colonial policy with reference to the philippines

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Colonial Policy with Reference to the Philippines

Author(s): Bernard MosesReviewed work(s):Source: Proceedings of the American Political Science Association, Vol. 1, First AnnualMeeting (1904), pp. 88-116Published by: American Political Science Association

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88

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE

Which

n

turn

ive

an

impetus

o

many

ther

orms,f

business

activity.

In this

way war

miay e an immediate,enefit

o

nationswhich voidbeingdrawndirectlynto' ostilities.But

such gains

are temporary,

nd in the long

runthe, estructive

*consumption

hich

s,

he conomicmeaning

f war must

njure

the

ndustrial

abric f all

Christendom.On thegroutnd,

hen,

of

material

welfare,

s

well

as,of

humanity, ar

should

be dis-

couraged,

nd

every tep which

makes t

less,

asy

to'

wage

is

to thatextent n added

deterrent.

f

the

Hague,

Conference,

meetingn the full ight f thecommonnterestslf ll nations,

any

one of whichat any

time

may

be eitherbelligerent

ir

neutral, an

see its way to'

ani nternationalagreement

hich

shallput

the

ban

oif

municipal aw

o'nthe sale to' belligerents

of the more dangerous

orms 'f contraband,, long aldvance

wiill

e taken

owards

he

preservation

lf hepeaceo'f heworld.

COLONIAL

POLICY

WITH REFERENCE

TO

THE

PHILIPPINES.

BERNARD

MOSES.

The'character

f

Spain's

pollicy

ith

reference

o,

he

Philip-

pinesas

well

as. with

reference

o,

her

other

oloinies

as

to a

verygreatextent eterminedyher ong crusade gainstthe

Moors. This

strugglewvas

art oif

he

war olf

he

Christians

against

he

Mohammedans.

The

other

lart

if t

was

carried

on

by

the

other

uropelan

ations

n

Palestine. In

the

East

the

Crusades

ame

to

an

end

by reasoln

f

the

waninig

nterest f

France,

taly,

nd

Germany.

These

natioins

iight

ease

from

the

conflict

henever

heywere

wearyof it

without

oss

o,f

territoryr diminutiolnlfnationalhonor. But thewelsterni

winig

of the

Mohammedan

orce,

as

within

he

borders

f

Spain.

Therefolre,

lthough

he

sitruggle

as

ended in

the

East,

Spain was

obligeld oi

carry

t

on

single-hand,ed

n

the

West. Foir

two,

hundred

years

after

the

last

half-hearted

crusaders

f

France

had

retired,

pain,

ointiniued

he war

with

unabateld

eal,

not

merely

o

defend

Western

Europe

from

the

Mohammedanonqueror,ut opreserve erhonor, o, e-








AMERICAN

POLITICAL

SCIENCE

ASSOCIATION.

89

fend

her

territolry,

o

maintain

elr

eligio1n,,

nd

to

perpetu-

ate

hernational

xistence.

Thus Spainwaskept n thewaragainst heMoors. Seven

centuries

f

conflict ith non-Christian

eople

fixed he

es-

sential

features

f

her

character,

nd made

heir evoted

o

the

forms

nd

doctrines

f the

church.

They

made

her

ntolerant;

fQr

ifferencef belief

had for

centuries

een

the

real

ground

of

her hostility

o the

Moors.

The

Spanish

character,

ike

the

character

f every

ther

nation,

s the result

f

forcels,

ot

underthe controllf thenationalwill. The Spaniardshave

not consciously

nd willfully

made

themselves,

onservative

and

intoilerant.

he

nation

ha,s acquired

its character

s

other

nationshave

acquired

theirs,

y

the

force

of

their

n-

heritance

nd

environment.

The year

which

clolsed

he

Moorish

wars,was

the

year

of

the

discovery

f

America.

The experience

f

the

nation

had

given t the pirit fa crusader, ut with heoverthrowlf he

unbelievers

n

the

Peninsula,

he Spaniards

needed

new

fielld

in

which

o exercise

heir

pirit.

This was

furnished

y the

then uncivilized

nhabitants

if

America nd

the

Philippines:;

and

thus

t

happeined

hat

Spanish

colonization

artook

f

the

character

f a crusade.

No

instructions,

o,

he royal

agents

in the New

World

or

in

the

Philippines

ere

oftener

epeated

than hosewhich njtoinedhese gents,o keep speciallyromi-

nent ll

those

measures

hat

would

contribute

o the

conver-

sion of

the Indians,

nud o

their

growth

n

a

knoiwledge

f

Christianity.

In

keeping

with

this

general

purpose,

evere

restrictions

were mposed

pofn

igration

o the

colonies,

n order

hat

un-

worthy

ersions

ight

not have

an

opportunity

o'exert n

evil

influencen thenative nhabitants.All pers,ons ewlycon-

verted

ro-m

udaism

ir

Mohammedanism

o

the Catholic

aith

were

fo-ibidden

o

emigrate.

The

same

prohibition

pplied

to

the

children

nd

grandchildren

f

persons

whot

ad

been

underthe ban

of

the nquisition,

nd

also

to,

he

descendants

of

persons

who

had

been burned

t the

stake

or

condemned

for

heresy.

By

this

means

t was

designed

o

keep

the

ndians

freefrom he nfluencefhereticsnd providefor

their

on-








90

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE

version o the

orthodox aith. And

to

make this

prohibition

effective

eavy

penalitieswere

imposed

upon

persons who

should in any way contributeo the violationof thesere-

strictions.

Now

that Spain

has,

allen rom he

relatively ighposition

which he on'ce

ccupied

nd her

colonies

have eitheir

ecome

independenttates,or

been

rought nder

he uthority

f other

nations,

t is

almost

nevitablehat

her

achievemnents

hould

be

underestimated;

or

failure

n

politics

nd

war

leads

the

worldgenerallyo think ightly f all the olther roiductsf

a

natioln's

ctivity. The

politicaland

nilitary decline of

Spain

are

likely

o

give

ris.e

o new and

lower estimates f

Spain's

achievements

n

behalf f

civilization,

nd

it

is

quite

possiblef

hatthese

estimates

will

be

erroneous;

hat

Spa-in

n

herweakness

will not receive

ust

credit orher

great

chieve-

ments

n

the

days

of

her

power.

It ha.s n fact, lreadybecomefashionable o speak ightly

olf

pain's

work

n

exploring

nd

colonizingAmerica nd the

islandsof the

Pacific.

But this

flippant

udgm'ents'

not the

final word

respecting

pain's

colonial policy.

But

we can

hardly

xpect that he

American

will

render

just revisio'n 'f

this

udgment;

orhe is the

historical

ntagonist 'f he

Span-

iard, and

he

ha;s

always founndt

difficulto,

appre'ciate

he

achievemientsf the Spaniards; partlybecause o'fpolitical

rivalry, nd

partly

because o'f

the wide

divergence

of their

aims and the

nlikeness'ofheir

ational

o'ints,f

view. Th'e

Spaniard

s

conservative,

hile

he American

s.

radical. The

Spaniard

s

polite',

nd

attaches

reat

mpoirtance

o'

forms f

speech

nd

ceremoniesn

social

intercourse. he

American

s

unconventional

n

spelech,

nd

regards he

ceremonious

olite-

nessolf heSpaniardas themanifestationlf certain uman

weakness.

The

Spaniard

s

skillful

n

formulating

ules

and

methods.

The

Americans

prompt

n

action. The

Spaniard's

power

a nd

facility

n

formulatingaws is,

manifest n

his

colonial

legislation,

which.

s

moire

colmipletely

nified n'd

systemnatized

h-an

hat

of any

othernation.

The

Counciloof

the

Indies that

made the

laws for

theSplanish

olonies

pro-

vided

a

comprehensiveodewhichwas appliedto everypart








AMERICAN

POLITICAL

SCIENCE

ASSOCIATION.

9I

of

Spain's

vast

possessions

beyond

the sea. The

Supreme

Court

that

was

established

n the

Philippine

slands,had the

same form f organization s that stablishednBuenosAyres

-or

Guatamala.

They

were

all

createdunder

common

aw.

And themunicipal overnment

hatwas

set

up

in

Chile

was

formed nder

he same

law

that determinedhe organization

of

the municipal overnments

n

Mexico, nd the

Philippines.

The wholerealmof Spain's

colonialdominionwas

subject o

a

singlebody

of

laws

which ecured

for

all

parts

similar

n-

stitutionsnd the sam e racticalmethods. It maybe that he

Spaniiards rought

ess

practical

wis-domn

o their olonial d-

ministrationhanthe

English; but

as

general

tatementsheir

laws were more

complete

han the

English

aws.

The moist triking ifference

etween

he

colonial policies

of

Spain

and

England

relateto

the control xercised

y

the

two nations

over

their

respective

olonists nd

the

colonial

trade. All the po'rts f England were open. o, migrationo

the coloniesor tradewith

them,

nd the English authorities

paid

little )r

no, ttention o, he

character

r

standing

f the

personwho proposed o, migrate.

