chapter 8 revolt of the rednecks, 1900-1932images.pcmac.org/sisfiles/schools/ms/desotocounty/... ·...

T210T210

210 A Place Called Mississippi

P L A C E SWinona; Greenwood; Parchman Farm;

Godbold Wells; Vardaman; Seneca Falls, New York; Flora; Greenville; Juniper

Grove; Poplarville; Yazoo City; Chicago, Illinois; Hatt iesburg; Biloxi

P E O P L ETh eodore G. Bilbo, Andrew H. Longino, Anselm J. McLaurin, Th eodore “Teddy”

Roosevelt, Laurence C. Jones, John Sharp Williams, LeRoy Percy, Woodrow Wilson, Ida B. Wells, Belle Kearney, Nellie Nugent, Matt ie Plunkett , G. A. Hobbs, Lee Russell,

Henry L. Whitf ield, Richard Wright

T E R M Sinaugural address, charter, New Capitol, direct primary, white cappers, lynching,

Piney Woods School, centennial, armistice, women’s suff rage, bribe, protégé, prop-

erty assessment, dipping, Great Migration

Chapter 8

Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932Pages 210-235

Section 1The New Mississippi

Pages 214-219

Section 2James K. Vardaman,

“The White Chief”

Pages 220-225

Section 3“The Man” Bilbo

Pages 226-233

Chapter ReviewPages 234-235

DiscussionIda B. Wells, a fearless and well-

respected social reformer, was born

in Holly Springs, Mississippi. When she

was sixteen, her parents and a young

infant brother died of yellow fever.

She, then, assumed the responsibility

of raising her fi ve younger brothers

and sisters. Ask students: What would

you do when faced with this personal

tragedy?

EngagementCreate heterogeneous groups of

three or four students. Ask each group

to create a collage of people, places,

and events representing the centen-

nial of Mississippi statehood.

Chapter 8 Competencies and Objectives

Civil Rights/Human Rights4. Understand and describe the historical circumstances and

conditions that necessitated the development of civil rights

and human rights protections and/or activism for various

minority groups in Mississippi.

Economics5. Understand the importance of how geography, history, and

politics aff ect the economic life of Mississippi from the past

to the present.

T211T211

Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932 211

ou will remember that, in Chapter 1, we learned how im-

portant geography has been in

shaping Mississippi history. We

briefl y discussed the “rednecks,”

a term that described the state’s white small

farmers and day laborers, who were also known

as “poor whites.” We also learned in Chapter

7 that a small ruling elite known as Bourbons

gained control of the Democratic Party after

Reconstruction and exercised almost complete

domination in state government. Th e Bourbons

were concentrated in the counties with black

majorities, and they neglected the social and

economic interests of poor whites, who greatly

outnumbered this ruling class.

Eventually, white small farmers and laborers

in the Piney Woods and the coastal region joined

with poor whites in northeast Mississippi to

take control of state government. Th is takeover

is called the “Revolt of the Rednecks.” Two of

Mississippi’s most famous politicians, James K.

Vardaman and Th eodore G. Bilbo, were proud to

be identifi ed with the poor whites. Th e rednecks

controlled Mississippi politics until the Great

Depression of the 1930s.

Left : Mississippi’s new state capitol, completed in 1903, was larger and more ornate than the old capitol. Th e chamber of the Mississippi House of Representatives features this beautiful stained glass dome.

Did You Know?The exterior walls of the state capi-

tol are made of Bedford limestone and

the base course is Georgia granite.

State SymbolismThe two identical fi gures you see

at the top of the arches in this picture

are renditions of the Mississippi Coat

of Arms, which was adopted in 1894. It

consists of a shield with an eagle upon

it. The eagle has stars and stripes on

his breast, and holds a palm branch in

his right talon and a bundle of arrows

in his left. Above the eagle is the word

“Mississippi,” and below it is the motto

“Virtute et armis,” which means “by

valor and arms.”

Ask students: What do you think the

palm branch and the arrows symbol-

ize? (peace and war) Is it signifi cant that

the eagle’s head is turned toward the

palm branch? (It probably indicates a

preference for peace over war.) Can you

fi nd a similar image on the back of a $1

bill? (The Great Seal of the United States

has a similar eagle image.)

NOTE: Websites appear, disappear,

and change addresses constantly. The

Internet addresses included through-

out this program were operative when

the text was published.

Notes

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T212T212

LITERATURE

In 1900, L. Frank Baum published Th e Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Between 1929

and 1932, Mississippi writer William Faulkner published some of his most

famous works: Th e Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, and Light in August.

EXPANSION

Oklahoma became the 46th state in 1907. New Mexico and Arizona were added in

1912. Our nation held at 48 states until 1959. In 1920, the population of Mississippi was

1,790,618. Th e U.S. was106,021,537. In 1930, Mississippi hit a new milestone at 2,009,821. Th e U.S. was 123,202,624.

SCIENCE & INVENTIONS

Many products we use today were invented in the early twentieth century: the escalator, a practical vacuum cleaner,

windshield wipers, air conditioning, cellophane, and crayons, to name a few.

FASHION

During the Roaring Twenties, fashionable young women called “fl appers” began to bob their hair and wear shorter dresses.

ARCHITECTURE

In 1930, the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed, at 1,047 feet, the

tallest man-made structure in the world. It was surpassed a year later by New York’s

Empire State Building at 1,454 feet.

212 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932

EXPLORATION

In 1909, Americans Robert Peary and Matt hew Henson and their Inuit crew

became the fi rst people known to reach the North Pole. In 1911, Roald Amundsen

and four Norwegian crew members were the fi rst to reach the South Pole.

MUSIC

Popular songs included “Won’t You Come Home, Bill Bailey,” “Swing Low, Sweet

Chariot,” and “Waiting for the Robert E. Lee.” Th e blues were born in Mississippi.

TRANSPORTATION

In 1903, the Wright Brothers made their fi rst fl ight at Kitt y Hawk, North Carolina.

Did You Know?KDKA, the fi rst radio station in the

United States, began broadcasting in

Pittsburgh on November 2, 1920.

Using Photos and Illustrations

Students can go to www.nyc-

architecture.com/MID/MID021.htm

to see images of the Chrysler Building

and to www.nyc-architecture.com/

MID/MID073.htm to see images of

the Empire State Building. Ask stu-

dents if they have ever seen either

building in person. Have they seen it

on television or in the movies? Find

out which building they like better,

and why.

EngagementAssign pairs of students various

inventions of the early twentieth cen-

tury. Ask student pairs to research their

invention including the inventor, how

the invention operates, the time under

development, and the invention’s ben-

efi t to society. Have students present

their research fi nds to the class.

Notes

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T213T213

Signs of the Times 213

ENTERTAINMENT

Dance crazes of the 1920s included the Charleston, fox-trot, and tango.

Commercially licensed radio stations began broadcasting in the U.S. around 1920.

FOOD

In 1930, Clarence Birdseye patented a system that packed foods into waxed cartons,which were fl ash-frozen under high pressure,

starting the frozen food industry.

1932Franklin D. Roosevelt elected president

1931Cott on prices fell to 6.16 cents

1909NAACP founded

191317th Amendment ratifi ed, allowing

direct election of U.S. senators

1917U.S. entered World War I

1918End of World War I

1929Panic of 1929

191918th Amendment ratifi ed, beginning Prohibition era

192019th Amendment ratifi ed, giving women the right to vote

1928Th eodore G. Bilbo began 2nd term as governor

1927Great Flood on the Mississippi River

1924Henry L. Whitf ield began term as governor

1922Vardaman defeated for election to U.S. Senate

1918James K. Vardaman defeated for reelection to U.S. Senate

1917Statehood centennial

1916Th eodore G. Bilbo began 1st term as governor

1913James K. Vardaman began term in U.S. Senate

1900Andrew H. Longino began term as governor

1902President “Teddy” Roosevelt hunted bear in MississippiDirect primary law passed

19031st direct (“white”) primary election held

1904James K. Vardaman began term as governor

1908State child labor law passed

1912Earl L. Brewer began term as governor; Th eodore G. Bilbo as lieutenant governor

19321909 1920

Using PhotographsHave students examine the three

individual portraits at the top of the

timeline. Then have students skim the

chapter, without looking back at this

page, and see if they can identify these

three men. (Andrew H. Longino, James

K. Vardaman, and Theodore G. Bilbo)

What do these men have in common?

(They were all governors of Mississippi.)

Higher Level ThinkingHave students review the timeline

on this page. Ask students: Which

events/developments improved our

democratic form of government?

How?

DiscussionMississippi’s bicentennial is ap-

proaching in 2017. Ask students: If

you were assembling a time capsule

for posterity (to be opened in 2117),

what items would you select?

Notes

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T214T214

As you read, look for• the accomplishments of Andrew H. Longino,

Mississippi’s fi rst twentieth-century governor;• the growth of the capital city and the building of

the New Capitol;• the initiation of the direct primary and its

infl uence on the election of 1903;• terms: inaugural address, charter, New Capitol,

direct primary.

