chapter 2 phonetics. phonetics a science to study how linguistic sounds are produced. three...

Chapter 2 Phonetics

Phonetics

A science to study how linguistic sounds are produced.

Three subfields of phonetics: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics.

To describe how linguistic sounds are produced.

Outline1. Backgrounds 1.1 Segments and transcription

1.2 Speech organs

1.3 Phonation

1.4 Distinction between vowels and consonants

2. Place of articulation3. Consonants

4. Consonants: Manner of articulation 4.1 Obstruents

4.2 Sonorants

5. Vowels 5.1 Monothongs

5.2 Diphthongs

5.3 Nasalized vowels

6. Suprasegments 6.1 Syllables

6.2 Stress

6.3 Tone

6.4 Intonation

7. Summary

1. BACKGROUNDS

1.1 Segments and transcription1.2 Speech organs1.3 Phonation1.4 Distinction between vowels and consonants

1.1 Segments and Transcription

Spoken sounds written wowrds

can be reserved for a long time

disappear as soon as they are uttered

Sounds were transcribed for teaching & studying

RecordersPhonetic

transcription system

IPA

Unintelligible sounds

=Noises

1.1 Segments and Transcription

Ex: Takebanuad spoken by Bunun in Xingyi, Nantou.

1. “ Where is the teacher?”

2. A sentence composed of seven syllables I-isaq-a-masnanava?’

Sounds cannot be written but they can be transcribed. IPA

IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)

Designed in 1821 by International Phonetic Association (also abbreviated as IPA).

The version in 1995:

1.2 Speech organs

Any sound is produced with three factors: 1. a vibrator2. a force to make it vibrate3. a transmission media

Ex:

the vibrator : six cords

the force that makes cords vibrate : fingers

the transmission : air

1.2 Speech organs Three Steps of sound production:

1. inhale air and save it in our lungs2. when we speak, press our lungs so an airstream

will come out3. the airstream vibrates vocal cords, resulting in

waves

The waves was transmissioned to audience’s ears.

the vibrator : vocal cords

The force makes vocal cords vibrate : the airstream saved in our lungs

the transmission : air

1.3 Phonation

Phonation : production of voiced and voiceless sounds due to the close or open of the

vocal cords in the larynx.

(voiced consonants)Airstream vibrates

English [b, d, g,, m, n, N , v, , d, z, l, r, w, j] Chinese [l, m, n, N, w, j]

(voiceless consonants)open in 60%-95%Airstream comes out without vibrating the vocal cords

English [p, t, k, f, , s, h, , t]Chinese [p, ph, f, t, th, k, kh, ts, tsh, s, , t, th, , t, th, h]

1.3 Phonation

Two ways to identify voiceless and voiced: 1. Put your hands over the larynx, feel the vibration of

the vocal cords. 2. Cover your ears with your hands. When a voiced sound is produced, you can hear a hissing sound,

much like a bee’s buzzing.

Ex: [s] from [z] → repeat sssszzzzsss.

1.3 Phonation Aspiration: a voiceless consonant produced with the

duration of noiselessness e.g. English [ph] in pie [phai] Chinese [ph] in assign [phai] [th] in tie [thai] [th] in too much [thai] [kh] in kite [khait] [kh] in fast [khuai]

Unaspirated: consonants produced without such a voiceless duration

e.g. English [p] in spy [spai] [t] in stick [stik] [k] in sky [skai].

What is a vowel?What is a consonant?

What are the differences?

1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants

1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants1. Vowels differ from consonants in waveforms.

vowels: periodic consonants: aperiodic.

1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants2. Vowels differ from consonants in oral cavity.

vowel: the oral cavity is wide enough without incurring any friction.

consonant: part of the tongue body is raised over a certain point in such a way that a narrow cavity emerges, which in turn causes friction.

1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants3. Vowels differ from consonants in formants.

vowels: there are formants consonants: the formants are far less clear for

consonants.

1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants

4. Vowels differ from consonants in the position of a syllable.

vowel: usually occurs in the nucleus position of asyllable.