Spain, on the otherhand,

during he greaterpart o'f

her

colonial period allowed ships

for her

colonies

to' depart

fromonly one port, at first he

port

of

Seville,

ater

the port

o'f

Cadiz; and th,emost rigor-

ous scrutinywas,exercisedrespectinghe emigrants. The

British olonist

havingreached

America,was freeto' visit or

reside anywhere

n

any of the colonies; while the Spanish

colonistwias required o'

announce

is

destination efore ail-

ing, and was rejquired,

oreover, o rema,infterhis arrival

within the

district,

r

jurisdictioln,ndicated. Between the

two

policies

here

was the contrast f the argest ibertyn the

case ofEnglanfdnd the mostrigo,rous,estrictionnd minute

supervision n the part of Spain.

In

elstimiatilnghe results f Spain's influencen the Philip-

pine

Islands,

we

have to, ake

into accountnot only the per-

sistently enevollentntentions

f the King, but also the un-

controlled

malevolence'f

ubo'rdinatefficersnd irresponsible

p'rivate ersons. The King

mighit esign the we'll-beingf

the

islanders,but

if

his agents,

had other designs,he was








92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

powerless o carry ut his intentions; or t mustbe remem-

bered

that

duringthe greaterplart lfthe Spanish colonial

period, he crown, ad only he most nfrequent,nd oftenn-

direct, ommunication,iththe Philippines. Until the early

partof thenineteenthenturyhe

Philippine

silandswere

tin-

der the viceroy f Mexico; and the coninectionetween hese

two parts.

f

the

vice-kingdom as maintained y

a

line of

ships betweenAcapulco and Manila and the schedule f sail-

ings was one ship a year ea,chway; i,nfact,the trip froim

Acapulco o Manila and returnastedusually hirteenr four-

teen months. There was no competition,or no, oither art

of Span,ishAmerica

migtht

end vessels to, or receivegoods

from, he Philippine slands.

Under

thiscondition f affairs he local officers,nd private

merchants

might

buse the

coinfidencef

the

King

with

m-

punity;

nd

thatthey ften. id this s, vident

rom

uch ap-

peals to the King as that made by Domingo'de Sala,zar, he

firstbishop of th'e Phillippines. Having learned

of

abuses by

the Spaniards, hebishopwas movedby thehardships,

hat

be-

fell

the people, anid in,formed he King,

in

o'rder

that

these

abuses might

e

removed.

The

p'eople,

e

offirmed',ught

to

be feasted nd favoired,

n oirder hat

theymight

become

t-

tached to o'ur fai'th nd

understand he

m'ercy

f Go'd

in

bringinghem o a knowledgelft. In

I

583 when hebishop

wroste

here

were

learly

wo'

pinions especting

hemanner n

w'hich

he

Filipino's

hould be

treated, ust

as, there

appear

to be

two

opinions,

ow.

Th'e

fact

that such

petitions

nd

protestsweremade and presented o'the King showsthat h,e

protesting arty represented; state

of

public conscience ot

thenusual

among

the

natilons'dealing

ith he

in'feirior

aces.

Thereis no' doubt t'hatmanym'enfoundth'eir ayto the

Spanish

colonies

whose

purpose

was

rather o

spoil

than

to

coinverthe

heathen.

There

s;

no'

doubt,moreover,

hat

many

men have made their

way

to' the

Philippines.

ince

they

ame

under

American

uthority

ho

have more

nterestn

miaking

great im'mediate ains thian,n proltectingthe lives

of

the

Filipinos

r

in

rendering

hem ecure

n

thepossession

'f heir

property

nd their

ppo'rtunities.

ut it is

not

safe in either








AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.

93

case

to

affirmi

hat he

personswho would spoil the weak

rep-

resent he real designs olf he nationto whlich

hey

belong.

Whether pain's coiloinialxpeditions nd settlements ere t-

tended by more or less unprincipledmen

than

the similar

undertakingsifothernations s a subject that

at

this point

need not be minutelynvestigated. A moreprofitablenquiry

concerns

he

specific nfluences

xerted

by the Spaniards

for

the prromotion

f

civilizatiolnmong the Filipinos;

and

prob-

ably no influences roceeding rom he Spatiards were more

importantr morefar-reachingn their ivilizing ffect n the

Filipinos han those whichresulted n making hem Chris-

tian people. It miay e difficuilto

determinefo

what extent

their

onversion

modifiedheirfundamentalace

ideas,

or

to

findout how

far

their houghts

bout

Christianity

oincide

with

he

thoughts

f

Western

Christians

n the

same

subject.

But whatevermayibe the

truthabout

this,

matter,

he

Filipinols,nderSpanish nflurenice,ecamie ormally hristians,

and the Church,

n

the

course -of

he centuries

t

has

dominated

th-em,as impressed pon, heiriminds large

number

f

prac-

tical deas. Through he nfluence

f these

deas the

Filipinos

have,to a certain xtent, een turned way from he oriental

point

of

view

and fmtadeo

see

things

s

Spaniards

ee them.

They

have been

broughtwithrespect

o

manyparticulars

o

occupy heSpaniard's o'int lf iew. As theSpaniard, hrough

long contactwith the Moors and the infusioln if certain

amount of Jewish nd Moo'rish lood,

has,

become omething

of

an 'oriental; o the Filipino, hrolughong

contact

with

he

Spaniards

nd

the

nfusion

f a certain mountof

European

blood,

has

becolmeiomething

lf

European.

On

their

rrival

n

the

Philippines

he

Spaniards

found he

people still undera tribal organizationhatapparently on-

tributed

ery

ittle o the

reservation

f

o'rder

nd

pleace;

for,

in

the anguage f a contempoirary

ccolunt rom he last half

of the

sixteenth

entury,

these

people

declare war

among

themiselves

t

the slightest

rovocation,

ir

with

none

what-

ever. All

those who,

have not made a

treaty

f

peace with

them or formied

ith

themthe

b1lood

ompact, re

consid-

ered als enemies. Privateeringnd robbery ave a natural








94

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE

attraction

or them.

Whenever

he

occasion

presents

tself,

they

rob one

another,

ven

f

they

be neighbors

r

relatives."

(P. I., V. III-, p. 55)-

Under the

nfluencef

the Spaniards

n the sixteenth

en-

tury

sudden

hangewas

made

n the

social

condition

lf

he

islands.

TIhe

Filipinos

were

led to acknowledge

superior

political

uthority,

ribal allegiance

disappeared,

nd

in the

towns,

s

they radually

rew

up,

there

was

formed

nucleus

o;f

moreor

less cultivated

ociety hat

n

the

course

of

time

acquired

a

certain European

character.

The

schools

that

wereestablishedmade a few olf he young Filipinosfamiliar

with subjects

ordinarily resented

n

a

European

curriculum.

When

n the ourse

'f

years

young

mien

esiredmoire

dvanced

instruction,

hey

natura.lly

ent

to

Spain, and

a.t the end

of

their

tudies

eturnedo

the slands horough-going

uropeans.

They

returnedmoreover,

with

an ambition

o

make

the

in-

stitutions

f theirnative

country

moire

ike those

of Europe.

Theybecame awyers nd officersn thecivil service nd in

both

apacities

heywere

nstrumental

n spreading

mong

the

people

knowledge

f

European

aw,on

which

hepublica.d-

ministration as founded,

nd which

had been

adopted

o

fix

the

relations.

f

private

persons

tot

one

another.

The

civil

law

havingbeen

made

the

basis of

the

legal

system

f the

islands,

ll persons

n

seeking

o acquire

knowledge

f this

systemrerenecessarilyed to'conssiderhesocialconditionsn

Europe

in

which

his

aw

aroise. The law and

the adminis-

trative

ystem

onsti'tutedhus

the road

by

which

the culti-

vated

minds

among

the

people

were

drawn

back

to,the

an-

cient

ourcefromwhich

Europlean

ations

have derived

much

of

ttheir

ulture nd legal wisdom.

The

importance

'f

bring-

ing

an

oriental eople

under European

aw

cannotbe

easily

overestimated. t is a purelypracticalprocess, nd in the

case

of

the

Filipino's

t

was

an essential

tep

in

the develop-

ment

olf civilized ociety.

The Uniteld

tates

in

entering

up'on

ts

task

in

the

Philippiine

slands enjoyed

he very

great

advantage

of Spain's

preliminary

ork

to

this

end.

The

ancient raditio'ns

nd

institutionsf barbarism

ad

been

set

aside;

the

popular

mind

had conceived

he dea

oif rder

under

law; and the senseof politicalunity ad been developed.








AMERICAN

POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.

95

An

important tep,

oftenan-

exceedingly

ifficult

tep,

n

preparing oir

he rise, lf rude peiople o a

higher

tage

of

cultivations the destructionf ancient oicial orms nd pre-

judices.

Withoutthis

preliminary

orkthe

recoinstructive

process s impossible.

If

you would

rebuild

city

nd

make

it more

beautiful, ou must

first

lear away

the ruins

and

uglybuildings

hat

umber

he

ground.

