Chapter 7The World of Islam

The Middle East in the time of Muhammad

The Middle East in the time of Muhammad

1. Arabia is a bleak land about 1500 miles long and 1200 miles wide. It features two large deserts, portions of which have no rainfall. The residents of Arabia are a Semitic people who primarily live along the shores of the peninsula and on the southern highlands where there is some rainfall. These people, principally farmers and shepherds, were small in numbers and insignificant until about 1200 B.C.E. when the camel was domesticated which not only made nomadic life possible but also provided a livelihood in transit trade between India, the Mediterranean, and Africa. Although the Bedouns (or desert Arabs) are nomadic, before 450 C.E. powerful states in Yemen did exercise control. The decline of authority and the return to nomadism was reinforced by Ethiopian and Sasanid invasions in the sixth century.

2. The economic life of Arabia was enhanced by protracted wars between the Byzantines and Sasanids in the early seventh century that resulted in a shift southward of the Africa-Asia caravan routes. Towns grew to take advantage of this, specifically Mecca which was near the caravan routes from Yemen in the south to Syria. It grew to be a commercial as well as a financial center as the mercantile wealth made the city rich. Controlling the affairs of Mecca at the time of Muhammad was the Quaraysh tribe from northern Arabia. Muhammad's clan, the Hashim, was a part of one of the two federations into which the Quaraysh had split.

3. The Hashim operated caravans north into Syria and had worked out a system of protection with the hostile Bedoun tribes in northern Arabia by sharing profits from the Meccan trade and hiring the tribes to escort the caravans.

4. Mecca was not only at the juncture of major trade routes but also an old religious center where the Ka'ba was located. The Ka'ba was a shrine that served as a center of worship for the different Arabian classes and tribes. In addition to images of the deities (some 360, including Jesus), the Ka'ba also housed the Black Stone worshiped as a miraculous relic by followers of many of the divinities.

Questions:1. How did the geography of Arabia shape the development of its people?2. Examine how the Arabian people became involved in international trade.

The Middle East in the time of Muhammad

1. Arabia is a bleak land about 1500 miles long and 1200 miles wide. It features two large deserts, portions of which have no rainfall. The residents of Arabia are a Semitic people who primarily live along the shores of the peninsula and on the southern highlands where there is some rainfall. These people, principally farmers and shepherds, were small in numbers and insignificant until about 1200 B.C.E. when the camel was domesticated which not only made nomadic life possible but also provided a livelihood in transit trade between India, the Mediterranean, and Africa. Although the Bedouns (or desert Arabs) are nomadic, before 450 C.E. powerful states in Yemen did exercise control. The decline of authority and the return to nomadism was reinforced by Ethiopian and Sasanid invasions in the sixth century.

2. The economic life of Arabia was enhanced by protracted wars between the Byzantines and Sasanids in the early seventh century that resulted in a shift southward of the Africa-Asia caravan routes. Towns grew to take advantage of this, specifically Mecca which was near the caravan routes from Yemen in the south to Syria. It grew to be a commercial as well as a financial center as the mercantile wealth made the city rich. Controlling the affairs of Mecca at the time of Muhammad was the Quaraysh tribe from northern Arabia. Muhammad's clan, the Hashim, was a part of one of the two federations into which the Quaraysh had split.

3. The Hashim operated caravans north into Syria and had worked out a system of protection with the hostile Bedoun tribes in northern Arabia by sharing profits from the Meccan trade and hiring the tribes to escort the caravans.

4. Mecca was not only at the juncture of major trade routes but also an old religious center where the Ka'ba was located. The Ka'ba was a shrine that served as a center of worship for the different Arabian classes and tribes. In addition to images of the deities (some 360, including Jesus), the Ka'ba also housed the Black Stone worshiped as a miraculous relic by followers of many of the divinities.

Questions:1. How did the geography of Arabia shape the development of its people?2. Examine how the Arabian people became involved in international trade.

The Rise of Islam Bedouins Sheikh Majlis Mecca Ka’aba Muhammad (570-632)

Caravan managerHegira (Hijrah), 622

Yathrib (Medina) Umma Visit to the Ka’aba, 630

Spread of Islam

Spread of Islam

1. Arabia is a bleak land about 1500 miles long and 1200 miles wide. It features two large deserts, portions of which have no rainfall. There are a few seasonal streams but no real rivers. Although the people are nomads, before 450 powerful states in Yemen did exercise control. The decline of Yemen's authority and the return to nomadism was reinforced by Ethiopian and Persian invasions in the sixth century.