Th e turning of a century is an exciting event. In 1900,celebrations, ceremonies, and extravaganzas were held through-

out America to welcome the twentieth century. Th e new century

was hailed as an era of progress and change. But even the most

imaginative Mississippians in 1900 would be dazzled by the new

technology that has revolutionized the way we live. Th ey would be

dumbfounded by the social and racial changes that have come to

Mississippi. History takes time. While we are living through fun-

damental changes in our social and political environment, we are

not always aware of the breadth and depth of those changes. Th e

changes in Mississippi during the opening years of the twentieth

century were epic in their proportions.

A New Governor: Andrew H. LonginoTh e fi rst governor of the new century represented a major turn-

ing point in Mississippi history. Andrew H. Longino was the fi rst

Below: Th e economy of Mississippi took a leap forward under the gov-ernorship of Andrew Longino, who actively pursued new industry for the state. Bott om: In this panoramic view of Jackson in 1910, you can see both the New Capitol, on the far left , and the Old Capitol, just to the right of center. Jackson underwent dramatic growth during this period.


Section 1

The New Mississippi

Introduce

OutlineA. A New Governor:

Andrew H. Longino

B. New Politics: The Election

of 1903

MaterialsTextbook, pages 214-219

Teacher Tech DVD

Vocabulary Worksheet

Lesson Plan

Guided Reading, 8-1mystatehistory.com

Online Textbook

Teach

BellringerWrite the term progressive on the

overhead or Smart Board. Ask students

what it means to be progressive. Tell

them that, as the country became

more industrialized, a number of prob-

lems surfaced. Progressives believed

government was best able to address

those problems.

Did You Know?It was during Andrew H. Longino’s

term as governor that the magnolia

was designated the state fl ower.

Section 1 Competencies and Objectives

Economics5a. Identify and analyze the economic development over time of

major industries in Mississippi (including but not limited to

agricultural production, manufacturing, rise of machines,

boll weevil, development of natural resources, international

investments, the Great Migration, etc.).

T215T215

A graduate of Mississippi College in

Clinton, Andrew H. Longino was the fi rst

Mississippi governor to hold a degree from a

Mississippi institution of higher learning.

Section 1: Th e New Mississippi 215

governor elected after the Civil War who was not a Confederate veteran.

He was also the last governor nominated by the convention system. In this

respect, Longino represents the end of an era. He was the last governor to

be handpicked by the ruling elite that dominated the state Democratic Party.

Governor Longino anticipated the sweeping changes the twentieth cen-

tury would bring to Mississippi. In his inaugural address (the speech made

by a governor or a president at the beginning of his or her term), he warned

the people to brace themselves for those changes. He advised Mississippians

not to look back toward the past but ahead toward the future.

New Industry for MississippiGovernor Longino believed that Mississippi’s future economic prosperity

depended on industrial expansion. He encouraged the legislature to off er

tax exemptions to new industries locating in Mississippi. On the basis of the

number of charters issued during his administration, Governor Longino was

highly successful in attracting new industry to our state.

A charter is the document that creates a new corpora-

tion or a new city or educational institution. During his

four years in offi ce, 1,312 charters for new businesses

in Mississippi were issued. Governor Longino’s plans

to expand the state’s manufacturing base might have

solved the economic problems of Mississippi’s share-

croppers and day laborers had the proposals been

continued for a longer period of time. But the program

of industrial expansion was abandoned by Governor

Longino’s successor, James K. Vardaman.

A New CapitalTh e impact of Governor Longino’s industrial pro-

gram was especially evident in Jackson. In July 1902,

a local newspaper reported that over $2.1 million in

new construction was in progress in the capital city.

From his inauguration in 1900 to the end of World

War I in 1918, the population of Jackson more than

tripled. Jackson is uniquely a city of the twentieth cen-

tury. Before 1900, the state’s capital grew very slowly.

After the turn of the century, Jackson experienced

phenomenal growth.

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

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908070605040302010

111111

POPU

LATI

ON

(in

thou

sand

s)

Higher Level ThinkingShare this quotation from Governor

Longino’s inaugural address: “…the

most demoralizing, brutalizing, and

ruinous species of lawlessness known

to any free and brave people.” Ask

students: What is Governor Longino

referring to in this quotation? (Lynch-

ing. Approximately, one-fourth of his

inaugural address was dedicated to

this topic.)

Building 21st-Century Skills: Reading Bar Graphs

Instruct students to review the bar

graph on Jackson’s population growth

(Figure 21). Ask students: Which de-

cade saw the largest increase in Jack-

son’s population? (1950 to 1960)

EngagementInvite students to research the pop-

ulation of the city of Jackson from 1980

to the present by off ering them extra

credit.

Craft and Structure4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used

in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or

economic aspects of history/social studies.

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas7. Integrate quantitative or technical analysis (e.g., charts,

research data) with qualitative analysis in print or digital text.

T216T216

A New CapitolIn addition to encouraging industrial expansion, Governor Longino

recommended the construction of a new state capitol building. Th e old

capitol, which had been in use for over sixty years, was in need of extensive

repair. In 1888, an architect who examined the building predicted that the

capitol might collapse at any time. After this report, a bill was introduced in

the legislature authorizing the construction of a new capitol. But the bill was

vetoed by Governor Anselm J. McLaurin, who objected to both the size and

design of the new capitol building. Governor McLaurin said the new building

would be too small and was more suitable for a county courthouse than a

statehouse. No further action was taken until Governor Longino took offi ce.

In his inaugural address, which was given in the old dilapidated capitol,

Governor Longino recommended a new building that all Mississippians

could be proud of. Th e legislature reacted favorably to his suggestion. Fol-

lowing groundbreaking ceremonies on January 1, 1901, construction of

the capitol, which cost just over $1 million, proceeded with few delays or

diffi culties. Two years later, on June 3, 1903, the New Capitol (the name

that our statehouse is still called) was offi cially dedicated, and state offi cials

moved into their new quarters in September.

A New Electoral System Th e most sweeping change the new century brought to Mississippi was a

new system of nominating and electing public offi cials. During the Bourbon

era, candidates for state and county offi ces were nominated by state and local

Democratic conventions or executive committees. Because the Bourbons

controlled the Democratic Party, they handpicked the candidates for public

offi ce. Although redneck voters outnumbered the Bourbons, they could not

AA NN CC iit llAbove: Th is architectural rendering shows an early design for the New Capitol. Compare it to the photograph on the facing page. What are some of the changes made in the fi nal design? Opposite page, below: Mississippi’s new state capitol was designed by Th eodore Link. Th e construction cost of S1,095,681 was paid by the Illinois Central Railroad, which owed the state back taxes. In 1979, the New Capitol underwent a complete renovation at a cost of $19 million.


Did You Know?Theodore Link designed the new

state capitols of both Mississippi and

Arkansas.

Using Photos and Illustrations

After students have examined the

two images of the New Capitol on

pages 216 and 217, have them dis-

cuss what changes were made to the

original design.

Higher Level ThinkingAsk students: How did Mississippi’s

convention system undermine our

democratic form of government?

Notes

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T217T217

get their candidates elected because they could not get them nominated.

Bourbons defended the existing system as a defense of white supremacy,

because it kept blacks from being nominated for public offi ce.

By 1900, the demand for a new system of nominating candidates had wide

popular support among voters and among a large segment of the state press.

In a special message to the legislature in 1900, Governor Longino said that

white Mississippians were “impatient and displeased with the dubious and

devious methods of the party nominating machinery.” In response to the de-

mand of white citizens, the legislature passed a direct primary law on March

4, 1902, and Governor Longino signed the bill into law. A direct primaryis a nominating election in which all the party’s members—not just those

attending a nominating convention—vote for the candidates of their choice.

On June 22, 1903, the Mississippi Democratic Party Executive Committee

met in Jackson and passed a resolution stating that only white Democrats

would be entitled to vote in the party’s direct primary. Th e direct primary,

which soon became known as the white primary, or popular primary, elimi-

nated blacks from politics because the Democratic Party was the only viable(capable of succeeding) party in the state. Th is new method of nominating

candidates transformed Mississippi politics. No longer could a few men

handpick the candidates for public offi ce, because voters nominated the

candidates in a popular election. Candidates for offi ce made their appeals

directly to the people rather than to a few party leaders.


Th e dome of the New Capitol reaches a height

of 180 feet above the ground. Atop the

dome is an eagle made of copper covered

with gold leaf. It spreads 15 feet from

wingtip to wingtip and stands 8 feet high.

DiscussionAsk students: In spite of the direct

primary, how were black Mississippi-

ans eff ectively still disfranchised?

Using the InternetInvite students to examine images

of Mississippi’s state capitol dome,

cupola, and eagle as found at this web-

site: www.statecapitols.tigerleaf.

com/wt-eagles.htm.

EngagementIn the classroom, have students

measure a width of 15 feet and a

height of 8 feet to get an idea of the

true size of the New Capitol dome’s

golden eagle.

Notes

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T218T218

As you have already learned, in a one-party system, elections are not usu-

ally decided on the important issues, but on the personality and style of the

candidates. Th e primary system produced a new breed of fl amboyant (showy,

colorful) politicians who used gimmicks and oratory to gain the approval of

voters. James K. Vardaman often traveled around the state on a wagon drawn

by several teams of oxen. Th eodore G. Bilbo and several other candidates used

their red neckties to emphasize their identifi cation with rednecks.

Th e winners of the August Democratic primaries were assured of victory

because they did not have any opposition in the November general election.