If

you

would

rebuild

society

nd

give

it

better

nstitutions

ou

must

first lear

the

ground of

such organizations

nd ideas

as

are

incompatible

with he executiolnlf henewdesign. In caseold institutions

have become igidby

long

continuancend

are

maintained

y

an

uncompromising

onservatism,

he

changes required

to

introduce

new and

better

oicial

xistence ecome difficult

if

not

impossible. Caste as it appears

n India furnishes

pertinentllustration. t has

become

rigid by

continuance

through

long period; t is

upheldby

a conservatismhat

s

intensified

y religious

fanaticism; nd

it is entirelyncom-

patiblewith'thentellectual

eceptivity

nd free ntercoursef

progressive

ociety. It

presents n unwavering

esistence o

England's

attempts o

ameliorate he condition f

the Indian

people by the

introduction

f the ideas and nelw

nstitutions

that

would

contributeo

the freedom,nlightenment,

nd gen-

eral

well-being

f the

people.

Obstacles

ike

hose

resented

y

the

ystem.f Caste n

India

are notencounterednthe, hilippineslands. Theonly trong

tie

of social

union

s

the

sentimentf

loyalty o a family r to

a

personal

uperior.

In

thematter f

social

organization he

people re apparently

ea,dy or any

new thing.

The church

has

made its

leveling

nfluenceLfelt;nd not, he

least of the

services t

has rendered

s

that t swept way many

old p,re-

judices

and

traditions

nd habits, nd

left an

unencumbered

fieldon whichnew governmentalrganizationsmightbe es-

tablished

nd

more

enlightened

ommunities

eveloped. In

thus

clearing

he

ground

for a new

social

structure nd

in

leading the

peopleto

accept thepractices f the

church ery

important

work was

done towa.rds

reparing he Filipinos

to take

advantage

of the

opportunities resented

o them

under

a

liberal

governmentnd through

general

ystem

f

public nstruction.








96

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

The rule of the Spaniards

has, moreover, eft a miarked

effect

n the personal haracter

nd bearing f the cultivated

partof the Filipinopeople. The Spaniardsare sticklers or

form nd ceremonyn speech nd

conduct, nd this uality hey

have

communicated

o the

Filipinos. It is of course,easier

for

barbarous eopleto acquire

the

forns

than he spirit f

civilized

ife.

Thro,ugh bserving he foirms owever, here

comes gradually an

understanding f the

spirit.

As, the

Spaniards

aid

great

stresson

formialonduct,

hey

were ex-

cellentmasters n the first tagesof the discipline hatmakes

for civilization. Through them

the Filipinos have attained

a

noteworthy

istinctioln

moing he

peoplesof the Far East

for their

good

manners nd

generally ignified earing. As

instructorsnd models n this

department(he mericans, ould

have been greatly nferior o, he

Spaniards. The Aml'rican

goes

to

the

slanids

s the

representative

lf

superior

iviliza-

tion,buit ispersonal uperiorityotes ot appear n hisman-

ners. In thisrespect heFilipinooutranks im. The Ameri-

can, however, ustifies

is

presence

s

a leaderand a teacher

in

the islandsby

the

fact

that his

mission

begifs

where

the

mission f

the

Spaniards

ended.

The

Spaniards taught

he

Filipinos he

forms

f enlightenedoiiety;

the Americans re

expected

o

give them

an

opportunity

o

acquire

its)

open-

minded,iberal,andhumane pirit.

That thecultivated ilipinosunder

he

Spaniards cquired

somewhatf

the

spirit

f

civilized

ociety

s

well

as the

folrmni,

is

indicatedby the position

of

woman

in

the

islands. No-

where

n

all the

Orient s,

he

position

f

woman

better

han

n

the

Philippines. Amoing he, non-Christian

Malays,

she

is

degraded y polygamy

nid

lavery.

In

China

thosewho

are

'especially avored re as irratiolnallyreated s thosewho, re

found t theother xtreme f

the social

sicale.

In

the

Philip-

pines woman

is

neither useless ornament

tor

beast

of

burden,

but a

rational

being

standingby

her

husband anid

contributing

er

part

in

the

struggle

for

existence.

Even

when

the

struggle

as ceased

to be

hard,

he

does not

appear

to

'be

disposed

to' renounce

ll

effort nid ll

responsibility.

She is willing o make acrifices,o'r erowneducation, utas








AMERICAN

POLITICAL

SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.

97

yet

her

oppoirtunities

ave not

been commensurate ith

her

ambition.

Under the new

regime

many

wh'o

-expect

o

be

teachers reattendinghenormal chools,,ndgive promise f

being

able to, rendervaluablo

assistan'ce

n

maiintaining

nd

developing

he

efficiency

f the

public

chools. The

ordinary

Filipinowoman

has a

liking

for rade.

She

appears

to have

less

vanity

nd

miore

usilness

agacity

hanher husband.

In

the

more

fortunateocial

circumstances

er

bea'ring

s

such

as to

suggest

better

ppoirtunities,

nd a wider

xperience

han

she has actuallyhad. Like the women of Southern urope,

the

women ,f

he

Philippines

re

attached

o, he

church,

nd

throiugh

ts

influence

ave been

brought

nto

a

polsition uite

different

rom he traditional

positioln

f

the olriental

omen.

But

in

order

hat

an

exaggeratedimpressionof

he

extent

of

the

Spaniard's

Europeanizing

nfluence

may

not

be con-

veyed,

t is

necessary

o recall

he fa ct

h1at

his,

nfluence as

limited y theSpanish policyof communicatings much as

posisible

ith

he

Filipinos

n

one'or

another

lf

helir

wn

dia-

lects; forwherever he native

anguage

was used therew,as,

'strong

robability

hat

the

Spaniards would

descendto the

Filipino's,

lane

of thought nstead: f .lifting im to,

th'e

Europe-an's

onceptionind pointof view.

'The Filipinoswho

were

to

any

cons;ider;able

xten,t

uropeanizedwerethosewho

became amiliar ith heSpan,ishanguage,nd thushad access

to

European

deas.

'The

Filipino'swho'

nerver

new Spanish

remained, xcept n rare cases, withoutmuch knowlddge f

Europle r

sympathy

ithEuropeanizing

eifoirmi.hereifore,

in

discouraging he Filipinos fromi

earnin'g

pianish, s was

extensively

one

un)derheold regime, heSpaniards

o'sitively

limitedthe

nfluence hichmight therwisehave

proice'eded

from

heir resience. So effectual as thisd'iscouragemnent,ir

so

few

opportunitiesoir

earning he language were offered,

that,

fter

n

occupation

f three

hundred

nd fifty

ea:rs,

ess

tihan en

per

cent.

f

the nhabiitantsere

ble tio pleak panish.

It is

this:

imited umber hatwe have n

mindwhenwe speak

of

the

civilizingnfluencef the

Spianiards in he Filipinols.

The

influencef the Spaniards was

furtherimfitedy the

fact that

they

never

thoroughly

mastered he country. In








98

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE

many

parts,

nstead

f

building

oads

that

would

penetrate

he

interior

nd

open the

lurking

places

of

the

brigands,

hey

were satisfiedo remainon thedefensive. Failing to make

their

force

recognized

verywhere,

he ruder nhabitants

f

the

unexplored

nd

unconquered

egions

acquired

a

certain

contempt

or

the

civilized

man,

regarding

im as

a weakling

and as

consequently

nworthy

f imitation;

oirhe first

tep

necessary

o

make

thebarbarialn

ccept

he

deas

of

civilization

is to

let

himknow

that

the civilized

man

is his

superior

n

physical orce. To smite hebarbarianwith helavy and is

sometimes

he

surest

way

to

liberalize

his mind.

This

the

Spaniards

did

not always,

o

when

t

ought

o have

been

done,

and conisequently

ihere

emained,

fter

enturies'

f

nominal

control,

vast regions

where

neither

he

Spaniards

nor

the

civilization

hich

hey

represented

ere

respected,

nd

where

there

was

no.disposition

o

accept

heir

deas.

Furthermore,hefrequenteparturef theSpaniardsfrom

the economic

ractices

if

modern

urope

in

dealing

with

the

Filipinos

delayed

the acceptance

of

those

ideas

which

con-

stitute

he basis

of modern

ociety.

In the slands

much

was

done under

hel paniards

y

forced

abor

t a timewhen

prac-

tically

ll laborers

n Europe

were

free

nd

received

wages.

Considering

herelations

f the wo,

eoples

o one another,

t

was inevitablehattheFilipinoshould regardthe Spaniards

as his

teachers,

ut what

he

gained

from'

he object

lesson

in

this

case

was

knowledge

lf

state

oif

hings

hat

was

not

characteristically

uropean,

ut

rather

haracteristically

rien-

tal.

But in the

course

olf ime

new age

dawneld.

The cru-

sading

spirit

became

antiquated;

feudalism

urvived

nly

as

a

relicof

a

receding ast,

t'he nion

of

ecclesiastical

nd poli-

tical functionsn a singlebodywas repudiated; nd it was

clearly

een thatSpain,

which

had stood

forthese

hings,

ad

finished

hermission.