2. There are numerous theories as to the cause of the expansion of Islam: the harsh environmental conditions, population pressure, religious zeal, the longing of single men in the army for booty, or the desire to export the religious reform of Arabia.

3. Muhammad was born in 570 in a Mecca that was undergoing considerable change due to the growth of trade. Significantly, the new economic life had failed to accommodate the old moral values of Arab life. Desert Arabs retained a religion centered on the belief in the immortality of the tribe and clan. However, as seen with Muhammad, in Mecca where the sacred black stone was housed at the Ka'ba, a concept of monotheism was evolving. His god was called Allah, derived from the Arab word al-ailah meaning "the god." Thus, a word was used which needed no explanation. The earliest converts were young men who were preaching against the abandonment of the old virtues. The merchant aristocracy generally resisted Muhammad's teachings as a challenge to their gods and goddesses as well as threatening ancestral ways. Preceded by his Meccan followers, in July 622 Muhammad fled to Yathrib (later changed to Medina meaning "the city," i.e. the city of the prophet) which had requested his aid as a neutral arbitrator among its five tribes (three were Jewish). Here Muhammad had success in converting the people and when he became both the secular and spiritual authority of the city, an attack was initiated against Mecca. It fell in 629 in part due to a grain boycott on the agriculturally dependent city. 4. Expansion west through Byzantine Egypt was preceded by thrusts against Syria and Mesopotamia. Despite stubborn resistance from the Byzantines, by 640 Syria had fallen and Damascus and Jerusalem were occupied. Egypt was in Muslim hands six years later. The struggle here was made easier by the people's weariness over taxation and the theological and factional struggles of Christianity. Muslim promises of political and religious freedom were enticing. From Egypt there was a slow drive across North Africa leading eventually into Spain in 711. With only weak opposition, Spain fell to the Muslims as Christian resistance fell back to northwestern Iberia. By 732 Muslim raiders were in the kingdom of the Franks and near Tours fought an indecisive battle. Since this amounted to no more than an adventure, the raiders returned to Spain. However, they did not venture across the Pyrenees again.

5. In the east, Persian forces succumbed to the Muslims by 650. The Umayyad dynasty (661-750) pushed their conquests to the Indus River. After 660 the Umayyad capital was moved to Damascus since this was the center of power for Mu'awiya (661-680), the first Umayyad ruler.

6. The Slavs in the north and the Muslims in the east were pressing the Byzantine Empire. The Umayyad navy held several Aegean island and from these attacked Constantinople between 674 and 678. For the moment, the Arab advance was checked with a successful defense. This success was followed in 718 with the defeat of a Muslim naval fleet in the Sea of Marmara.

7. The Umayyad Dynasty fell in 750 bringing to power the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258) that built a new capital at Baghdad. The location shifted Islam’s center to Iraq and marked the beginning of enormous prosperity that drew from contacts on three continents: spices, minerals, dyes, silks, and porcelain from India and China; gems and fabrics from Central Asia; honey and wax from Scandinavia and Russia; and ivory and gold dust from Africa.

Questions:1. What role did geography have to play in the expansion of Islam?2. Why was Islam so successful in expanding into Christian lands?

Spread of Islam

1. Arabia is a bleak land about 1500 miles long and 1200 miles wide. It features two large deserts, portions of which have no rainfall. There are a few seasonal streams but no real rivers. Although the people are nomads, before 450 powerful states in Yemen did exercise control. The decline of Yemen's authority and the return to nomadism was reinforced by Ethiopian and Persian invasions in the sixth century.

2. There are numerous theories as to the cause of the expansion of Islam: the harsh environmental conditions, population pressure, religious zeal, the longing of single men in the army for booty, or the desire to export the religious reform of Arabia.