It was not until the revival of the Republican Party in the 1960s that Demo-

cratic candidates had any real competition.

New Politics: Th e Election of 1903Th e fi rst direct primary election was held in August 1903. Th at campaign

set the tone and style of Mississippi politics for many years. Th e three major

candidates for governor were Frank A. Critz, James K. Vardaman, and Ed-

mond F. Noel. Although blacks were prohibited by Democratic Party rules

from participating in the primary, and they could not infl uence the outcome

of the election, race was still the dominant issue in that campaign. Vardaman

advocated the repeal of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, and

accused blacks of being lazy, dishonest, and mentally unfi t for citizenship.

He played on the fears and negative instincts of white Mississippians and

excited the people on the issue of race. Vardaman promised to keep blacks

“in their place” if he were elected governor. He also promised to close black

schools. Why deny the rights of citizenship to blacks, Vardaman asked, and

then educate them to fulfi ll the responsibilities of citizenship? Vardaman

said that if black schools were discontinued there would be more money

for white schools throughout the state.

Vardaman’s racial rhetoric was matched by his attacks on big business,

banks, and railroads. Th e wealthy class, he warned, ran the world for their

own selfi sh desires and possessed no conscience or pity for the poor. During

the 1903 campaign, Vardaman called for regulation of big business and the

abandonment of Mississippi’s industrial expansion program. He predicted

that government might have to take over the railroads and other businesses if

something was not done to curb the power

of big corporations. Vardaman claimed

that Governor Longino was controlled by

a clique of businessmen and politicians in

the state capital that he called the “Jackson

Ring.” Because he was poor and had risen

from a humble background, Vardaman

said he was the only true representative

of the people. Th is campaign style proved

highly successful for Vardaman and other

politicians for many years. Vardaman led

the ticket in the first primary and then

defeated Frank A. Critz in the runoff .

Reviewing the Section

1. Defi ne in sentence form: inaugural address, New Capitol, direct primary.2. What were two “fi rsts” associated with the

election of Governor Andrew H. Longino?3. Why did James K. Vardaman say that he was the only true representative of the

people in the election of 1903?

Top: James K. Vardaman defeated Frank A. Critz and Edmund F. Noel to win the governorship in 1903. Above: Noel was elected governor in 1907.


Using Reading Skills:Analysis

Instruct students to read this page

of the textbook. Then ask students to

identify the various groups that James

K. Vardaman attacked in his 1903

gubernatorial campaign. How did he

characterize each group? What word

would you select to characterize the

Vardaman campaign?

Higher Level ThinkingAsk students: In what ways did

James K. Vardaman’s attacks appeal

to his base of supporters?

AssessAnswers to “Reviewing the Section”1. An inaugural address is the

speech made by a governor or a

president at the beginning of his

or her term. The New Capitol is

the name that our statehouse–

which was dedicated in 1903–is

still called. A direct primary is

a nominating election in which

all the party’s members–not just

those attending a nominating

convention–vote for the candi-

dates of their choice.

2. Andrew H. Longino was the

fi rst Mississippi governor of the

twentieth century, and he was the

fi rst Mississippi governor elected

after the Civil War who was not a

Confederate veteran. He was also

the fi rst Mississippi governor to

hold a degree from a Mississippi

institution of higher learning.

3. Because he was poor and had

risen from a humble background,

James K. Vardaman claimed to be

the only true representative of the

people.

Notes

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T219T219

In 1902, President Th eodore “Teddy” Roosevelt came to Mississippi to assist in the set-tlement of a boundary dispute between Louisiana and Mis-sissippi. While he was in the state, he went bear hunting in the Yazoo River swamps. He was accompanied on the hunt by a few local residents and a guide named Holt Collier. Th is black hunter and famous guide claimed to have served in the Confederate army as a fi ghting soldier and not merely as an orderly or cook as some other blacks had done.

Aft er a couple of days, the Roosevelt hunting party had not seen any bears and “Teddy” was gett ing ready to return to Washington. Shortly before the president left the hunt, a bear cub was spott ed, and the other hunters off ered “Teddy” the fi rst shot. However, the president refused to shoot the cub. One of the reporters who was traveling with the president wrote a story about “Teddy’s” refusal to shoot the cub. Soon a cartoon showing Roosevelt walking away from the cub appeared in newspapers throughout the country. Aft er seeing the cartoon in a New York newspaper, a Brooklyn toy manufacturer designed a bear cub that he called a “Teddy bear” and began selling the stuff ed animal. Th e teddy bear has remained one of the most popular toys in America for more than a hundred years.


Above: President Roosevelt’s famous bear hunt in Mississippi is the subject of one of the murals by Robert Daff ord that decorate the waterfront at Vicksburg. In this detail, Roosevelt is mounted on horseback on the left ; the guide, Holt Collier, is fourth from the right. Roosevelt’s unwilling-ness to shoot a bear tied to a tree became a national news story and led to the creation of the teddy bear.

Using the InternetInvite students to read about the re-

markable life of Holt Collier as found at

this website: http://library.fws.gov/

refuges/HoltCollier-TheMan.pdf.

EngagementAsk students if they have ever had

a teddy bear. If so, how many have

they had, and how did they resemble

or diff er from one another? Why has

the popularity of teddy bears endured

over the years while other dolls and

toys have come and gone? Have them

draw a picture of their favorite teddy

bear or draw a design of a teddy bear

they would like to see in a store window.

Notes

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T220T220

As you read, look for• the positive and negative impacts of Governor

James K. Vardaman’s administration;• James K. Vardaman’s U.S. Senate campaigns;• how Vardaman’s opposition to President

Woodrow Wilson’s World War I policies led to his political downfall;

• the movement for women’s suff rage and the resulting Nineteenth Amendment;

• terms: white cappers, lynching, Piney Woods School, centennial, armistice, women’s suff rage.

James K. Vardaman was the quintessential (best example, most representative) redneck politician. For his vivid racial rhetoric,

he was known fondly among his supporters as “Th e White Chief.”

Shortly before the Civil War, Vardaman’s family moved from Mississippi

to Texas, where he was born on July 26, 1861. His family returned to Missis-

sippi and settled in Yalobusha County in 1868. After studying law with his

cousin, Hernando De Soto Money, Vardaman was admitted to the practice

of law in 1882. For a short time, he edited the Winona Advance. He later

moved to Greenwood and published the Greenwood Enterprise.

After moving to Greenwood, Vardaman became the champion of white

small farmers. In 1895 and 1899, he sought the Democratic Party’s nomina-

tion for governor, but on both occasions he was rejected by party leaders.

After these two defeats, Vardaman was convinced that the only way he or

any other poor whites could get the nomination was through a direct

primary system. In the fi rst statewide popular primary, the poor

farmers and workers rallied to Vardaman’s campaign and elected

him to the state’s highest offi ce. In 1911, Vardaman was elected

to the U.S. Senate, but he was defeated for reelection in 1918,

and again in 1922. After his second defeat, Vardaman

moved to Alabama.

Above: James K.

Vardaman was known for

his racist rhetoric and fl amboyant appearance,

but as governor, he was more progressive.


Section 2

James K. Vardaman, “The White Chief”

IntroduceOutlineA. Administration of James K.

Vardaman, 1904-1908

B. The Senatorial Election of 1907

C. The Senatorial Campaign

of 1911

D. World War I

E. Vardaman Defeated

F. Women’s Suff rage


Teacher Tech DVD

True-False Worksheet

Lesson Plan


Online Textbook

TeachBellringer

Ask students: How do your peers

call attention to themselves?

Using Reading Skills:Vocabulary Enhancement

Write the term fl amboyant on the


what it means to be fl amboyant and

then provide a definition for them.

(showy; tending to make a striking dis-

play) Then have students examine the

photograph on this page. Ask: In what

ways is James K. Vardaman’s appear-

ance fl amboyant? What message is he

trying to send with his attire?

Section 2 Competencies and Objectives

Civil Rights/Human Rights4a. Compare and contrast de facto segregation and de jure

segregation in Mississippi from 1890 to the present, including

the rise of Jim Crow era events and actors (i.e., Ross Barnett,

James Eastland, the integration of University of Mississippi,

Sovereignty Commission, etc.), and their impact on Mississippi’s

history and contemporary society.

4c. Compare and contrast the development and resulting impact of

civil rights movements (e.g., women’s suff rage, African American

T221T221

Administration of James K. Vardaman, 1904-1908

James K. Vardaman, who took the oath of offi ce on January 19, 1904, was

the fi rst governor inaugurated in the New Capitol. In his inaugural address,

Vardaman outlined the aims of his administration and promised reform and

progress, at least for white Mississippians.

Improved Conditions for BlacksBlacks did not suff er as much as might have been expected in view of

Vardaman’s racial theories. In two important situations, conditions for black

people improved under “Th e White Chief.”

First, Vardaman led the fi ght to end the convict lease system, which was

still practiced in various forms even though it had been abolished under

the Constitution of 1890. During his administration, several penal farms

owned and operated by the state were maintained. Th e largest of these was

Parchman Farm in Sunfl ower County, which eventually became the state

penitentiary. Under the supervision of state offi cials, prisoners received

better treatment than under private control. Because most of the convicts

who had suff ered abuses under the old system had been black prisoners,

Vardaman’s reforms worked more to the advantage of blacks than whites.