In

the

fact

hat

Splain's

mission

s

a coloinizer

nd

a

ruler

of

inferior aces

is

ended,

nd

that thetasks

she

had

under-

taken have

fallen

toi

other

nations,

we

observe

one

of the

familiar

ncidents

n

the

development

f civilization.

In

the

course f intellectualrogresst is notunusual

for

one person








AMERICAN

POLITICAL


99

to

take

up

and

carry

forward

o a

higher

form

r

to

a

more

complete

tage

an

invention ir ,

theory

f

a

predecessor.

In

the history tfmaterial chievements,othings more ommon

than to

find

ne

company

f

men

takingup

and

fitishing

n

undertaking

egun

by

others. Anid s

we

grasp

within

ur

view the social

progress

f the

woirld,

nothing

s

more

coin-

sistentwithreason nd historical

act han

he dea, hat

great

national

ndertakings

ay

be

oiriginated

y

one

natioinnd

sub-

seque:ntly

e taken

up

and carried

o a

higher

tage

of

ad-

vancement y anothernation; or, in otherwoirds,hatone

natioin

makes oine

contributiono,

civilization

while

another

nation

makes

quite

a

different

ontribution.

And

thus,

lthoughwe

recognize

he zeal and

heroism

is-

played

by

the

Spaniards

in

discovery

nd

exploration,

nd

keep

in

mind

theirhigh

putrposeoi

bring o,the heathen n

uncorrupted aith, t

may be

reasonably

xpected

hat,with

less of thecrusade r'spirit, ut withmiolreractical ense, he

newer

nation

will

carry

Spain's

unfinis'hed

ork

in

the Far

East

to

a

conclusion

which

the

stereotyped

onservatismf

the older

nation

made

t

impossible orher

to

reach.

But it

is

frequently

ffirmed

hatthe

people

of

the United

States are

new

to

questions

relating

o

the

governmnentlf

dependencies.

T,hetruth

s,

however, hat

more

than a cen-

tury go they advery ositivedeas as to, owcertainolonies

should be

governed.

This

was, in

fact,the

first

ubjecton

which

hey

held

a common

pinion.

A

little

ateir, fter

he

several tates

had

ceded

to

the

federal

overnmentheir

west-

ern

lands,

they

had an

opportunityo put

their

deas

into

practice.

In

the

continental

erritoriesf the

United States it was

expected hattheaborliginalnhabitants ould disappear nd

no

account

was takenof

themn

n

forminghe

organic aws of

the

Territories.

But

n Poirto

ico

and

the

Philippinest

could

not be

presumed

hat

hey

would

dis'appear,nid

hey

ouldnot

be

ignoired.

n

the

ontinental

erritories

he

government

as

formnied

or

the

descendentsf

Europelans;

n

the

Philippinies

it

was made

primarilyoir

ilipinos,

ut t

the ame

time t

had

to be so ordered s notto do violence o, heintelrestsf the








IOO PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

other nhabitants.

t had

ttol

e oirdered, oreo'ver,

n

such

form

hat t

would not do violence ot hel undamental

rin-

cipleson which his republicwas established. The two,most

excellentmoldels;,ofuropeanrule

over dependencies

eopled

principally y

races n a lower stage of civilization

we'refur-

nishedby the

colonial possessions,

f

England

and Holland.

But therewere variousi easons

why neither he

English nor

the Dutch policy could be exactly

followed.

The Filipliniols

are

Christians,,

n,d smallpart,

ut

a

dominant

art, if hem,

have been ot certain xtent uropeanized ndierhe nfluence

of

the Spania;rds.

As a necessary eisult f their

onversion

to Christianity

nd their ssociationwith,

uropelans,

heyhad

certain

aspirations

hat

distinguished

hem

froim he

non-

Christian ranches f

their

ace.

A certain

nfus,ionf

Euro-

pean blood,moire-over,mphasized

he

results,

lf

heEuropean-

izing reform.

The people of the Philippineswere,

therefore,

in a polsitionwherea decentrelgard or their mbition,nd

aohievemrents

ade

it

advisable o' carry

ut

siomre

ther han

the

repressive olicy

hat

had

characterizedhe

Dutch

admin-

i'stration f Java.

The cointrastetween

he conditions,if

India and thePhilippineslands,

ndia's,

vast population,

er

rich and polwerful

ativeprinces,

eirndigenous ivilization,

with

ts

wealth f

literaturend

traiditions

nd

social

institu-

tions,miadet undes,irableol mitatetrictlynthePhilippines

the policy

hathas been foundnecessary

ni ndia.

The

prolb-

len,

presented

y the conditions

n,

hei hilippineswas simpler

than the Indian

problem,

nd the difficulties

hat

had

tolbe

overcomneros,e

rom differentource.

The

difficulties

n-

countered y

the

English

in India

arose'

n

large

part

from

the

complexity

nd

rigi,dity

lf henative ndian,

oiciety.

The

difficultiesncountered y theAmiericans

ni

the Philippines

arose

argely

rom hechaotic

ondition lf

ilipino'

ociety,

he

absence

of soicial

rganizations,

f a

high grade

and

the lack

of traditions

lf rder. The

casels

weire

ifferentnd

re'quired

different

m:ethsolds

lf treatmient.

There were better reasons

foir

uilding

n

Spanish,

olundationis

han) or

boirrowingsys-

temfrom

ither

Java or

Inidia.

Under

the actual

polliticlalrganizatioin

f the

Philippine








AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.

I0I

Islands the government

f the United

States is the

source

of power

exercised

by

the

celntral,ir

nsular,government.

Immediatelyfter heAmerican rmy andedthe military u-

thoritiers

ook possession f

the civil

offices

ithin

heir

ines,

collected hej nternal

evenue

axes and

customs

duties,

nd

executed

uch laws

relating o

civil

affairs

s were

valid

at

theclotse ,f

panish

rule. As commander-in-chief,f he

rmy

the

President

olok

tep,s,oenlarge bhe

cope

of the civil

offices

and to -bring he

islands under

civil

authority

s fast as the

inhabitantsouldbe pacified. To thisend,and acting tillas

head oif he army

without

pecial

congressional

authorization,

he

appointed he

United

StatelsPhilippine

Commission,

n

March, 900,

"

tol

ontinue

nd pierfect

hework

f

organizing

and

establis;hlingivil

go'vernmelnt

lreadycommenced

y

the

military

uthorities."

After

hefirst

,f

eptember,

900,

this

commission

aid

authority o

exercise, ubject

to,the

Presi-

dent'sapproval, egislative lowern thet hilippine slands.

This

power

pirior o this

date had beenheld

by

the

military

governor. It

included "the

making

oif

rules,

and or-

derts

aving

the

effect

f

law,

foir

he

raising

of revenue

by

taxes,

customs

uties,

nd

impo,sts,;

he

appropriation

nd

expendituref

public

funds olf he

islands;

the

establishment

of an

educational

ystem

hroughout

he

islands;

tihe

stab-

lishment f a system o secure an efficientivil service; the

organization

nd

establishment

lf

ourts;

he,o

ganization

nd

establishmentf

municipal

n'd

departmental

overnments,

antd

ll

other

matters if civil

naturefor

which

he military

governor

was formerly

ompetent

o'

provide

byrules oir

ir-

ders

of a

legislative

character."

Tihe

next

step

in

carrying

ut the

policy olf

he United States

with

respect

o the

Philippineslands,was that n whichthe

President

directed

affairs,

not as the

commiander-in-chieof

if

the

army,

but

as authoiraized

y

definite

ongressional action.

The

action taken

y

Congress n this

matteir

as

essentiallyhe

same

action

as

thiatwhich had

beeen aken

in the case of

Louisiana.

By a law

approved

n

October,803,

itwas pros

vided

that,

until

Congreisshould

have made

provision or a

temporary

overnment,

ll

the

military,

livil, nd

judicial








102

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE

powers

then

exercised

by

the

officers

f the

government

f

Louisiana

should

be

vested n

such

person

or

persons

and

shouldbe exercised n suchmanner s thePresident f the

United

States

might

direct.

The language

of

this

act

of

1803

was

repeated

n

a

law

passed

ninety-eight

ears

later,

approved

March

2,

i9OI,

giving

the

President

ongressional

authority

for

the

establishment

f

civil

government

nd

for

maintaining

nd proitecting

he inhabitants

f

the

Philippine

Islands

in

the

free

njoyment

f

their

iberty,

rosperity

nd

religion." Thiswas theSploonermendmento, hearmy p-

propriation

ill

for

902.

By

it

Congress,

atified

he

estab-

lished

uthority,

ut

at

the

same

time

mposed

ertain

estric-

tions,

particularly

ith

reference

o

granting

ranchises.

The

next

phatse

,f

he

insular

government

as

introduced

by

the

change

effecteld uly

4,

I90I,

through

which

the

executive

uthority

reviously

xerted

by

the

military

ov-

ernor n thePhilippineswas transferredo a civilgovernor.

A

little

ater

four

executive

departments

ere

created:

the

departments

f

the

interior,

f commerce

nd

police,

of

finance

and

justice;

and

of

public

nstruction.