Consonant: usually does not occur in the nucleus position.

e.g. In the syllable [hd] (head),

[] is the nucleus [h] is onset

[d] is coda

2. PLACE OF ARTICULATION

Place of articulation

Organs are divided into two types: laryngeal and supralaryngeal

place

manner

voiced

voiceless


The velum will decide whether the air stream has to pass either oral or nasal cavity, or both.

Place of articulation1. Nasal: English [m, n, N].

2. Nasalized: Taiwanese [i(], [e)], [a)], [o)] [i)]= ‘yard’ [e)]= ‘baby’ [a)]= ‘to bend’ [o)]= ‘to make a baby sleep’

3. Oral: English [i, e, o, , æ]


Passive(cannot move freely)

Active(mainly our tongue)

3. CONSONANTS

CONSONANTS

Bilabial consonants [b, p, pH, m]

Three steps for the production of bilabial consonants:1. Squeeze the lungs so that the airstream would

come to the oral cavity.2. Stop the airstream by closing the upper and the

lower lips.3. Release the airstream by opening the oral cavity.

Stop consonant(plosive consonants): When the airstream coming from lungs it is stopped

Distinctive features

In the field of phonology and phonetics, we use distinctive features to characterize sounds.

Distinctive features are essentially based on place and manner of articulation.

All the features are marked by [+] or [-]. e.g. A [+] denotes the presence of that feature

A [-] denotes the absence from that feature

describe whether the airstream is stopped or continuous

CONSONANTS

Labio-dental consonants [f, v] /f/, /v/: Produced by having the upper teeth put

on the lower lip.

Continuents : The point where the upper teeth and the lower lip are put together is not so

tight that the airstream from the lungs can barely go through.

Fricative consonants: Some friction in the narrow cavity between

the upper teeth and the lowerlip forces (f, v,)

stop

continuent

Interdental consonants [, ]

//, //: Produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the upper and the lower teeth.

Fricative continuents : Although the tip is put between the upper and the lower

teeth, some space is left for the airstream, making it continuous.

Voiced: // Voiceless: //

CONSONANTS

Alveolar [d, t. n. l, s, z] /d/, /t/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/: Produced in the same

manner by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar.

Three steps of the production of alveolar stops:1. Puff the airstream out of the oral cavity.2. Stop the airstream somewhere.3. Release the airstream when

followed by a vowel. [d, t, th, n] differ from [b, p, ph, m] in place.

The airstream is stopped at the point where the upper and the lower lips are closed.

The airstream is stopped at the point where the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar.

Alveolar [d, t. n. l, s, z]

Fricative continuents: The tip of the tongue merely touches the alveolar in such a way that some space is left for the airstream to pass through

Sibilants : All of the fricative consonants come up with some turbulent noises due to the friction

CONSONANTS

coronal

Coronal [d, t, th, n, s, z] Coronal: The area from the alveolar to the post-

alveolar. All the consonants produced at any point of the

coronal, are of the feature [+coronal].

[d, t, th] are [-nasal], while [n] is [+nasal], owing to the different position of the velum.

labial alveolar

segmentfeatures b p m f v d t n l s z

place

[labial] + + + + + - - - - - -

[alveolar] - - - - - + + + + + +

[coronal] - - - - - + + + + + +

[anterior] + + + + + + + + + + +

manner

[continue] - - - + + - - - + + +

[nasal] - - + - - - - + - - -

[voiced] + - + - + + - + + - +

[lateral] - - - - - - - - + - -

CONSONANTS

Post-alveolar [, ]

/ /, / /: Produced by raising the tip of the tongue up to the post-alveolar

Also called alveo-palatal: A little back from the alveolar and it is part of the hard palatal.

[+coronal] Voiced: / / Voiceless: / /

Anterior

Anterior: Adopted for the distinction between segments produced before the alveolar and those

after that. [+anterior]: labials, labio-dentals, alveolars [-anterior]: post-alveolars

anterior

Affricate consonants [t, d] Affricate: A combination of a stop and a fricative. There is a very short closure for the airstream, and

then in a very short time it is open for the airstream to come out.