Th e second important way Vardaman helped blacks was in his fi ght

against “white capping.” In southwest Mississippi, black landowners aroused

the anger of white farmers who were in competition with them for the sale of

farm products. In an eff ort to reduce that competition, white farmers tried

to drive black landowners off their land. Th ese white farmers were known

as white cappers, because they wore white hoods similar to the old Ku Klux

James K. Vardaman is described as being a

huge man with shoulder-length hair.

His limp right arm had been mangled years

before in a corn sheller. While campaigning,

he oft en wore a white linen suit and a black

broad-brim hat.

Section 2: James K. Vardaman, “Th e White Chief” 221

Below: Parchman Farm, offi cially named the Mississippi State Peniten-tiary, was founded in 1901 aft er the convict lease system was abolished. Located in the Delta, the wooded property was completely cleared for agriculture by the inmates.

Using Geography Skills:Political Geography

Project a map of Mississippi onto a

screen or Smart Board. Ask students to

locate Yalobusha County and the city

of Greenwood.

Teacher NoteDown on Parchman Farm: The Great

Prison in the Mississippi Delta, by Wil-

liam Banks Taylor, is a detailed and

readable history of this penal farm.

Using the InternetInvite students to explore the Mis-

sissippi archival collection of photo-

graphs on Parchman Farm as found

at this website: http://mdah.state.

ms.us/arrec/digital_archives/parch

man/.

liberation, Native American citizenship and suff rage,

immigration rights, etc.) in Mississippi.

Key Ideas and Details2. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or

secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key

events or ideas develop over the course of the text.

T222T222

Klan. Under the orders of Governor Vardaman, state law enforcement of-

fi cials infi ltrated their organization. Th e evidence these agents accumulated

was turned over to local police, and Vardaman demanded that the guilty

persons be arrested and brought to trial. Th e governor warned local offi cials

that, if they did not stop the terrorists from attacking the black farmers, he

would order the attorney general to press charges against the white cappers.

Vardaman’s eff orts were successful; by the end of his administration, the

white cappers had ceased to exist.

Vardaman’s racial actions were diff erent from his rhetoric. During the

1903 campaign, Vardaman had said that, as a private citizen, he would help

lynch a black man accused or strongly suspected of raping a white woman.

But as governor he said he would do everything within his power

to prevent a lynching (murder by a mob, usually by hanging). On

two occasions, Governor Vardaman sent the National Guard, once

leading them personally, to rescue a black man from a lynch mob.

Laurence C. Jones and the Piney Woods SchoolIn 1908, Laurence C. Jones (1884-1975) graduated from the

University of Iowa. He was off ered a teaching position at Tuskegee

Institute, an historically black college in Alabama that is now Tuske-

gee University. Instead of accepting that prestigious appointment,

Laurence Jones came to Mississippi and established the Piney Woods School in rural Rankin County. He founded the school

with $2, on forty acres that were given to him by a former slave. Th e

fi rst schoolhouse was an abandoned shed that he and his students

repaired and painted. With thousands of alumni, the Piney Woods

School is now an acclaimed educational institution spread out on

two thousand choice acres with lakes, woods, and modern school

buildings. Th e Piney Woods School is the fl agship of the nation’s

four remaining historically African American boarding schools.

Improvements for Poor WhitesMost of Vardaman’s administration was devoted to improving the

economic conditions of poor white farmers and workers. One of the most

important reforms Vardaman supported was a child labor law. In the early

1900s, small children—some as young as eight years old—often worked ten

or twelve hours a day in factories and mills or on farms. Governor Vardaman

called for an immediate halt to this practice. Although he did not secure the

passage of a law prohibiting child labor during his term, a child labor law

was achieved by Vardaman’s successor in 1908. Among the major reforms

passed during Vardaman’s administration were a school textbook com-

mission, separate rural school districts, and a 30 percent teacher pay raise.

Other ReformsIn addition to the reforms he actually accomplished, Vardaman intro-

duced many others that were enacted by his successors. In his farewell

address to the legislature, he recommended legislative reapportionment

Above: Laurence C. Jones founded the Piney Woods School in 1909 to give black students in rural Mississippi the chance of a good education. Itscurriculum, like that of Tuskegee Institute, combined strong academics with practical training in skills that could lead to employment.


Teacher NoteYou might indicate to students that

James K. Vardaman’s racist rhetoric—

used to win the governorship—clearly

contributed to a belief by white cap-

pers that their lawless acts would go

unpunished.

Did You Know?White capper terror activities were

centered in the Mississippi counties

of Amite, Franklin, and Lincoln. White

cappers attempted to intimidate black

farmers with threatening notices, beat-

ings, shooting into homes, and, on

occasion, murder.

Using the InternetHave students read a short biogra-

phy on Dr. Laurence C. Jones as found

at this website: www.pineywoods.

org/about-us/history-piney-woods-

school. Ask students: What event

aided Dr. Jones’s establishment of

an endowment for the Piney Woods

School? (his appearance on the TV

show This Is Your Life, which resulted

in donations amounting to more than

$700,000)

Notes

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T223T223

Th e 1908 child labor law made it illegal to

hire children under the age of twelve to work in factories. Six years later,

the age limit for girls was changed to four-teen, but the age for

boys was kept at twelve.

and an elected judiciary. He also called for state depositories to reduce the

power of banks, regulation of interest rates and railroad companies, a state

charity hospital, a home for elderly women, an institution for the mentally

ill, and a teachers’ college.

During Vardaman’s four years in offi ce, there were no accusations of

corruption or graft made against him personally or his major appointees. A

northern journalist touring the South shortly after Vardaman’s term expired

wrote that, except for his negative attitudes on race, Governor Vardaman’s

administration was one of the best in the state’s history.

Th e Senatorial Election of 1907In 1907, “Th e White Chief,” while he was still governor, ran for the U.S.

Senate seat held by his cousin, Hernando De Soto Money, who had an-

nounced that he would not seek reelection for the term that would begin

in 1911. Vardaman lost that primary election to John Sharp Williams, who

had represented Mississippi in the U.S. Congress for several years. After his

term as governor expired in 1908, Vardaman remained in the state capital

and edited the Jackson Issue.

Th e Senatorial Campaign of 1911James K. Vardaman and LeRoy Percy were the favorite candidates for the

senatorial primary election in August 1911. Th e winner of the primary would

fi ll the United States Senate term beginning in 1913. Th eodore G. Bilbo, a

rising young star in Mississippi politics, endorsed Vardaman in this election.

As we learned in earlier chapters, politics is one of Mississippi’s favorite

pastimes. Although the primary for the senate seat was set for August 1911,

Above: Th e famous photographer Lewis Hine was a crusader against the use of child labor. He traveled around the country documenting the poor and oft en dangerous conditions children worked in. Th is photo was taken at the Priscilla Knitt ing Mills in Meridian in 1911, three years aft er Mississippi’s child labor law was passed.


Using the InternetShare the political cartoon on the

senatorial election of 1907 with your

students as found at this website:

http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.

ms.us/images/640.jpg. Ask students

to interpret the cartoon’s meaning.

DiscussionAsk students: Why did Mississippi

textile mills hire child laborers? Ex-

plain that the answer, in part, was that

child labor was cheaper. In 1896, for

example, child textile workers earned

an average of 31 cents per day—less

than half of the 67 cents daily wage

paid to men.

Notes

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T224T224

stump speeches and political rallies began in the spring of 1910. Vardaman, a

folksy and fl amboyant stump orator, waged an unrelenting personal attack on

Percy, the soft-spoken aristocrat and Delta planter. Class antagonism—bitter-

ness between the rich and the poor—was evident in this ugly campaign. It was

in this contest that the term “redneck” took on a political meaning. During a

speech at Godbold Wells on July 4, 1910, Percy was frequently interrupted

and heckled by Vardaman supporters. Finally, an exasperated Percy shouted

them down and called them a bunch of “cattle” and “rednecks.” Vardaman

followers quickly picked up the term and used it in their campaign speeches

and literature. Vardaman was proud to be identifi ed with white farmers and

laborers who toiled in the fi elds doing an honest day’s work.

Th e 1911 election had the largest voter turnout of any primary election up

to that time. Vardaman defeated Percy by a vote of 79,000 to 21,000. Th eodore

G. Bilbo was elected lieutenant governor, and Vardaman supporters won a

majority in the state legislature. For the next several years, Vardaman’s ma-chine (a highly organized political group) controlled Mississippi politics. His

machine was destined, however, for an early breakdown, and Vardaman was

soon replaced by Bilbo as the state’s most powerful and colorful politician.

World War IIn 1917, Mississippi was preparing to celebrate its centennial (100-year

anniversary) of statehood, but America’s entry into World War I caused the

cancellation of that celebration. Although several military installations were

established in Mississippi, and approximately 56,700 Mississippians served

in the armed forces, World War I had only a temporary impact on the state’s

economy. Most of the new jobs available to Mississippians during the war

were discontinued after the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.

(An armistice is an agreement to stop fi ghting while coming to terms for

a peace treaty.) Perhaps the most direct impact the war had on Mississippi

politics was the defeat of Senator Vardaman.