The president

f

the

commission

aving

become

hecivilgovernor,

he

four

other

original

members

lf

he

commission

ere

appointed,

with

he

title

f

secretary,

o

be theheads

of the

four xecutive

epart-

ments. The governor nd the four secretariesontinued o

act as

members

f the

commission,

hich

was

at

this

time

enlarged

by

the

addition

of

three

Filipinos,

nd

one

of

the

secretaries

was appointed

ice

golvernor.

The

vice

governor

may

act

as

civil

governor

whenever

the civil governor

is

in-

capacitated

y

illness,

ircertifies

hat

his

temporary

bsence

from

the

seat

of

government

will make

it

necessary

for

the

vice governorto' performthe duties,of the civil governor.

Under

the several ecretaries

re

grouped

he

various.

ureaus

thro,ugh

hich

the

work

oif

the

departments,

s

carried

on.

The

ihead

f each bureau

n

a

department

eports

o

the

head

of

the

department

o which

he

belongs.

The

present

overnment

husembraceis

civilgovernor

nd

four

ecretaries

ho,

with

he three

Filipino'

menbers

f

the

commission,onstitutehe entral egislature.

To

these

ffices








AMERICAN POLITICAL


103

may

be

addeid

the

office lf

the

Attoirney-general

nd the

system f thecourts

mnbracingheSupreme

Court, he

various

courtsof first nstance,and the local courts such as t;hemuni-

cipal

courts nd the

courts

lf

he

justices

of

thepeace.

In most ases. he upremeCourt

,f he

Philippines,as

final

authority,

ut there

are

cases,

that

may

be

carried to

the

Supreme

Court

of

the

United States.

These are all

actions,

cases, causes, and proceedings

n

which the

constitutionr

any stattute,

reaty,itle, ight r

privilege lf heUnited

States

is involved, ircauses, n whichthe value in 'controversyx-

ceeds twenty-fivehousand

dolla.rs,,

r in

which the title

oir

possession

if

eal

esta,te,

xceeding

n

value

the

sum

olf

wenty-

five

housand ollars

s

involved r'

broughtnto

question.

In

establishing ocal

governments,,

he

boundaries f

the

ancient

ueblos,,

r

townships, ere

recognized

s

determining

the territoriesf

the new

municipalities,.

hhe

ncientnames

wereretained,ndthepublic ropertyftheoldpluebloisassed

to

the new organization.

In

the

municipalities,r townships,

the

first

teps

were takentowardsthe establishmentif

ocal

self-government.

he

president,

he

vice-president,

nd

the

members f the

municipal

ouncil

are

elected. But in

view

of

the 'limited

knowledge

and

experience

of

the bulk

of

the

inhabitants,t was found o be

expedierit

o confine he

privi-

lege of voting,nthebeginning,o a comiparativelyew per-

sons.

It

was

confinedo thosewho

had

held

ome

one of the

principal

municipal

ffices

rioir

o the Amnerican

ccupation,

thosewho

had

property

alued

at

five

hundred

esos,

or

who

paidtaxes to

the

amount f

thirty esos,and

those

who could

read,write,

nd

speak English

or Spanish. It

mighthappen

that

many

f

those

who

had

property

orth

ive

hundred

esos

or who had previously een municipal fficers,ould neither

read

nor

write panishoir nglish.

But it

was heldthat heir

-ability

o accumulate

roperty,

r

their

previous xperiencen

local

government ould make

t

safe o

confer

ponthem, he

privilege of

voting for

municipal officers. By granting

this

privilege

to, the

imitednumber

olf

persons

who,had the quali-

fications

equired,

n

opportunity

as

given

to the

people to

acquire

he

first

lementsif the

kno?wledge

ecessary

o

enable








I04 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

themto govern themiselves. his provis,ion-a's in marked

contrastwith'the aw establishedn Poirtot ico and Hawaii,

which onferredhehighest rivilegesfcitizenshiplikeupon

thefit nd theunfit.By this ction

respeiting

orto, ico, nd

Hawaii the authorities hrew way whatever nfluence

hey

might

ave exerted

y holding ut

this;

rivilege s an induce-

ment

o

the

people

to make themselves

orthy

o

participate

in

the

local government. By thus bringing into the govern-

ment vast masss

f

uncontrollablegnorance, he new admin-

istrations n those islands began in confusion n'd with the

prospect if

chievemnents

ihat ould not constitute favorable

recommendationf republicanism. f moire ilipino's cquire

and

holdpropertyr acquire knowledge lf nglishor Span-

ish, this will inidicate certain ocial improvementhat, n

accordan'ce ith the law regulating he suffrage, ill be fol-

lowed by an extension ,fpoliticalright's o' otherpersons;

but fno such mprorvementhallbe observablehewelfare f

the local

communities ill

not be

endangered y

the

presence

and

authoritative

nterferencef

ignorant

nd shiftless ili-

pinos n public ffairs.

Like many of the present ownships lfNeiwEngland,the

pueblo's

n,

he

Philippines

ifteno'ntainmoire

hanone

village,

but

each

oif

hese

villages,

r

barrio,s,,

ass certain

erritory

which s recognizeds pertainingo it,andthesum' 'fall the

tracts f

territoryertaining

o' th'e everalbarrioscoincides

with,

o'r s the same

as,

the

territory

if

he

pueblo'

'r

town-

ship.

Each barrio

s in

the imm;ediate

iharge

f

a

member

of the

to'wn-

ouncil,

ut tihe

ownship'

nd'not

thebarrio'

s

the

primary olitical

unit. Tihe

to,wn'

s

the

lowest

distinct

ov-

ernmnental

roup';

for

the

barrio'

s

simply

fraction

f

the

pueblo, r toiwn.

Midway

between.

he

muunicipalovernment

n'd

the central

government

f

the

archipelago'

tands'

h'e

government

if

he

several

provinces.

When

the

provinces,

'ne

aftfr

another

were

turned rom

war

to

penalce,

t

became

ecessary

ol

have

t

hand

a foir of

go'venment

nider

which'

heymight

be

oir-

ganized.

This

formi

was

furnished

y

the

generalprovincial

government

ct

adopted

n

February,

9OI.

In

accordance








AMERICAN

POLITICAL


I05

with

his

ct theprovincial overnmentonsists

f

five fficers.

These

are a

governor,

supervisor, treasurer,

n

attorney,

and a secretary.The governor,he supervisor,nd thetreas-

urer

f

theprovince

makeup

theprovincial

oard. The

attor-

ney and

the secretary

re not members

f the

board,

but

perform heirproper

functions

n coinnectionilth

he affairs

of

the

provincial

overnment.

The governtor

n

the

first

n-

stance,

hat s to

say

on

theorganization

f the

provincial ov-

ernment, as appointed y the

commission;

aterhe was elected

bya provincialssembly, r electoral ollege, omposed fthe

members

f

the town

councils f the

organized

municipalities

of

the

province.

It

is

expected

hat

ordinarily he provincial

governor

will be a Filipino,

lthough

t the organization

f

the everal rovinces

number

f the ppointed

overnors

ere

Americans,

nd some Americans

were

elected ytheprovincial

assemblies

t the

expiration

f the termn

f appointment,

till,

under normal onditionf affairs,tmaybe expectedhat he

governors

f

provinces

will

be

Filipinois.

The supervisor

s

required o be a

civil engineer,

oir

pon him devolves

the

business

of

buildingroads

and

bridges

and the otherpublic

works

f

the

province.

But thesupervisornd

the treasurer

are

in

the

classified

ivil ervice,

nd it is expected

hat

forthe

present

until properly ualified

ngineers

ppear

among the

Filipinos heywillusuallybeAmericans.

After he

general

proivincial

aw had been

formed mbrac-

ing

the

general utlines

f a provincial

overnment,

herere-

mainedthe

task

of

applying

t

to

the sleveral rovinces,

with

such modifications

s

mnighte

needed

n

the

differenatircum-

stances.

This task

ma;de

necessary journey

o

each of the

provinces,

for

the purpose

of

finding

out by

inquiry

and dis'-

cussionwith

representativels

f

the

people

n

a

public

ssembly

whatmodificationsif hegeneral aw wereneededto adapt

it to the province

n

question.

Inquiry

was

also

made

as

to what

alaries

ught

o

be

paid

to

the

provincial

fficers,

nd

what

imits

lught

o be

fixed or heother

rovincial

xpenses.

The

provincial

ssembly

hatwas

co'nsultedbout

hese

matters

was

composed

of

delegates

from

the

several towns of

the

province. The

delegates

were

usually

the

presidents

if

the








io6 PROCEEDINGS OF

THE

towns

nd the

members

f the town ouncils. They were

the

most cultivated

art of their

respective ommunities.

Of the fiveprovincial officers nly the governor is elected;

the others re

appointed.

The

governor

s electedby an as-

smbly

composed

f the members f

the town councils lf he

province.

By providing hat heofficial ead of the

province

shall be

electedby a system f indirect lection esting n

the

limited

uffragestablishedn themunicipal ode, t is

thought

that

he

peoplewill

be

secured certain

articipation

n

public

affairs,nd that hestabilitynd wise conduct f the govern-

ment

will

not be

endangered y

the

oo

immediatenterference

of the untrained

art

of

the

population.