3. Muhammad was born in 570 in a Mecca that was undergoing considerable change due to the growth of trade. Significantly, the new economic life had failed to accommodate the old moral values of Arab life. Desert Arabs retained a religion centered on the belief in the immortality of the tribe and clan. However, as seen with Muhammad, in Mecca where the sacred black stone was housed at the Ka'ba, a concept of monotheism was evolving. His god was called Allah, derived from the Arab word al-ailah meaning "the god." Thus, a word was used which needed no explanation. The earliest converts were young men who were preaching against the abandonment of the old virtues. The merchant aristocracy generally resisted Muhammad's teachings as a challenge to their gods and goddesses as well as threatening ancestral ways. Preceded by his Meccan followers, in July 622 Muhammad fled to Yathrib (later changed to Medina meaning "the city," i.e. the city of the prophet) which had requested his aid as a neutral arbitrator among its five tribes (three were Jewish). Here Muhammad had success in converting the people and when he became both the secular and spiritual authority of the city, an attack was initiated against Mecca. It fell in 629 in part due to a grain boycott on the agriculturally dependent city. 4. Expansion west through Byzantine Egypt was preceded by thrusts against Syria and Mesopotamia. Despite stubborn resistance from the Byzantines, by 640 Syria had fallen and Damascus and Jerusalem were occupied. Egypt was in Muslim hands six years later. The struggle here was made easier by the people's weariness over taxation and the theological and factional struggles of Christianity. Muslim promises of political and religious freedom were enticing. From Egypt there was a slow drive across North Africa leading eventually into Spain in 711. With only weak opposition, Spain fell to the Muslims as Christian resistance fell back to northwestern Iberia. By 732 Muslim raiders were in the kingdom of the Franks and near Tours fought an indecisive battle. Since this amounted to no more than an adventure, the raiders returned to Spain. However, they did not venture across the Pyrenees again.

5. In the east, Persian forces succumbed to the Muslims by 650. The Umayyad dynasty (661-750) pushed their conquests to the Indus River. After 660 the Umayyad capital was moved to Damascus since this was the center of power for Mu'awiya (661-680), the first Umayyad ruler.

6. The Slavs in the north and the Muslims in the east were pressing the Byzantine Empire. The Umayyad navy held several Aegean island and from these attacked Constantinople between 674 and 678. For the moment, the Arab advance was checked with a successful defense. This success was followed in 718 with the defeat of a Muslim naval fleet in the Sea of Marmara.

7. The Umayyad Dynasty fell in 750 bringing to power the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258) that built a new capital at Baghdad. The location shifted Islam’s center to Iraq and marked the beginning of enormous prosperity that drew from contacts on three continents: spices, minerals, dyes, silks, and porcelain from India and China; gems and fabrics from Central Asia; honey and wax from Scandinavia and Russia; and ivory and gold dust from Africa.

Questions:1. What role did geography have to play in the expansion of Islam?2. Why was Islam so successful in expanding into Christian lands?

Teachings of Muhammad Koran and Five pillars Ulama

Shari’ahHadith

The Arab Empire and Its SuccessorsAbu Bakr

Caliph (khalifa) Jihad

Battle of Yarmuk, 636UmarUthmanMuhammad Ali (656-661)Mu’awiyah

The Umayyads (661-750) Damascus Tariq, 710 Battle of Tours, 732 Constantinople, 717 Shi’ite Sunnite

The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of its Power

The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of its Power

1. In 750 the weakened Umayyads fell to the Abbasids (750-1258) who moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad (Persian for "city of God") which was built between 762 and 766 on the banks of the Tigris River. The location was strategic since it could take advantage of the river traffic to the Persian Gulf and the caravans from the Mediterranean and central Asia. The greatest extent of the Abbasid Empire was under Haroun al-Rashid (786-809).

2. In the wake of the Abbasid victory, many of the Umayyad leaders were executed. One who escaped was Abd al-Rahman who made his way to Spain where he re-established the Umayyad dynasty in 756. The Umayyad power began to deteriorate in the middle of the tenth century and Muslim Spain disintegrated into the smaller states of Seville, Malaga, Toledo, Saragossa, and Granada under the control of various families.

3. In 788 a independent Sunnite regime was established in Morocco. By the tenth century the Umayyads of Cordoba had gained control of Morocco but were quickly replaced in the middle of the eleventh century by the Almoravids. The Almoravids also conquered western Algeria and southern Spain. Their capitals were at Marrakech and Seville. As the Christians in Spain gained territories in the twelfth century, the weak Almoravids were succeeded by the Almohads (Muslim Berbers) from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. The Almohads soon conquered parts of southern Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli in response to Norman expansion from Sicily.

4. In 909 control over Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) was seized by a claimant who professed to be a descendent from Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. In the second half of the tenth century, Egypt was conquered by the Fatimids and they transferred the capital from Tunisia to newly built Cairo. By 1000 the Fatimids also controlled southern Syria, the Hejaz, and Yemen as well as most of North Africa. In the early eleventh century the Fatimid empire began to disintegrate permitting Byzantine control over northern Syria and make possible the successes of the Crusaders.