Most Mississippians supported America’s participation in the war that

President Woodrow Wilson called the “war to end all wars.” One of Missis-

sippi’s U.S. senators, John Sharp Williams, voted for American involvement in

the war and strongly supported President Wilson. Mississippi’s other senator

did not. James K. Vardaman was one of six U.S. senators to vote against the

declaration of war on April 6, 1917.

Vardaman DefeatedSenator Vardaman, who was up for reelection in 1918, was defeated pri-

marily because he had opposed President Wilson’s wartime policies. After

fi rst criticizing Wilson’s domestic program, which he said off ered too little for

the common man, Vardaman became one of the most outspoken opponents

of Wilson’s military policy before and after World War I. Vardaman not only

voted against the declaration of war, he also voted against the draft. Th e Mis-

sissippi press, which almost unanimously supported America’s entry into

the war, often referred to Vardaman as “Herr von Vardaman,” and accused

him of being worthy of the German Kaiser’s Iron Cross military decoration.

Th e Seventeenth Amendment to the U.S.

Constitution, ratifi ed in 1913, called for the direct election of U.S. senators by a state’s

voters. Before that time, senators were chosen by

a state’s legislature.

Above: Soldiers of the 1st MississippiInfantry, formed in 1916, take a break from their training to pose for a photograph. Opposite page, above: Senator James K. Vardaman is shown in Washington, DC, accompanied by Mississippi congressman Byron “Pat” Harrison (left ) and General Clarence Edwards (right). Harrison would take Vardaman’s seat in 1918 and serve for 22 years. Opposite page, below: Belle Kearny was the fi rst woman elected to the Mississippi State Senate.


Did You Know?In addition to James K. Vardaman

(Democrat), five other U.S. senators

also voted against America’s entry

into World War I: Asle J. Gronna (Re-

publican from North Dakota), Robert

M. La Follette (Republican from Wis-

consin), Harry Lane (Democrat from

Oregon), George W. Norris (Republican

from Nebraska), and William J. Stone

(Democrat from Missouri).

Using the InternetHave students read a biography of

James K. Vardaman as found at this web-

site: www.pbs.org/wgbh/american

experience/features/biography/

flood-vardaman/. Ask students to

note fi ve facts they learned from read-

ing this article.

Notes

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T225T225

During Vardaman’s reelection

campaign in 1918, President Wilson

addressed a letter to the senator’s

opponents expressing his desire to

see Vardaman defeated. President

Wilson’s letter was published in

many Mississippi newspapers and

helped Congressman Byron Pat-

ton Harrison defeat Vardaman by

almost 13,000 votes. After he was

defeated again in 1922, Vardaman

moved to Alabama, where he lived

until his death on June 25, 1930.

Th e town of Vardaman in Calhoun

County is named in honor of James

K. Vardaman.

Women’s Suff rageAlthough America was one of

the world’s great democracies, the U.S. Constitution did not allow women

to vote or hold public offi ce until 1920. Strong public support for women’s suff rage (women’s right to vote) began with the 1848 Seneca Falls, New

York, Convention. Th ree Mississippi women—Ida B. Wells, Belle Kearney,

and Nellie Nugent—were active in the women’s suff rage movement. One

of the most important and enduring changes in American history came in

1920 with the ratifi cation of the Nineteenth Amendment extending the fran-chise (right to vote) to women. With their newly won right to vote, women

refreshed American democracy and brought an earnestness to politics and

public policy that the nation had not known before.

Mrs. Th eodore G. Bilbo, who actively campaigned for her husband in

his early races, may have been the fi rst woman in Mississippi to participate

in the political process. In the fi rst state election after the passage of the

Nineteenth Amendment, Belle Kearney of Flora was elected to the Missis-

sippi Senate, and Nellie Nugent of Greenville was elected to the Mississippi

House of Representatives.


1. Defi ne in sentence form: lynching, centennial, women’s suff rage.2. Why was a child labor law such a needed reform

in the early 1900s? 3. Why was James K. Vardaman defeated in his U.S.

Senate reelection campaign of 1918?

Mississippi was the last state to ratify the

Nineteenth Amendment. It did not do so until 1948.


Using the InternetHave students read an article about

the women’s suff rage movement in

Mississippi as found at this website:

http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/articles

/245/mississippi-women-and-the-

woman-suff rage-amendment.

EngagementPair students and have them create

posters in support of or opposition to

the Nineteenth Amendment simulat-

ing the historical debate of the time.

Assess

Answers to “Reviewing the Section”1. Lynching is murder by a mob,

usually by hanging. A centennial

is a 100-year anniversary.

Women’s suff rage is women’s

right to vote.

2. In the early 1900s, small chil-

dren—some as young as eight

years old—often worked ten or

twelve hours a day in factories

and mills or on farms.

3. He was defeated primarily

because he had opposed

President Woodrow Wilson’s

wartime policies.

Notes

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T226T226

As you read, look for• the colorful political campaigns of Th eodore G.

Bilbo;• the positive and negative impacts of Bilbo’s

terms as lieutenant governor and governor;• the progressive leadership of Governor Henry L.

Whitf ield; • the eff ect of the Great Migration on Mississippi’s

population;• Bilbo’s years in the U.S. Senate;• terms: bribe, protégé, property assessment,

dipping, Great Migration.

Although he was only fi ve feet and two inches tall,Governor Th eodore G. Bilbo is a towering fi gure in Mis-

sissippi history. From 1907 to 1947, Bilbo, who was often

referred to as “Th e Man” by friends and foes alike, was one

of Mississippi’s most illustrious and controversial politi-

cians. His long career was punctuated by scandals and

bribery, by victories and defeats. Probably no other Mis-

sissippi public fi gure could elicit such unqualifi ed loyalty

on the one hand and such bitter opposition on the other.

Early LifeTh e youngest of several children, Bilbo was born at

Juniper Grove in Pearl River County on October 13,

1877. His father was a small farmer who later became

the president of a small town bank at Poplarville. Bilbo

entered high school at fi fteen and graduated four years

later in 1896. Although he was “authorized” by the Baptist

denomination to preach, as he often did, he decided not

to become an ordained minister. After attending George

Peabody College in Nashville, Tennessee, he taught school

in south Mississippi.

Below: Th eodore G. Bilbo, from Juniper Grove in Pearl River County, started his career as a schoolteacher. He went on to become one of the most colorful and infl uential politicians inMississippi history, serving as a state senator, lieutenant governor, two-term governor, and three-term U.S. senator. Always controversial, he was charged with bribery early in his career, and was under investigation by the U.S. Senate when he died in 1947.


Section 3

“The Man” Bilbo

Introduce

OutlineA. Early Life

B. State Senator Bilbo

C. Lieutenant Governor Bilbo

D. Bilbo and Bribery Charges

E. Governor Bilbo’s First

Administration, 1916-1920

F. Administration of Henry L.

Whitfi eld, 1924-1927

G. The Great Migration

H. Governor Bilbo’s Second

Administration, 1928-1932

I. Bilbo’s Senatorial Career


Teacher Tech DVD

Lesson Plan


Online Textbook

TeachBellringer

Ask students: What does the moni-

ker (nickname) “The Man” suggest

about Theodore G. Bilbo? Section 3 Competencies and Objectives

Civil Rights/Human Rights4a. See page 220

Economics5a. Identify and analyze the economic development over time of

major industries in Mississippi (including but not limited to

agricultural production, manufacturing, rise of machines, boll

weevil, development of natural resources, international

investments, the Great Migration, etc.).

T227T227

His fi rst political campaign was in 1903, when he ran for cir-

cuit clerk of Pearl River County against a one-armed Confederate

veteran. When he was told that he lost the election by fi fty-six

votes, he replied, “You know, I could see that empty sleeve myself

when I went into the booth to vote.” He then added, “I started to

vote for him myself.” After this defeat, Bilbo taught for two years

at a boarding school in Wiggins.

State Senator BilboIn 1907, Bilbo returned to Poplarville to run for the Mis-

sissippi Senate. After winning that election, Bilbo took the bar

examination and was admitted to the practice of law. When

he entered the Senate chamber for the fi rst time, Bilbo told a

friend, “Th is is my world, and [I am] going to conquer it.” Bilbo

was very ambitious; within two years, his name would become

a household word throughout Mississippi.

During a special session of the Mississippi Senate to fi ll a

vacancy in the U.S. Senate caused by the death of Anselm J.

McLaurin, Bilbo became as famous as the two men seeking

the senate seat. Bilbo accused the supporters of LeRoy Percy of

paying him a $645 bribe to vote for Percy, who, in the end, won

the election and served from 1910-1913. A bribe is money or a

favor given or promised in order to infl uence a person in a position of trust.

Instead of bringing charges against Percy and his supporters for off ering the

bribe, the Senate formally charged Bilbo with accepting a bribe. A resolution

to expel Bilbo fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for his

expulsion. However, a resolution asking him to resign because he was “un-

fi t to sit with honest, upright men” passed by a vote of twenty-fi ve to one.

Claiming that he had been framed, Bilbo refused to resign and vowed to

take his case directly to the people and let them decide his political future.

Lieutenant Governor BilboAfter the Mississippi Senate reprimanded him, Bilbo entered the race for

lieutenant governor in 1911. Running as a martyred victim of the aristocracy

that had tried to bribe him, Bilbo campaigned with his characteristic fury.