Placed

in

intimate

connection

with the centralgovernment

y the fact that

the

bul,k

f

its

officersre

appointed,

he

provincial rganization

is in a position o serve s an efficient

dministrativegentof

the

central

uthority,

s well as to fulfillts

functions

s

a

purelyocalgovernment.

It maybe

seenfrom he tatementslreadymiade hat, nder

the

present o-vernmental

rganization,

here

re two groups f

elected fficers.

The first

roup

embraces

he

municipal

ffi-

cers,who

are

chosen t

large by the qualified lectors f

the

municipality.

The second

group

of elected fficersmbraces

the

governors

f

the several

provinces,who

are

elected

by

provincial ssemblies omposed f themembers f the town

'councils f

the various towns

n

the several

prolvinces.

The

second

lection hus

depends

n the

first,

nd

thefirst

s

made

by

a restricted

ist

of voterswho

must

i'ther ave

property

o

thevalue of

fivehundred esos

or

pay at least thirty esos

of

regularlystablishedaxes,or be able

to read,write, nd

speak

Spanish

or

English,

or

have

held a

municipal

ffice

nder

Spanishrule. These qualificationsre establishedby aw to

be the

qualifications

f

the electionswho

shall

choose

the

memnbers

f the

proposedPhilippine

ssembly

hat

is

to

be

convened

nd

organized wo years after he

completion

nd

publication

f the census

recently

aken.

A

government

or

the

Philippine

slands has thu'sbeen es-

tablished,

nd all

but

a

few

stragglers

ave

returned

o

the

occupations

f

peace.

The

stragglers

re

proiducts

f

the

re-








AMERICAN

POLITICAL SCIENCE

ASSOCIATION.

I07

bellion

gainst

Spain

and

the

UnitedStates,

who

fancy

hat

n

war

they earned he

trick

f living

without

work

at the ex-

pense of theirneighboirs.Theyare brigands, nd, in terms

applied to our evil-doers,would

be

described s a cross be-

tween

sneak-thiefnd

a footpad.

In

view of the

awlessness

that ppears o

be increasingn thiscountry,t may be safely

affirmedhatbrigandage

s

less ominous

n

thePhilippines

han

in the United States. The Philippine

rigands re the

half-

civilizedelement's f the population.

ThIey

have no strong

traditions f social order. Theyhave had no experience o

teach them respect

foir aw.

They

have lived unider

systemthat was

monarchialfromt-op o bottom.

What-

ever obedience

they have renderedhas, beenr

endered

o

the

command f

a personal uperior. The new regime

ub-

stitutes

aw for

the

ersioinal

uler. The

change

s

a

little

oo

suddenfor he

ordinary ilipino, articularly

orthe Filipino

withan extravagantdea olf iberty. He has none of that

trainingwhich

nables

he

Anglo-Saxon

o

feel

oyalty

o

the

impersonal tate, nd render bedience

o i'ts mpersonal

e-

crees. It i's

only

natural, herefore,

hatunder hese circum-

stances he gnorant nd vicious

fragmentsf the population

should manifest he characteristics

f barbarism

ather

han

those of civilization.

But

there s no

such excuse

for the

Americanbrigands, hose wlho re breakingdown our jails,

defying

he

uthorityf courts,

nd toirturingheir ellows..We

cannot ven

charge hese cts of awlesisness

o recentmmigra-

tion

from

he

ower

ranksof Europeannations, or

the

mo'bs

of

jail-breakers,

ynchers,nd the

bands of highwaymenre

predominantlyf American tock.

They are born and

bred

under he

free

nstitutionsf the and

hey re disgracing.

The Filipino' rigandmayhavebee encouraged ytheutter-

ances

n

this ountry

hathelped o keep

thebelated nsurrecto's

going,

but

this nfluencen him as

probably eenve'ry

light;

for

he

is not

politician,

ut simply plain robber, nd

hasno

aspirations igher

han

successful lundering. Filipino

bri-

gandage

does

not,however, resent

ny seriousdanger ither

to the ivesor

property

f Americans.

EvenFilipinobrigandage as had its uses. It has furnished








io8 PROCEEDINGS OF

THE

thePhilippine overnmentn opportunityo test hereliability

of its constaibularyr local mililtia.

This arm olf he govern-

ment s composed f enlisted ilipinos nderAmerican fficers.

It

embraces

etween

ive

housand

nd six thousand

men,

who

are distributedhroughouthe provinces. The presence f

lawless stragglersn the coun'tryave

thle onstabularyome-

thing o do immediatelyn its organizatilon,

hichmade strict

discipline ecessary nd posisible.

Five thousand rmed dlers

scattered hroughout

he

slands,without

ny serious. ccupa-

tion, mightveryreadilyhave becomedemoralized. But by

havingoccupation, heofficers ave beenl

ble to hold them o

strict

discipline,

nd thus selt high standard

for the

whole

force.

This standard nce

fixed

becomes

part

of the

tradi-

tion of

the

constabulary,

nd

may

withoiutreat difficultye

maintained.

At

first

doubts were

entertained y certain persons as

to the advisability f armingso many natives,, ut their

conduct

has been

generally

uch

as

to

leave

no

apparent

ground for these doubts. They have been loyal to

their

officers

nd

to the

government.They

have

been

fficient-

for

he

particular

ask

n

hand

quti,te

s

efficients

the

Ameri-

can soldiers. The

American oldier s, to

a certain xtent

handicapped.s

a

brigand-hunter,

n

thathe

does notknow

he

tricks nd habitsof th'eFilipinothief. The attempts hich

the Americans re

making

o eliminate

rigandage

s

a

de-

parture

rom

he

Spanish regime.

The

Spaniards

winked

t

miany hings,

nd

among

others the

presence

of

bands

of

thieves

n

certain enters f lawlessness.

From

thesecenters

whole

districtsbecame nfected.

The

proces,s

arried

on

by

the

constabulary

s

a

cleaning-up,

rocess,

nd

promises

o

leave

the islands,for thefirst ime n theirhistory, ree from he

ban'ds; f

thieves

hat

have

always

been

more o'r ess,

f

a

hin-

drance o

prosperity.

Like Mexico, nd

otheir

ormer olonies f

Spain,

he

Philip-

pines

had

not adopted the

land-tax as a means

of

raising

revenue.

This.

was

consistent

ith

the

other

featu'resf

the

system

f taxation

prevailing

n

the

slands,

n

that

t favored

the richan'dburdened hepoor. Speaking generally, nder








AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 109

the old system f taxation,whatever rticles

were owned or

exclusively

sed

by

therichhad a

lighter ax

than

hoise wned

or exclusivelysedby thepoor. Champagne,o, akea single

illustration,ore a lighter ax thanl heap wine.

In Mexico

for

long period

he

government as practically

n

oligarchy,

composed n large partof lanidowners,ho, ither

etermined

whiat

he taxes sholuld e oirhad sufficientnfluenceo

prevent

the imposition

f a tax

on

land.

In

the

Philippines, lson,

limited lass of relatively ich men had

txerte d n the gov-

ernment hatevernfluence ad been exerted ythepeopleor

by

thosenot

actually

n

official

o'sition s,

nd it

s,eemedo

them

wise,

or at

least

advantageous,

o

use

wha?tever

ower they

had to cautse ny tax levied to be placed

where

it

would

burden hem east.

On

one

occasion,

t a

publicmeeting

n

one

of the

provinces,

dvice

was siought

s to

the best

methods

of

increasing

he

revenue,

nid he deliberate

lan

proploisedy

some of thespeakerswas thatthegovernmen'thould evy a

tax on the proletariat. The Filipino's ad learned

heir esson

from he old

regime.

In vivewf thi;s tate, lf

hings,

t

becamie vident n the be-

ginning hat t would be necessary o,make a

complete

efor-

mation

of the

system

f

taxation,

nd that

this,

efo,rmation

would

have

to concern

tself

both

w,ith

he internal

evenue

taxes and the customs,uties. In makingthe chang,es e-

quired,

t

was proposed

hait

he

new

system

hould

t leastnot

bear

more

heavily

in

the

pooir

han on the rich.

The

prin-

cipleadopted ppears o

us,

o carry

wiltht iits,

wn'

dvocacy,

but t

was not so

clear

to,

hose

who

had

inherited

heir

deas

of

financial

olicy

from

pain.

The excuse or

justification

or

the

new tariff

aw was

the

need of an adequate revenue forthe maintenance of the gov-

ernment.

The

cedula

tax.,

oir

grad'uate4ld

oll-tax,

had

been

abolished,

no

land-4ax

ha,

been

impolsed,

nd

the internal

revenue

ax

brought nly

imi'ted eturns. As,

a colnsequence

of

years

of

rebellion,

he trade and

the

industries,

f

the

smaller

towns

in

so far

as the smaller

towns ever had

any industries,

ere

either

diso'rganized

r

destroyed.