5. In the east, Iran was increasingly difficult for the Abbasids to govern as independent dynasties were created. Out of weakness the caliph recognized their defacto control. Among the most important were the Samanids controlling Khorasan and Transoxiana from Bukhara and the Zaidi sect of Shi'ites who flourished in northern Iran and northern Yemen in the ninth century.

6. The Seljuk Turks, originating in the steppes of Turkistan, served as mercenaries for the Abbasids. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Abbasid, the Seljuks seized Baghdad and control of the empire. In 1071 the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines in eastern Anatolia and then seized most of the peninsula.

Question:1. Examine the expansion and disintegration of the Abbasid Empire.

The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of its Power

1. In 750 the weakened Umayyads fell to the Abbasids (750-1258) who moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad (Persian for "city of God") which was built between 762 and 766 on the banks of the Tigris River. The location was strategic since it could take advantage of the river traffic to the Persian Gulf and the caravans from the Mediterranean and central Asia. The greatest extent of the Abbasid Empire was under Haroun al-Rashid (786-809).

2. In the wake of the Abbasid victory, many of the Umayyad leaders were executed. One who escaped was Abd al-Rahman who made his way to Spain where he re-established the Umayyad dynasty in 756. The Umayyad power began to deteriorate in the middle of the tenth century and Muslim Spain disintegrated into the smaller states of Seville, Malaga, Toledo, Saragossa, and Granada under the control of various families.

3. In 788 a independent Sunnite regime was established in Morocco. By the tenth century the Umayyads of Cordoba had gained control of Morocco but were quickly replaced in the middle of the eleventh century by the Almoravids. The Almoravids also conquered western Algeria and southern Spain. Their capitals were at Marrakech and Seville. As the Christians in Spain gained territories in the twelfth century, the weak Almoravids were succeeded by the Almohads (Muslim Berbers) from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. The Almohads soon conquered parts of southern Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli in response to Norman expansion from Sicily.

4. In 909 control over Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) was seized by a claimant who professed to be a descendent from Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. In the second half of the tenth century, Egypt was conquered by the Fatimids and they transferred the capital from Tunisia to newly built Cairo. By 1000 the Fatimids also controlled southern Syria, the Hejaz, and Yemen as well as most of North Africa. In the early eleventh century the Fatimid empire began to disintegrate permitting Byzantine control over northern Syria and make possible the successes of the Crusaders.

5. In the east, Iran was increasingly difficult for the Abbasids to govern as independent dynasties were created. Out of weakness the caliph recognized their defacto control. Among the most important were the Samanids controlling Khorasan and Transoxiana from Bukhara and the Zaidi sect of Shi'ites who flourished in northern Iran and northern Yemen in the ninth century.

6. The Seljuk Turks, originating in the steppes of Turkistan, served as mercenaries for the Abbasids. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Abbasid, the Seljuks seized Baghdad and control of the empire. In 1071 the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines in eastern Anatolia and then seized most of the peninsula.

Question:1. Examine the expansion and disintegration of the Abbasid Empire.

Turkish Occupation of Anatolia

Turkish Occupation of Anatolia

1. The loss of Byzantine territory was reversed by Emperor Heraclius (610-641) whose revitalized army and navy succeeded in freeing Syria and Egypt from Sasanid control. The financial strains of these wars and the cost in terms of manpower, however, weakened the Byzantine Empire and ultimately resulted in the loss of the recovered provinces to the Muslim Arab advances. Throughout the remainder of the seventh century not only did Byzantium continue to contract but the Muslims conquered the Sasinad Empire.

2. Muslim armies pushed through Anatola and reached the shores of the Sea of Marmara. A 677 attack on Constantinople by sea failed as did a combined sea and land operation in 717 which witnessed the use of "Greek fire." This failure not only preserved the Byzantine Empire but helped save the West from a Muslim invasion. Under Emperor Leo (717-741), the Byzantines were able to reconquer most of Anatolia and achieve a stalemate against the Muslims. As Islamic power decayed in the second half of the tenth century, the Byzantines were able to regain most of Syria.