Voiced: /d/ Voiceless: /t/

e.g.: white sheep [wait ip] → [waitip]white shoes →why choose

labial alveolar Post-alveolar

segmentfeatures b p m f v d t n l s z t d

place

[labial] + + + + + - - - - - - - - - -

[alveolar] - - - - - + + + + + + - - - -

[coronal] - - - - - + + + + + + + + + +

[anterior] + + + + + + + + + + + - - - -

manner

[continue] - - - + + - - - + + + + + - -

[nasal] - - + - - - + - - - - - - -

[voiced] + - + - + + - + + - + - + - +

[lateral] - - - - - - - - + - - - - - -

Liquids [r, l]

/r/: the tip of the tongue is a little curled back, when it is raised upward

To compare with [l], [r] leaves more space between the tip of the tongue and the post-alveolar

ridge. Liquid: Can be produced or perceived differently

depending on different individuals, like water.

Coronal Lateral

[l] + +

[r] - -

/l/+vowel → clear /l/ (let)vowel + /l/ → dark or velarized /l/ (tell)

CONSONANTS

Velar stop consonants [g, k, kh,] Very much like other stops [b, p, ph, m] and [d, t, th, n]

in place and manner of articulation. The closure point lies in the contact between the

tongue body (specifically the dorsal) and the velar

velar nasal

Velar stop consonants [g, k, kh,] Three steps for the production of stop consonants:

1. Press the lungs so that airstream is pushed out.2. Stop the airstream by raising the back of the dorsal to

contact the velar. 3. Release the airflow when it is followed by a vowel.

[b, p, ph, m]

[d, t, th, n]

[g, k, kh, ]

The closure lies in the closure of the upper and the lower lips.

The closure occurs because of the tight contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar.

The closure occurs in the dorsal and the velar.

labials alveolars velars

b p pH m d t tH n g k kH

place

[labial] ＋＋＋＋－－－－－－－－[cronal] －－－－＋＋＋＋－－－－[velar] －－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋

manner

[continuent] －－－－－－－－－－－－[voiced] ＋－－＋＋－－＋＋－－＋[asp] －－＋－－－＋－－－＋－[nasal] －－－＋－－－＋－－－＋

Sounds Laryngeal

Voiced[b, d, g] Voiceless

Aspirated[ph, th, kh]

Unaspirated[p, t, k]

Supralargeal

Place

Bi-labial

Labio-dental

Dental

Alveolar

Alveo-palatal

Velar

Coronal

Manner

Stops

Fricatives

Affricatives

Laterals

Nasals

4. CONSONANTS: MANNER OF ARTICULATION

4.1 Obstruents4.2 Sonorants

4.1 Obstruents

Obstruents: A group of consonants produced with more or less friction in the oral

cavity.

They can further be decomposed into stops, fricatives, and affricates.

4.1 Obstruents

Consonants produced with a closure at the places of lips, alveolar, or velar are called stop consonants or plosive consonants.

(a) from the nasal cavity(b) also recognized as sonorants

Results from a narrow cavity, formed by the tongue body and the upper ridge.

The cavity is so narrow that the airstream coming out of the lungs is turbulent, giving rise to friction.

The upper teeth bites the lower lip

The tip of the tongue is put between the upper and the lower teeth

The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveolar or the post-alveolar

Results from a combination of a stop and a fricative.

4.2 Sonorants

Sonorants are usually produced without obvious friction. (no narrow cavity for those

consonants)

Sonorants can be divided into three types: nasals, glides, and liquids. However, glides and liquids are also grouped into the class of approximants.

4.2 Sonorants

One of the stop consonants; However, there are some resonances occurring in the nasal cavity.

1. The waveforms of sonorant consonants are periodic, more or less like vowels.2. Most sonorants get obvious but not so clear formants.3. Sonorants are loud enough to be different from obstruents.

consonant

vowel

Danial Jones (1948)

approximant

Glide

Usually called semi-vowels. [j] → front glide [w] → back glide. Slightly different from high vowels [i] and [u]. Semi-vowels and high vowels are treated as allophones. e.g.

cute [kjut] house [hws]

heed [hid]hood [hud]

not syllable nucleus→ glide

at the nucleus of that syllable →vowel

5. VOWELS

5.1 Monothongs5.2 Diphthongs5.3 Nasalized vowels

Vowels

The most sonorous of all linguistic sounds

There is no or little friction (produced with oral cavity as wide as possible)

Classified into monothongs and diphthongs, or oral and nasalized vowels

5.1 Monothongs

The distinction lies mainly on lip rounding and the backness of the tongue body

schwa []: not high and not low, neither front nor back

high / lowfront / back.