The

contributions ade for the support if he rebellion,whether








IIO

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

free or foirced,

ad impolverished

large

number

of

the

inhabitants

f the provinces,

nd the only

effective ource

of an adequate revenue, t the beginning f the Ameri-

can

occupation, as

thecustoms

uties. The

duties,

herefore,

which

wereestablished y tihe

iew ariff

aw were established

primarily

or revenue. The

ildeaof

protectilonas

only

in-

cidentallyonsidered.

There

weare,

n

fatt,

ery

ew ndustries

to

protect

hit

had niot dequateprotection

n the

conditions

underwhich

hey

xisted.

In making

hetariffaw, then, nly

a fewobjectsw'ere eptdistinctlynminid. In thefirst laice,

it walsdesigned o

yield respectaible

evenue.

In the second

place,

t was prioposed

hat t

shbuld

not

be burdenisome

othe

trade r

unduly aisle

heprice

f articles o, he consumers.

In

thethird

lace,

t was planned o, e easy

of execution,

o,

hat

collectionsmighlt

e miade

nidert with he least

possible

x-

pensie

nd

with

he

e'astpossible

iabilityo fraud.

The ends

aimed at bythe makerts.f the law have beenfairlywell at-

tained.

It has

yielded

respectable evernue.

hat the law

migh1t

ot be burdensome

o' trade or

inicreasenduly

con-

sun;er'sprices.,t

was designed

oi

make the average rate

on

impoirtsbouttwenty-one

0r

wenty-two

er cent. f theeir

eal

value.

Sinice he

duty

s

primarily

spiecificiuty,

this

ate,

x-

presisied

n

terms

f an ad valorem ulty,

ill

naturally ary

s

the goods importedre of high or low gradein th'eir lass.

Whenever

the

speiific duty

is the same

on

cheaper

and

dearer

goods,

he,

earer oolds

ave

an

obvious

dvantage

n

iMpoTrta-

tion.

Bu5t

n

all

cases

whe're

lasses re distinctly

ecognizable,

each

class has itis istinct

pecific uty.

The

duty

was

made

primarily

pelcific,

ecause uch duity

maybe

more' iasily

evied

and

collect

d

than

an ad vazlorem uty,

nd

it is

exempt

rom

the iabilityo,fraud hroughndervaluationir vervaluation.

Recognizing

henecessarynaccura;cy

lf

'systern

nvolving

only pecific

uties, rovision

s

made

n

many

nstances

or

re-

sorting

o

an

ad

valorer duty

s a

corrective,

f

poissible

ases

of

injustice.

In

certain

aisc

where

he

rateis

nder the ew law

are

the

same

or

less than

n'der

he

old

law,

s)ome

mporters

ho'

have

had experielnceithbotihawsfind he new awis more evere








AMERICAN POLITICAL


I I

I

than

he

old,

on,

ccount

if ts

more

rigorous

xecution. From

their

point

of

view

a

law imposing

higher

ate of

duties

s

more convenientn practice hana law imposing low rate,

provided the

law impolsing the higher duties can be made

easy

by gifts

nd

bribes. Better high

tariff

withgratificacionees

than low

tariffhat s carried ut

with igid nd unsympathe-

tic honesty.

Not

ithe

east

mportant

atter f

poilicy

onnected ith

he

affairs f

business hathas engaged heattentionf the

Philip-

pinegovernments the forest f the islanids, nd regulations

for heir

are and economic se.

In olrder

hat hemagnificent

o'rests,if hleslands.might ot

be

suddenly nd irretrievably

estroyed,

nd that

t

the

same

time hey

might e renderederviceable,heywere ommittedo

the

dministrationnd

supervision.

if bureau

f

foirestry.

he

lands

of the

forest ellongn very argepart o, he

government,

and for this, easoin heir control s in thelhands, f an authority

thlatmay deal

witih

hem,

reely

ithout ecotmingntangled

n

the meshes,lf

ndividual

ights.

In

thepolicy

dopted

with

referenceotthefo,refsCts,wo

or

three

points

re

conspiwcuous.

he first f tihesie

s,

that foir-

ests

are

not

sold

to the individual persons oir

oirpotrations

who

have only

the single nterest f

denuding he landsi n which

they tand. The second if hese ointss,that hegovernment

in

retalining

the

and

necelssarily

etain'shepotwero'

determine

what

rees

maybe felled nd whatmiust e left

tandingwithout

injury.

The thirdpoint

is,

that the

person

whio'receives a per-

mit

to

cut

designated

reesmust

pay

to'

he'

overnment

cer-

tain

amoutnt

er

cubic

fo'ot

f

the trees

elled,

his, mount

vary-

ing according o' the quality f th'e

imber

n

question.

This

mean's

that h'ePhilippine Governmlenitsells the imber tanding,

at a

price

ixed

cco'rdingo.

ts

quality,

nd retains

he

owner-

shi,p if the

lanid nd controls n'd cares fo'r

ll subsequent

growths. By thismethodt

is

expected hat

the evastationf

the

forests

will

be

averteld. At

the,

ame tine dealer's

n

tim-

beir

will

be

able to'

ecure t

reasonable

ateishe reetse'st uited

to

their

punrpoises,

butundeir he direction' f

the

proper

authori-

tiesas to'

what

mmaiturereies

ust e eft tanding.








II2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

If

one

were

o

attemnipt

o

make

comprehensive

tatemnt f

the economic tatus

oif

he

Philippine

slands, t

would not be

difficulto form fairlyust estimiatef the severalmaterial

elemrnts. Buta considerable ifficultyould irise

n

attempt-

ing tp estimate he labor foirce lf he islands as,

a

necessary

factor

n

the

general

tatemnent.

n

this

point

he

government

has manifestedn uncertainnd doubtful olicy.

It is

uncer-

tainbecaulse

s

yetno one

knows

what

s

to be

theresult lf he

awakening f

the

Filipinois

ut

of

their mediaevalism.

The

builkif hepopulations compoisedfpersonswho either ulti-

vate

ndependently

heir

mall

holldings

r

are

attached o, ther

persons in a tradlitional relation not greatly

unlike that

of

feudal

dependents.

The partof thepopulation

hat

s

neither

in

tihe

osition

olf nddivildualuitiviators

or

attached

o

any

housiehoildr estate s smnall,nd consequentlyhenumber

f

laborers

ctually

vailable

for

a

new undertaking

s limited.

Persions hohave been ccustomedogaintheirivinigna cer-

tain

way

cannotbe

expected

o

abandfon

heir ncient

habits,

the ir

raditional

ependence

t

maybe, immediately

n

the

Ap-

pearance

f

a

person

ir

omplanysking

for

heir

erivces.

In

view

of

ithi-sact,

t is

probable

hat

thosewho

present

hem-

selves t the

first

all under he

new

dman;,d

re

only part

of

the

supply

f

labor which the

community

n

question

may

fur-

nishwhen t shall haveadjusted tseif o, he newconditions.

It w-ill hereforee impossibleo know he abor

capabilities if

the Philippine Islands until they shall have acquired more olf

thecharacteristicsif

he ndustirial

ommunities

f

Europe

and

America.

But

ithere

s

la

strongprobability

hat he

Filipino

labor

foirce ill

ncrease s

the enseoif ndividual

ndependence

increases

andmore

men break

away from heir

positions f

semi-depeidenten their mployers. But thismovementlf he

Filipino towards

the

polsition

lf the American

aborerwill

probably e slow, anid

n

the mean tiTne here

ught to be a

demaniidormoorelabolrershan are at present

vailable. To

this

point

t

is

safe

and

easy

going. Whiat

ies

beyond s a

rough

road

oif

dliverse

pinions.

As it

regards

he

continental

erritory

f the

Uniited tates,

it s

notdifficulto frame

more r

esis

onviinicing

rgumentn








AMERICAN

POLITICAL

SCIENCE

ASSOCIATION.

II3

support f

the

policy nvolved

n the

aw

excluding

hinese

n

the

ground

hat

he

nconveniencef

getting.

ich

more

lowly

is not to be comparedwith the inconvenience f having another

race problem n our hands. But

wheti

e

inquiry

ellatess

o

trhe

hilippine sltands

heconclusio thiat

pplies:

-ere oes

not

necessarilypply there.

Here

it

wouild

e

briniging

ogether

two

alien

races,

he

twbomost

positive

nid

trongest

aces

n

th,e

world,

that t

woul'dbe 'better

o

keep

apairt.

There

it

would

b, bringing

ogether,

ot

two' races,

but

twoi

kindred

pieoples,lfwho'semalgamationnatureeems

o

approve. But

whether

hey

enter

nto,

close

assIociationor

retnain

distinict

is

ncot matter f greatmomient.

he

undisputed

act

s,

that

thleires room for more

alaborers

n

the

Philippine

slands, o

redeem he

country

romi

hie

estlutslf

he*

eglect

t suffered

in war, and to,

make available

ts

vaslt lndeelopedresources.

If

thoret

ereonly

imited

esiources,theweakermight

got o

the wall, but the resources re, dequlate o the suppoirtf a

population tf ixty

millions.