3. The Seljuk Turks, originating in the steppes of Turkestan in central Asia, became avid Muslims as they moved westward through Persia, Iraq, and Syria. In late 1055 they seized Baghdad. The caliph became a puppet to the Turkish sultan ("he with authority"). In 1071 the Seljuks under Arp Arslan met a Byzantine army at Manzikert and annihilated it while capturing the emperor. The Seljuks overran the eastern Byzantine provinces in Anatolia and ultimately conquered much of Syria. A separate sultanate of Rum (Rome, i.e. Byzantine Anatolia) was set up. Internal weaknesses appeared in the early twelfth century and were complicated by the arrival of the Crusaders. In 1194 Seljuk rule in Baghdad ended. By the middle of the thirteenth century the power of the sultan of Rum was broken by the Mongols who were conquering Persia and Iraq.

4. The Ottomans originated from the northwestern corner of Anatola. They began to break out of the area in the late thirteenth century and by 1326 Bursa had fallen. Further military successes brought the northwestern corner of Asia Minor from the Aegean to the Black Sea under Ottoman control by 1345. Soon after, the Ottomans crossed the Dardanelles into Europe and pushed northward and westward into the Balkans. By the fifteenth century Byzantium constituted only Constantinople. After a seven week siege, on May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell.

Questions:1. How did the Seljuks expand their territory?2. What would be the consequences of the Seljuk's control of Anatolia and much of the Middle East?

Turkish Occupation of Anatolia

1. The loss of Byzantine territory was reversed by Emperor Heraclius (610-641) whose revitalized army and navy succeeded in freeing Syria and Egypt from Sasanid control. The financial strains of these wars and the cost in terms of manpower, however, weakened the Byzantine Empire and ultimately resulted in the loss of the recovered provinces to the Muslim Arab advances. Throughout the remainder of the seventh century not only did Byzantium continue to contract but the Muslims conquered the Sasinad Empire.

2. Muslim armies pushed through Anatola and reached the shores of the Sea of Marmara. A 677 attack on Constantinople by sea failed as did a combined sea and land operation in 717 which witnessed the use of "Greek fire." This failure not only preserved the Byzantine Empire but helped save the West from a Muslim invasion. Under Emperor Leo (717-741), the Byzantines were able to reconquer most of Anatolia and achieve a stalemate against the Muslims. As Islamic power decayed in the second half of the tenth century, the Byzantines were able to regain most of Syria.

3. The Seljuk Turks, originating in the steppes of Turkestan in central Asia, became avid Muslims as they moved westward through Persia, Iraq, and Syria. In late 1055 they seized Baghdad. The caliph became a puppet to the Turkish sultan ("he with authority"). In 1071 the Seljuks under Arp Arslan met a Byzantine army at Manzikert and annihilated it while capturing the emperor. The Seljuks overran the eastern Byzantine provinces in Anatolia and ultimately conquered much of Syria. A separate sultanate of Rum (Rome, i.e. Byzantine Anatolia) was set up. Internal weaknesses appeared in the early twelfth century and were complicated by the arrival of the Crusaders. In 1194 Seljuk rule in Baghdad ended. By the middle of the thirteenth century the power of the sultan of Rum was broken by the Mongols who were conquering Persia and Iraq.

4. The Ottomans originated from the northwestern corner of Anatola. They began to break out of the area in the late thirteenth century and by 1326 Bursa had fallen. Further military successes brought the northwestern corner of Asia Minor from the Aegean to the Black Sea under Ottoman control by 1345. Soon after, the Ottomans crossed the Dardanelles into Europe and pushed northward and westward into the Balkans. By the fifteenth century Byzantium constituted only Constantinople. After a seven week siege, on May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell.

Questions:1. How did the Seljuks expand their territory?2. What would be the consequences of the Seljuk's control of Anatolia and much of the Middle East?

The Abbasids (750-1258) Baghdad Harun al-Rashid (786-809) Fatimids

Seljuk Turks Baghdad, 1055 Battle of Manzikert, 1071

The Crusades Byzantine emperor Alexius I, 1096 Saladin (1174-1193)

Jerusalem, 1187 Acre, 1291

The Mongols

Islamic Civilization Political structure

CaliphDiwanVizier

Trade and Manufacturing Banking Urbanization

Society Upper class Slavery Women Urban dwellings

Culture of Islam Philosophy and science

Ibn Rushd (Averroës)Galen (c. 180-200)Ibn Sina, (Avecinna), 980-1037

Islamic LiteratureBook of LordsFerdowzi (940-1020), Book of KingsRabe’a of Qozdaral-Mutanabbi (915-965)Omar Khayyam, RubaiyatThe Tales from 1001 Nights Sadi (1210-1292), Rose Garden

Art and Architecture Dome of the Rock Mosques Palaces Woolen rugs Arabesque

Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, below Dome of the Rock