Th e 1911 campaign was one of the most exciting contests in Mississippi’s

stormy political history. Class antagonism was the keynote of the campaign.

“Th e fi ght between the classes and the masses is on,” Bilbo announced.

Th roughout the campaign, Bilbo not only wore a red necktie, he also wore

red suspenders. When asked why he wore both, Bilbo replied, “Th e red

suspenders keep up my pants, and the red necktie keeps up my courage.”

On some occasions, the political struggle actually became a physical

struggle. When an opponent made some derogatory remarks about Bilbo,

“Th e Man” leaped up on the platform and physically assaulted the speaker.

Th is incident was only one of several situations in which Bilbo was involved in

a physical as well as a political confrontation. In a speech in east Mississippi,

Bilbo referred to Washington D. Gibbs of Yazoo City as “Old Wash Gibbs, a

Above: In 1910, LeRoy Percy, a wealthy planter from Greenville, ran against James K. Vardaman to fi ll the U.S. Senate seat of Anselm McLaurin. Percy won, but following the election, Th eodore Bilbo claimed that Percy supporters had bribed him. Bilbo was charged with accepting a bribe.

Section 3: “Th e Man” Bilbo 227

Using Reading Skills: Vocabulary Enhancement

Write the term demagogue on the


what it means to be a demagogue, and

then provide a defi nition for them. (a

person who appeals to the emotions

and prejudices of people to arouse dis-

content and advance his or her own

political purposes) Ask students to read

this page of the textbook and fi nd an

example of this type of appeal.

Using Reading Skills:Interpreting Quotations

Ask students: What did Theodore

Bilbo mean when he said, “The fi ght

between the classes and the masses

is on.” Who was Bilbo appealing to by

making this statement?

Using the InternetAsk students to read an article about

LeRoy Percy as found at this web-

site: www.pbs.org/wgbh/american

experience/features/biography/

fl ood-leroy/. Ask students: How did

his views and actions regarding issues

of race contrast with those of James K.

Vardaman and Theodore Bilbo?

Key Ideas and Details2. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or

secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key

events or ideas develop over the course of the text.

Craft and Structure4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used

in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or

economic aspects of history/social studies.

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas9. Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several

primary and secondary sources.

T228T228

As lieutenant governor,Bilbo became the

presiding offi cer of the Mississippi Senate,

which a year earlier had declared him unfi t

to sit among honest and upright men.

renegade Confederate soldier.” When Bilbo later spoke in Yazoo City, Gibbs

walked up to Bilbo and, without warning, hit “Th e Man” in the head with a

walking stick. Known among his friends as the “War Horse of Yazoo,” Gibbs

hit Bilbo so hard that he broke the walking stick. Bilbo fell semiconscious

to the gutter. After lying there for a few minutes, “Bilbo deguttered himself

and made a quick pass at Gibbs, missing the ‘war horse’ completely.” Gibbs

off ered to continue the fi ght, but Bilbo declined, stating he had a speaking

engagement in Belzoni. When the election fi nally took place, Bilbo won by

23,000 votes.

Bilbo and Bribery ChargesTo investigate corruption among state offi cials, Mattie Plunkett, the

state librarian, also acted as an undercover agent. Miss Plunkett hid a re-

cording machine in the law library in the state capitol building. Bilbo and

his law partner, G. A. Hobbs, were among the

offi cials whose conversations were recorded

by the unsuspected lady detective. On the

evidence recorded by Miss Plunkett, they

were indicted and tried for accepting a $2,000

bribe from a Delta businessman who wanted

their help in establishing a new county in the

Delta. Although both Bilbo and Hobbs were

eventually acquitted, this episode led Bilbo to

again seek vindication from the people. He

announced that he would run for governor

in 1915.

Governor Bilbo’s First Administration, 1916-1920

Political factionalism and bitterness reached

an all-time high during the 1915 campaign.

Fred Sullens, the editor of the Jackson Daily News, said that, if Bilbo were elected gover-

nor, the eagle on the dome of the state capitol

should be taken down and replaced by a buz-

zard. In spite of this opposition from one of the

state’s best known and most powerful editors,

Bilbo defeated four other candidates in the

fi rst primary. Lee Russell, a Bilbo protégé (a

person being trained by a more experienced person), was elected lieutenant

governor and succeeded Bilbo to the governorship in 1920.

Governor Bilbo inherited a $1 million defi cit. To pay off the state debt,

Bilbo recommended an equalization of property assessments. A property assessment is an offi cial valuation of property for tax purposes. When he

took offi ce, real estate was assessed at only 25 or 30 percent of its actual

value. Bilbo recommended that all property be assessed at its actual value.

Above: Midway through his fi rst term as governor, Bilbo ran for the U.S. House of Representatives. He lost to Paul Johnson Sr., who gave speeches accompanied by the sound of cowbells to remind voters that Bilbo had signed an unpopular livestock dipping law.


Did You Know?Theodore Bilbo had a disdain for

soft drinks and all things cola-related,

so he introduced a bill in the Missis-

sippi state legislature that read as

follows: “…forbid the manufacture,

sale, barter, or giving away of coca

cola, afri cola, ala cola, caffi cola, carre

cola, celery cola, chan cola, chera cola,

coca beta, Pilsbury colke, cola coke,

cream cola, dope, four cola, hayo cola,

Heck’s cola, Kaye cola, koca nola, loke,

kola ade, kola kola, kola phos, doloko,

dos dola, lime kola, mellow nip, nerve

ola, revive ola, rocola, tye ola, standard

cola, toko tona, tokola, vim-o, french

wine of coca wise ola.”

Using Reading Skills:Organizing Information

While reading about the career of

Theodore Bilbo, ask students to make

a list of the physical altercations and

ethical issues that checkered his career.

Notes

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T229T229

Bilbo’s signature on the 1916 livestock dipping law was one of the key factors in his defeat in

the 1918 congressional race. Mississippi farmers considered it a danger-

ous nuisance to drive their animals to public

vats every two weeks and immerse them in arsenic.

He wanted the wealthy property owners to pay higher taxes and the poor to

pay lower taxes. Th is new tax plan was enacted by the legislature and allowed

the state to balance its budget for the fi rst time in many years.

Educational reforms would naturally be of interest to an ex-teacher.

Governor Bilbo considered the governor to be head of the public school

system in the same way that he was head of the state militia. He took several

educators on a tour of northern schools to fi nd new methods that could be

used to modernize Mississippi’s school system.

Additional reforms accomplished during Bilbo’s fi rst term included a

board of pardons, a state highway department, an expanded public health

program, and a livestock dipping law. Dipping is immersing animals in a

solution to eradicate disease by killing bacteria or parasites.

In 1918, the young and ambitious Bilbo ran for the U.S. House of Rep-

resentatives but lost to Paul B. Johnson Sr. However, his defeat was not as

crucial as Vardaman’s loss in the U.S. Senate race. Vardaman not only lost

that election, he also lost his position as the leader of Mississippi rednecks.

Th eodore G. Bilbo was the champion of the rednecks after 1918.

Administration of Henry L. Whitf ield, 1924-1927

In 1923, women in Mississippi voted in a

gubernatorial (pertaining to the governor) cam-

paign for the fi rst time. Th eir vote undoubtedly

gave Henry L. Whitfi eld, the former president of

Mississippi State College for Women, his narrow

margin of victory over Th eodore Bilbo. After

taking offi ce, Governor Whitfi eld embraced a

broad agenda that included better mental health

care, expansion of vocational training, attracting

industry to Mississippi, and improvement in the

quality of life for Mississippi blacks. Whitfi eld’s

moderate position on race received a generally

favorable response and even praise from some of

the state’s leading newspapers. Th e Committee

of One Hundred, an organization of prominent

Mississippi black men, also praised Governor

Whitfi eld for his racial concern.

After taking offi ce, Governor Whitfi eld es-

tablished a state-sponsored program to attract

industry to Mississippi. New industry, Whitfi eld

said, was the only means of providing employ-

ment to farmers who were no longer able to

make a living from their exhausted and eroded

small farms. Th ough his success was modest, a later administration would

revive and expand upon Whitfi eld’s initial eff orts to balance agriculture with

industry. Governor Whitfi eld’s progressive leadership was unfortunately

shortened by his death in 1927.

Above: Henry L. Whitf ield defeated Bilbo in 1923 with help from women, who were voting in a Mississippi governor’s race for the fi rst time.


Did You Know?In addition to serving as the presi-

dent of Mississippi State College for

Women, Henry L. Whitfield taught

school for several years, and he was a

school principal for nine years.

Developing Writing Skills The “Know Mississippi Better Train”

was inaugurated during Governor

Whitfield’s administration. As the

name suggests, the train made an an-

nual trip, lasting ten to fourteen days,

promoting interest in Mississippi. The

train carried promotional literature,

exhibits, and souvenirs. Also, every

mayor and governor on the route

was presented with a fi ne Mississippi-

grown watermelon. The “Know Missis-

sippi Better Train” also transported 150

to 200 prominent Mississippians who

were ready, willing, and able to speak

well of the resources and opportuni-

ties available in the state. Each Missis-

sippi county selected two citizens to

make the trip.

Ask students to write a letter apply-

ing to be selected as one of the two

county representatives on the train.

Student letters should include their

qualifi cations for this honor and the

positive comments they would make

about Mississippi.