5.1 Monothongs

the tongue body is raised high

the tongue body is low

the tongue body is raised upward (almost to the post-alveolar ridge)e.g. key [ki]

the back of the tongue body is raised upward (nearly to the velar)e.g. cool [kul]

the tongue body stays at the low and central positione.g. car [kar]

[i] [u]

[a]

5.1 Monothongs

the tongue body is between [i] and [a]

The tongue body is between [u] and [a] for the back vowels

[e]

[o]

2/3

cardinal vowels

5.1 Monothongs

In addition to the tongue body, vowels can be distinguished by lip rounding.

rounded, spread, or neutral

schwa []e.g. about [b@ut]

[u] and [o] [i] and [e]

5.1 Monothongs

In the theory of distinctive features, four features, [high], [low], [back], and [round], are adopted:

In a few languages, the low vowel is essentially central, so there are usually two allophones occurring in different situations.

[a] (the front /a/) [] (the back /a/)

5.1 Monothongs

In English, there are two sets of vowels.

tense vowels are longer than lax vowels in duration.

The duration between tense and lax vowels (Laver, 1994)

5.2 Diphthongs

A diphthong is basically composed of two vowels: (a vowel + a glide, [j] or [w])

[aj, oj, aw]

the sonority is from high (vowels) to low (glides), so the three diphthongs are called falling diphthong


In English, there is no phonemic nasalized vowel.

nasal consonant + vowel

vowel + nasal consonant

/i/→[i)] in me

/o/→[o)] in no

can [k)n]

pen [p)n]

They are unpredictable and distinctive.


In Southern Min of Taiwan, nasalized vowels are phonemic.

A lot of languages also have phonemic nasalized vowels, such as Sudanese, Indonesian, Malay, French, etc.

6. SUPRASEGMENTS

6.1 Syllables6.2 Stress6.3 Tone6.4 Intonation

Suprasegments

By suprasegments, we mean syllable, stress, tone, and intonation, which cannot be characterized by a single segment.

A segment can be described precisely on the basis of manner and place of articulation. However, a suprasegment is far more beyond that.

6.1 Syllables

onset + rime (nucleus + coda)

More examples:

branching rime

heavy syllable

non-branching rime

light syllable

unstressed

stressed

Open syllableNo coda

→ unstressed Close syllableCoda [t] / [r]→ stressed

6.2 Stress

Stress is usually denoted by pitch. A stressed syllable gets a higher pitch A non-stressed syllable gets a lower pitch

higher lower lower higher

differently stressed due to categorical difference

6.3 Tone

stress languages

• English • German• Spanish

tone languages

• Chinese• Tibetan • Vietnam• Tai

perceived by a higher pitch

perceived by an absolute pitch

1

2

3

6.3 Tone

High tones of different languages might be different in pitch values.

the highest tone clothes

Mandarin 5 shan55

Southern Min 4 Sa)44

stress languages

• English • German• Spanish

tone languages

• Chinese• Tibetan • Vietnam• Tai

high tone

rinsing tone

contour tone

falling tone

The level high tone remains intact when it is followed by other tones.

6.3 Tone

Tones of most African languages are composed of high tone (H), mid tone (M), and low tone (L).

Contour tones like High Low or Low High tones can sometimes be combined with H and L, or L and

H, respectively.

Contour tones emerge when a high tone is added with a low tone suffix. e.g. ebu@ + olu→ ebu^lu

H L HL(contour tone)

6.4 Intonation

Stress → the contrast between a stressed and an unstressed syllable

Intonation → sentential stress.

6.4 Intonation

The most prominent syllable

The pitch is higher

The pitch contour is exactly of the pattern 231

stressed

6.4 Intonationfalling pattern

(231)

rising intonation (223)

rising and falling (23, 23, 231)

statements wh-quesitons

yes/no questions

alternative statements

chapter 2 phonetics. phonetics a science to study how linguistic sounds are produced. three...

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