gement planning. As land-use planning evolvesacross central Africa and standards becomemore rigorous, management of forestry conces-sions will necessarily consider the livelihoods andinterests of local people and the conservation ofnatural resources and wildlife. The trend in land-use planning and forest mana-gement is also partially driven by the growingmarket for certified wood, particularly in Euro-pean countries that are starting to require that im-ported wood comes from legal and sustainablesources. Three forestry concessions (includingthe Kabo and Pokola concessions) have nowbeen certified by the FSC in central Africa, andseveral companies have committed to seekingcertification in the coming years. Companies onlyreceive certification if their logging proceduresmeet the standards of the organization that bes-tows the certificate which is assessed by inde-pendent audits of the company. Auditing is asystematic process of verification, usuallyconducted at the level of the forestry concession,to determine whether the operation meets a pre-defined set of criteria or performance standards.

If the operation meets the minimum standards, acertificate is granted. If not, corrective actionsmay be requested (CAR). The corrective actionsmust be completed in a specified time-frame forcertification to be achieved. Subsequent spotchecks and monitoring audits are then conductedto keep the certificate valid. For producers likeCIB, certification brings more systematic mana-gement systems, potential market access and im-proved image. For conservation, certificationprovides a mechanism for influencing manage-ment practices; and for consumers, it provides in-formation on the legality and the environmentaland social impacts of the wood being purchased.To date, the only internationally recognized per-formance-based scheme issuing certificates fortropical forests is the Forest Stewardship Council(FSC). Certain exemplary companies like CIB havemade considerable investments in infrastructureand procedures to promote sustainable forestmanagement, social development, and wildlifemanagement. But to promote land managementand conservation at a regional scale, forestrylaws should be applied to all companies and allconcessions without exception – central Africancountries need to enforce their own laws. Finally,beyond enforcement of hunting laws, forestrylaws and certification schemes fall short when itcomes to wildlife management and biodiversityconservation. Although most certification bodiesaddress wildlife conservation to some extent,their principles and guidelines are typically focu-sed on protection of endangered species andprotection of critical sites and habitats. But pro-tection of endangered species is not a sufficientgoal for biodiversity conservation and resourcemanagement, particularly where local communi-ties rely on bushmeat as a critical source of pro-tein and income. In these situations, land-useplanning and management should implement re-gulations that exceed the standards of certifica-tion schemes. The PROGEPP model of wildlifemanagement in forestry concessions serves asan example of what can and should be done toachieve sustainable harvest of wild game andprevent local extirpation of non-endangered spe-cies. Certification standards and national lawsshould be strengthened by considering the follo-wing aspects of wildlife and natural resource ma-



nagement :1. Pre-logging inventories of wildlife (both pro-tected and hunted species) should beconducted to identify the presence, approxi-mate abundance and distributions of keywildlife species.

2. Pre-logging assessments of hunting prac-tices and needs of local communities livingin the area should also be conducted, inclu-ding the evaluation of tenure and huntingrights.

3. Once the pre-logging assessments of wild-life have been conducted, the goal shouldbe to maintain wildlife populations at or nearpre-logging levels. To allow some off-takeby local communities, and to take into ac-count yearly variation in wildlife populationsand error in measurement of wildlife densi-ties, maintaining populations within 10–20percent of their pre-logging levels may bepractical.

4. Explicit access regulations and adaptivemanagement protocols should be develo-ped to prevent local depletion of importantgame species while simultaneously assu-ring monitored, legal hunting access to thelocal communities that most depend on wildmeat.

5. Land-use planning in forest concessionsshould be viewed as part of a wider land-use planning process that integrates multi-ple concessions, or concessions andprotected areas. A single forestry conces-sion managed in isolation may be too smallfor the long-term conservation of wide-ran-ging species, not to mention that the effortand money invested in conserving specieswill be wasted once animals stray acrossborders into unmanaged lands.

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