Using ArtHave students make a poster ad-

vertising the upcoming arrival of the

“Know Mississippi Better Train” in your

town. They should include the date of

its arrival, information about the train,

and pictures that entice the viewer to

come on board.

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T230T230

Th e Great MigrationIn the 1920s, farm tenancy and

rural poverty were on the rise, and

racial violence showed a correspond-

ing increase. Th e old Ku Klux Klan

was revived, and public lynchings

became a national disgrace. Th e ra-

cial brutality and mob violence that

Governor Whitfield condemned

in his inaugural address were so

widespread in Mississippi that a

group of lawyers published a book

titled Mississippi and the Mob. Th e

purpose of the book was to persuade

all Mississippians that mob violence

must be stopped. Lawyers, educa-

tors, doctors, politicians, and even

schoolchildren were called upon to

do what they could to discourage

lynching. Law enforcement authori-

ties were especially urged to arrest

individuals who participated in mob

violence. Th e Klan was also accosted

and condemned by the Mississippi

Council of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching.

After World War I, Mississippi’s black population began a long period

of decline that historians call the Great Migration. In the early years of the

Great Migration, an estimated 150,000 African Americans left Mississippi

between 1910 and 1920. From 1920 to 1940, another 150,000 migrated to

northern states. Th e Chicago Defender, a popular black newspaper in that

city, lured many black Mississippians to Chicago, calling it the “promised

land.” Th e second wave of the Great Migration occurred from 1940 to 1970.

During and immediately after World War II, from 1940 to 1950, more than

300,000 black Mississippians migrated to northern cities in search of jobs

and a better life. Some historians have estimated that as many as 5 million

blacks may have left the fi elds and farms of the Deep South during the Great

Migration. In the 1960s, with the passage of the civil rights legislation, the

outmigration began to decline. By the early 1970s, the Great Migration

from Mississippi had ended, and the state’s black population increased from

815,770 in 1970 to 1,098,385 in 2010.

White offi cials and businessmen, especially Delta planters, discouraged

the migration because it created a labor shortage. Th ey often took drastic

measures to keep blacks in the state, in the fi elds, and in virtual bondage.

In Greenville, policemen would board the outbound trains and physically

force blacks off the train and back to the fi elds. In Hattiesburg and Jackson,

authorities arrested blacks who tried to buy train tickets. In some cities, rail-

road offi cials would sidetrack the cars with black passengers and make them

Map Skill: Which states contain the fi ve cities where most blacks moved?


Answer to Map 39 SkillMissouri, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana,

and Ohio

DiscussionAsk students: How many of you

have lived in the same home your

entire life? The same town? County?

State? Why do people move or relo-

cate?

Diverse Learners Place your class in heterogeneous

groups of three or four students. Ask

each group to list the advantages and

disadvantages of leaving Mississippi

in the Great Migration to the North.

Next, have students read about the

journey northward as found at this

website: www.inmotionaame.org/

migrations/topic.cfm?migration=8

&topic=4&tab=image. Finally, have

each group decide whether or not

they will migrate, while providing the

most important consideration for their

decision. Ask student groups to share

their decision with the class.

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T231T231

get off the train. Such unlawful tactics only made blacks more determined

to leave the state and seek freedom in the North.

In some rare cases, black leaders used the threat of migration to improve

their working conditions. When a local school offi cial told LeRoy Percy, the

Delta planter, that blacks were more likely to remain in the Delta if racial

violence and intimidation were eliminated, Percy persuaded other whites to

support his eff ort to drive the Klan out of Greenville and the Delta.

Black organizations like the Committee of One Hundred—which included

black ministers, businessmen, and educators—convinced friendly whites to

improve the lives of black Mississippians as a means of keeping more blacks

from joining the Great Migration. Under the leadership of Jonas Edward

Johnson, the Committee of One Hundred persuaded the all-white College

Board to expand the Alcorn A&M curriculum so blacks would not have to

go out of state for a collegiate education.

In spite of all that black leaders and a few

friendly whites could do, the social and economic

conditions of black Mississippians did not im-

prove, and the Great Migration continued and

even increased after World War II. With the

passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the

Voting Rights Act of 1965, Mississippi began to

change. Th e Great Migration slowed and even-

tually came to an end. Many of the blacks who

moved north began to come back home, and by

the early 1970s the Great Migration had ended.

Since then, Mississippi’s population has steadily

increased to 2,967,297 in 2010.

One of Mississippi’s best known and most

highly regarded African Americans who joined

the Great Migration was Richard Wright, perhaps

America’s foremost black writer. Isabel Wilker-

son, in her recent book, Th e Warmth of Other Suns: Th e Epic Story of America’s Great Migration

(2010), quotes Richard Wright, who said that he

left the South to feel “the warmth of other suns.”

Governor Bilbo’s Second Administration, 1928-1932

In 1927, Bilbo made his third race for governor.

Bilbo’s campaign, and those of all other politi-

cians, were hampered by the devastation caused by the Great Flood of 1927.

Bilbo and most politicians promised, if elected, to improve the levee system

and prevent similar catastrophes in the future. His platform also called for

the establishment of a state-owned printing press to supply free textbooks

for public schools and a comprehensive highway program at a projected

cost of $82 million. He called for the merger of Mississippi A&M and Th e

University of Mississippi into one university to be located at Jackson. Bilbo

Above: Th eodore Bilbo’s second term was less successful than his fi rst, as a number of the reforms he proposed,including free textbooks and consoli-dation of the state’s university system, failed to pass. Th is portrait of Bilbo hangs in the Mississippi state capitol.


DiscussionHow did black organizations use

the exodus to improve conditions for

black Mississippians?

Looking AheadStudents will learn much more

about Richard Wright in Chapter 15:

Mississippi’s Literary Tradition.

Using Reading Skills:Organizing Information

Instruct students to read about

Governor Bilbo’s second term as gov-

ernor. Then, ask students to list Bilbo’s

proposals that failed to win support in

the state legislature.

Notes

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T232T232

Above: Governor Bilbo, third from the left , welcomes a group of visitors to his offi ce in the New Capitol. Th e Great Depression had taken hold by the end of his second term, ruining the state’s economy.

was elected by a majority of 16,500 votes. His free textbook proposal was

not enacted, and his highway program was eventually abandoned during

the Great Depression of the 1930s. Th e most controversial aspect of Bilbo’s

second administration was the crisis involving the state institutions of higher

learning. Th ere was such strong opposition to his plans to consolidate some

colleges and move Th e University of Mississippi to Jackson that Bilbo even-

tually abandoned them.

Governor Bilbo’s second administration commenced just as the Great

Depression was beginning. It ended as the nation’s economy reached the

deepest decline in American history, and Bilbo was unable to prevent the

state’s fi nancial ruin. When Bilbo left offi ce in 1932, he was disheartened,

and many believed that his political career was at an end. Th e economic

depression was at its depth in Mississippi. Th e Mississippi press recorded

Bilbo’s political demise, and Fred Sullens printed this epitaph:

Beneath this stone old Th eo lies;Nobody laughs and nobody cries;Where he’s gone or how he fares;Nobody knows, and nobody cares.

Bilbo’s Senatorial CareerLike the sea that gives life and is unruly, Mississippi politics can also be

unpredictable. In 1934, Bilbo ran for the U.S. Senate and was elected. He

was reelected in 1940 and again in 1946. Most of his energy in the Senate

AbAbAbAAAAAbAbAbAbAbAbbAbAbAbovovovoovovovoovovove:e:e:e:ee:e:e:e: GoGGGGGoGoGGoGoGoveevevevevernrnrnrnrnrnorororororor BBBBBBBililililililililbbbbobobobobo,, , ththhththtththiririrddd ffrfromomomom tttthhhheehehe left welcomes a group of visitors to

wawawawassss s lelelelelececececttetetetteddddddd bbbbbybybyby aaaa mmmmm jjjajajajajororororitttttttitttitittttityyyyyyyyyyy fffffffffoffofofofofofoffofoff 111111111111111116666666666666,6,6,6,6,6,50505050505000505050505050505050500000000000000000 vovovovovovvvovovvottetetetess.s.ss. HHHHHHiisisisis ffffffffffffffffffrererrerererereereeeeeeeeeeee tttttttetetetetetetetetete tttttxttxtxtxtxtxtxtxtxtxtxtbbbbbbbobbobobobobobobobobobo kkkkkkkkkkokokkokokokkokokkok pppppppppprororororororororooropopoopopoppopopopoposasasasaasasaasallllllllllllllll wawawawawawawawasssssssss

t t d d hi highh t llll bb dd dd dd i


Using Reading Skills:Interpreting Quotations

Ask students: What does Fred Sul-

lens ’s epitaph suggest about Missis-

sippian attitudes toward Theodore

Bilbo at that time? Why do they think

his political fortunes changed for the

better?

Did You Know?In 1946, Theodore Biblo won reelec-

tion to a third term in the U.S. Senate

by winning 76 of 82 counties in the

Democratic primary.

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T233T233

was expended in opposing civil rights

bills, antilynching laws, and the Fair

Employment Practices Commission.

In 1947, the U.S. Senate took steps to

deny Bilbo his seat on the grounds that

large numbers of Mississippi blacks had

been denied the right to vote in the 1946

senatorial election.