TIhe addition, herefore,

lf

a

fejw undrod th'ousaand

hinesewould

drive

nohboldy

o tihe

wall,

but bymaking he slan4ds ore

pro,duictive,

ould

ameliorate

thle

condition

of

the

whiolle ncreased population.

If

un der

utelage n4dhefoircelf xamrpleheFilipino'hows

himrsellfwilling nd

skillfulworker, nd the relsouwrclslf he

island'sare so completely sed as to,detmand o

moTre

aborers,

the

dooTr

ay be as,

easily

clio'sed

gain'sit

he

Chinese

fter

ive

or

ten

years

as

now. The

painful

factniow

s, t hat

aboir

s

needed nid

s

not

to

be

had.

Hithlertol,

n this

continent,

e harwestab,lished

overnments

in

which hiolse

hio

madethe aws.have

had

the

ame

deas,

n-

stincts nd traditio'n ss the

boidy

'f

he

people

foir

whom he

laws were miade. Onilymembnersf our race have been in-

volved.

In

thenew

underPtaking

e ihave

ougoht

o,

ring

nto

political co-operatilon

emberis

if

wo distinct

aces;

and

thoise

persons

who have

exp&Aed

uch

itnimdiate

esults

s

might

appear

n

dealing

with

branch

fEuropean

tock

have failed

to

take into account hemutually epielling oirce if

diverse

ratcialnheritances.

They have

faiiled

o estimate

roperly he

difficulty

he

sub'o'rdinate ace

is

destined to,

ncounter

n

com-








II4

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

prehending he

idea anid

social principles f

the dominant

race,

and

also the

difficulty

,t

will xperience

n

ehanging

ts point f

viewwithrespect o governmentnd annullingomewhathe

force

of its anciento}cial

traditions.

An

important

eature lf

hegovernmental

olicy arried lut

in the

Philippiines

s thatwthichmbraces

he

system

f public

instruction.

The

system

s organized s 'the ureau f educa-

tion

under

he

Secretary

lf

ublic nstruction.

The imrmedi-

ate

administrationf

the affairs,

lf

hisbureau s

placed

n

the

handsof a general uperintendent,ihowas originallyssisted

by

ten

division

uperintendents.

he division

utiperinten

nts

reside

n

the

several

divisions.

Unider

he supervision (f he

general

uperintendent,

ach

division,

uperintendent

xercses

immediate ontrol

ver the.

tchioolslfhis division.

With the

increase

n

the

number

if eacheirsnd

the

expansion

f the

field,

the division

supeirintendents

ould

not

properly

perform

thewoirkxpected f them. Thenby an amendmentnacted

July

4,

I9OI,

the

number

f

division

uperintendents

as

in-

creased

frolm

en to

eighteen.

Under

this

organization

early

one

thtou-sand

eachers

romAmerica

were

appointed

nd as-

signetd

o

positions

n

different

larts

f

the

archipelago.

In

thiswork

f

placing

he

teacherswhere

her

weremo-st eeded

the

division

.uperintendents

endered ailutable

ssistance

o the

general uperintendent. heymade themselvesamiliarwith

the conditions f

their

ureiral

ivisions

ysystematic

nvesti-

gation

and

porsonal

nspection,

nd

were

autho(rizedo select

frnom

he teachers lready

ppointed,

ubjec

to

the approval

of the

general

uperintenident,

uch

teachers

s

seemned

o,

hem

best fitted

o establish

nd conduct

chools,

n

'the different

parts

f

their

evetral

ivislions.

In

the

course

f

timie

he

work

requiredf thedivision uperintendentsecame oogreat o be

successfullyerformed

y

them

without

ssistance.

The

n um-

ber

of tealchers

ials

reatly

ncreased,

nd the schools

were

scattered ver wider erritoiry.

t betame inally

vident hat

a

sufficientmount f

info'rmatioi

oncerning

heconditions

n

the

different

arts,

f

the islands

had

been

gathered

o

permit

the

making

if

definitend

final

rganization.

Accordingly

a bill waspresentedotheCotntnissoionith

he

view

of effect-








AMERICAN

POLITICAL

SCIENCE

ASSOCIATION.

I

I

5

ing the

changes,

esired.

This,bill

became

law October

8,

I902.

This

law repealeldertainfeaturels

f the

previously

existing chool aw, and dividedthearchipelagonto, hirty-

six

school

divilsiuons.

he

several divisions,

xcept

n

a.

few

cases, were

m.alde

o, oincide

with he

prolvincels.

n

each of

these

divisions,

xcept

hose

orresponding

o

the

provinces

f

Benguet,

Lepanto-Bontoc,

Nueva

Vizcaya,

and

Paragua,

a

re-

gularly

appointed

division

supeirintendent

as

provided

for.

In

each of

the four rovinices

xcepted

t

was

provided

hat he

provincial oveirnorhouldact, with'outdditional ompensa-

tion, s

division.

uperintendent. h'isi

rrangement

s

justified

by

the

fact

that in

Beinguet,

eplanto-Bontoc,

nd Nueva

Vizcaya the

majority if

he

inhabitantsre

Igorrotes,

iving

in

a

semi-savage

tate)whileihe

provin.ce

f

Paragua emtbraces

a

largearea

of

the,

welsternslanids

nd contains

nly

limited

ain;d

cattered

opulation.

Assistance

n

carrying

in

he office

work of the division s providedforby autthorizingheap-

pointmentlf nle lerk

for elach

division

up,erfintendent.

n

addition o the

teacherss

ppointed

or he

municipalities

by

he

division

uperintendent,

hose, alaries,

re)

piaid

by

the

muni-

cipialities,

he

general

uperintendent

s

authorized o

keep

in

the service f the

nsular

olvernmnent

force f

one

thousand

trained

eacheirs or

the

primairychoolls

nd

stuch

dditional

trained eacheirss maybe necessaryoirheprovincialchools

of

secondary

nstruction.

In

providing

his

organization

nid

mphasizing

he

work o

be

done

through

t

there s

clearly

departure

rom,

he

policy

pursued

y

some of the

European

nations.

The

Javanese re

made

to

understanidhat

hejy

re

not

expected

o

have a,

arge

part

in

the

cultiviationf

the)

eople

dominating

hem. Few

opportunities

ave

been

provided

or

herm,

o

acquire he

train-

ingnecessaryo, inable,

hebem

oi

ccupymolre,

han very

imited

number lf

he

conomic

ositions

n the

dependency;

nd thus,

insteaedf

being

plreparejd

o'

constitute,

complete

ocial

body,

they

are

relegated

by

thelir

ducational

limitations

to' a

few

of

the

ower

occupations.

Theyremain

separate

las s,

mere

fra;gm,ent

f a

society.

Un,der

he

American

olicy

with

e-

spect

o

the

Philippines,t

is

piroiposed

hat

he

Filipinos

hall








I

I6

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

notbe merely

ultivators,f ice

o,r hebearers

f

burdens,

ut

that

hey

hall be furnished ith ll

the facilities,

or ducation

of which hey an.makeadvantageous se; and it is expected

that ntelligenice

ather han, ignoranice

ill render hem on-

tented

n their

present

olitical

elatioln snd strengthenheir

allegiance

o

the

constituteduthorities.

COLONIAL

AUTONOMY,

WITH SPECIAL

REFER-

ENCE T'O THE GOVERNMENT OF THE

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDS.

PAUL S.

REINSCH.

The

historical onditions

urrounding

he acquisition

lf

ihe

Philippineslands by

the American

overnment

ere of

such

a nature

ls o give ri,se o, very

definite

ndpeculiar

egisla-

tive policy. The colonial xplansionf othernationshas usu-

ally

followed p commiercial

r

other lconomic

nterprises,

nd

therefore as

generally

een

dominated nly

in

a

secondary

manner y political

onsilderations,.

n

the mperial

xpansion

oif rance, ,t

s

tirue, olitical

motives redominated

o a

larger

extent, nd

we

shall

therefore

e

prepared

o,

find

certain

similarity

etween

merican,

nid rench olonialmlethods.

t

was a politicalmotive,-thedesire o weaken heprestige f

Spain,-that

led

the American

overnment

o

make an attack

upon Spanish

dominion

n

tihe

Philippine slands,

at a time

when

he American

ation

had

as

yet

noi conomic nterests

n

the

archipelago,

he

foreign

ommerce

f

which

was

in

the

handsof Chinese

nd

Europeans.

It was also

primarily

or

political

urposie

hat

he

slanlds eire

ltimately

etaineid,

s

it

was felt hat heywouldasisurelheUnitedStates polsitionif

leadersihip

n

the settlement

f thhe riental

nd

Pacificques-

tions.

Another

motive

was

the

desireto

exclude

any

other

po,werwhich

mlight

ish

to take

advantage

O f

renunciation

on

the

part

;of the

Uniteid

tates.

When the islands

had

thus been

acquired,

he

public

consicience as

sonmewhat

is-

turbed, s,pecially

s a stubborn

nd far-spread ative

pposi-

to be force

)f

rms.

It

was therefore

colonial policy with reference to the philippines

Documents