Th ere were other charges also pend-

ing against Bilbo. During World War II,

Bilbo had made some expensive repairs

and improvements on his twenty-three-

room mansion at Poplarville. Much of

the work had been done by government

contractors who were building Keesler

Field at nearby Biloxi. Several Missis-

sippi newspapers reported that the work

was done without charge and in viola-

tion of federal laws prohibiting public

offi cials from doing personal business

with wartime contractors. The U.S.

Senate was already investigating these

charges when the question of Bilbo’s

right to take offi ce became an issue in

1947. Senator Bilbo became ill, however,

and the Senate postponed any action

until he could return to Washington to

defend himself against those charges.

Bilbo did not recover; he died in New

Orleans on August 21, 1947.

Th e bells that tolled the death of Bilbo also sounded for the rednecks.

He was the last of his kind, the end of an era. Th e redneck faction of the

Democratic Party had already lost control to a new breed of Mississippi

politicians. A new period of confl ict and change had begun. We will study

that era in the following chapter.


1. Defi ne in sentence form: bribe, protégé, Great Migration.2. What resulted from Matt ie Plunkett ’s secret

recordings in the Mississippi law library?3. Why did the U.S. Senate take steps to deny

Th eodore G. Bilbo his Senate seat in 1947?

Above: Bilbo found new political life by winning a seat in the U.S. Senate in1934. He used this national forum to give voice to his views on white suprem-acy, which were extreme, even by the standards of the day. He proposed deporting all blacks to Africa to ease unemployment, and made public his membership in the Ku Klux Klan. He also carried on a feud with Mississippi’s other senator, Pat Harrison, who refused to even speak to him.


Did You Know?Theodore Bilbo revealed his old Ku

Klux Klan membership on the radio

program, Meet the Press.

Did You Know?Theodore Bilbo died of throat can-

cer in 1947 before beginning his third

term in the U.S. Senate.

AssessAnswers to “Reviewing the Section”1. A bribe is money or a favor given

or promised in order to infl uence

a person in a position of trust. A

protégé is a person being trained

by a more experienced person.

The Great Migration was a

period, beginning in the 1920s,

when thousands of black Missis-

sippians migrated from Mississippi

to northern states in search of jobs

and a better life.

2. Lieutenant Governor Bilbo and

his law partner, G. A. Hobbs, were

indicted and tried for accepting a

$2,000 bribe from a Delta busi-

nessman who wanted their help

in establishing a new county in

the Delta. Both were eventually

acquitted of the crime.

3. They did it on the grounds that

large numbers of Mississippi blacks

had been denied the right to vote

in the 1946 senatorial election.

Notes

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T234T234

Chapter Summary

Section 1 Th e New Mississippi• Andrew H. Longino, the last governor picked by

rulers of the state Democratic Party, att racted new industry.

• Between 1900 and 1918, Jackson grew rapidly; in 1903, the New Capitol was dedicated.

• Th e 1902 direct primary law allowed party members to vote directly for candidates.

• Democrats turned the direct primary into a white or popular primary.

• By promising to keep blacks “in their place” and att acking big business, banks, and railroads, James K. Vardaman won the governorship in 1903.

Section 2 James K. Vardaman, “Th e White Chief”

• Despite his rhetoric, Vardaman actually helped blacks by ending the convict lease system and fi ghting against “white capping.”

• In 1908, Laurence C. Jones established the Piney Woods School.

• In 1911, Vardaman defeated LeRoy Percy in a U.S. Senate race. During this race, the term “redneck” took on political meaning.

• Because he opposed America’s involvement in World War I, Vardaman lost the 1918 U.S. Senate election. He was defeated again in 1922.

• In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment gave voting rights to women.

Section 3 “Th e Man” Bilbo• In 1907, Th eodore G. Bilbo was elected to the

state Senate.• During a special state Senate session, Bilbo was

accused of accepting a bribe and was almost expelled from the state Senate.

• In his successful 1911 run for lieutenant gover-nor, Bilbo wore a red necktie and suspenders.

• Bilbo was accused of bribery again, but he and his law partner were later acquitt ed.

• Bilbo won the governorship in 1915; he balanced the state budget by equalizing property assessments.

• Bilbo’s accomplishments included educational reforms and establishment of a board of pardons, highway department, expanded public health program, and livestock dipping law.

• Bilbo was defeated in a 1918 congressional race and lost to Henry L. Whitf ield in the 1923 governor’s race.

• Governor Whitf ield promoted bett er mental health care, expansion of vocational training, att racting industry, and improvements for blacks.

• In the 1920s, racial violence increased with the revival of the Ku Klux Klan and public lynchings.

• Aft er World War I, Mississippi’s black population declined with the Great Migration. Th ere was another wave of migration from 1940 to 1970.

• In 1927, Bilbo won the governorship shortly aft er the Great Flood and just as the Great Depression was beginning. He couldn’t prevent the state’s fi nancial ruin, and many thought his political career was over.

• Bilbo was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1934, 1940, and 1946. He opposed civil rights bills, antilynching laws, and fair employment practices.

• In 1946, the Senate tried to deny Bilbo his seat because many blacks had been denied the right to vote. Th ere was also a scandal involving improvements to his mansion. He died before he could defend himself against these charges.


Chapter Review

Reviewing the ContentPlace students in groups of three

students and assign each section of

the chapter to two groups. Ask the stu-

dent groups to take the review state-

ments and turn them into questions.

WorksheetsChapter 8 Vocabulary Worksheet

can be used as a review for this chapter.

Activities for Learning

Understanding the Facts1. Tax exemptions were off ered to

new industries.

2. by state and local Democratic con-

ventions or executive committees;

direct primary

3. blacks, the wealthy, big business,

banks, and the railroads

4. Laurence C. Jones; to give black

students the chance of a good

education

5. The reforms included a law pro-

hibiting child labor, a school text-

book commission, separate rural

school districts, and a 30 percent

teacher pay raise.

6. Nellie Nugent; Belle Kearney

7. state senator, lieutenant governor,

governor, and U.S. senator

8. Henry L. Whitfi eld

9. Blacks were arrested for buying

train tickets, and black passengers

were forced off trains.

Developing Critical Thinking1. Vardaman used vile racist rheto-

ric promising to keep blacks “in

their place,” but he ended the

convict lease system, which af-

Notes

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T235T235

Chapter Review 235

Activities for Learning

Understanding the Facts1. How did Governor Longino and the legislature

att ract new industry to the state?

2. Prior to 1902, how did the Democratic Party select candidates for public offi ce? What new method was adopted?

3. What groups and entities did James K. Vardaman att ack during his 1903 campaign?

4. Who founded the Piney Woods School? What was its purpose?

5. What reforms proposed by Governor Vardaman were intended to improve the condition of poor white farmers and workers?

6. Who was the fi rst woman elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives? Th e Mississippi Senate?

7. List the offi ces Th eodore G. Bilbo held during his political career.

8. Who pursued a progressive agenda during his term as governor?

9. What methods were used to discourage migration from Mississippi?

Developing Critical Th inking1. How did James K. Vardaman’s racist talk

contrast with his term as governor?

2. Why would Fred Sullens of the Jackson Daily News say that if Th eodore G. Bilbo were elected governor, the eagle on the top of the state capi-tol dome should be replaced with a buzzard?

Writing across the Curriculum1. Write a report or prepare a presentation on the

extraordinary life of Holt Collier—the Civil War veteran, cowboy, and bear hunter mentioned in this chapter.

2. Bukka White, a Mississippi blues musician, served a three-year prison sentence at Parch-man Farm. A verse from Parchman Farm Blues, one of White’s most famous songs, is below:

You go to work in the mornin’, just the dawn of day, just the dawn of day.

Go to work in the mornin’, just at the dawn of day.And at the sett in’ of the sun that is when your

work is done.Now, listen you men: I don’t mean no harm, I don’t

mean no harm.Now, listen. You men. I don’t mean no harm.If you wanna do good you better stay off old

Parchman’s Farm.

Review page 221 and write your own lyrics about Parchman Farm.

Exploring Mississippi on the InternetGo to www.digitaldocsinabox.org/images/

LewisHine/duncanfamily.html. Examine and write a caption for this photograph

of a family involved with child labor.

Building 21st-Century Skills: Recognizing Push and Pull Factors

When a large number of people move from one region to another, historians oft en look for push and pull factors that contributed to this migration. Push factors are conditions that led people to leave a certain area (e.g., war or disease). Pull factors are conditions that att racted people to a certain area (e.g., fertile land or freedom).

Review the Great Migration in this chapter and in other sources. Identify the push and pull factors that led to this movement.

fected blacks disproportionately;

stopped white capper attacks on

black farmers; and took steps to

prevent lynchings.

2. A buzzard symbolizes those

things that are ignoble (immoral,

dishonorable). Sullens associated

Bilbo with a buzzard because of

Bilbo’s involvement in two bribery

scandals.

Writing across the Curriculum1. Check students’ reports or presen-

tations.

2. Check students’ lyrics.

Exploring Mississippi on the Internet

Answers will vary.

Building 21st-Century Skills:Recognizing Push and Pull Factors

Push factors include increases in

farm tenancy, rural poverty, and racial

violence.

Pull factors include jobs and a bet-

ter life.

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