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Community Organizing: Addams and Alinsky

Maurice Hamington

A settlement constantly endeavors to make its neighborhood

realize that it belongs to the city as a whole, and can only

improve as the city improves.

--Jane Addams

The job of the organizer is to maneuver and bait the

establishment so that it will publicly attack him as the

dangerous enemy. The word enemy is sufficient to put the

organizer on the side of the people . . .

--Saul Alinsky

It is not coincidence that Chicago produced two of the

most important figures in community organizing of the

twentieth century: Jane Addams and Saul Alinsky (1909-1972).

Chicago was a center of social upheaval as exhibited by the

Haymarket Riots of 1888, the Pullman Strike of 1894, and the

Race Riots of 1919 (as well as race riots in the 1940s,
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1950s and 1960s). This citys social unrest existed in

dynamic relationship to ideas about social change and reform

fomented in Chicago as witnessed in the settlement work of

Addams Hull House, the socialist work of Eugene Debss

American Railway Union, the urban research and social

theorizing of the Chicago School [i] , and the Back of the Yards

organization founded by Saul Alinsky. Addams was the visible

leader of one reform effort, the Social Settlement Movement,

and Alinskys name became synonymous with the communityorganizing movement. As activist Heather Booth describes,

Alinsky is to community organizing as Freud is to

psychoanalysis. [ii] In this article, I will challenge the

notion that the genealogy and influence of community

organizing originates with Alinsky, and suggest that the

innovation of Jane Addams work and philosophy are being

overlooked. The Settlement Movement has been characterized as

well meaning, but paternalistic and patronizing [iii] , while

the Community Organizing movement is described as a grass

roots effort that was tough minded and effective. [iv] Alinsky

facilitated the distinction between the two movements by

frequently criticizing the methods of the Settlement workers.

This chapter focuses on the comparative community organizing

philosophies of Addams and Alinsky. I wish to dispel some of

the misconceptions about the differences between the two

leaders while highlighting other crucial dichotomies. I claim

that although Addams and Alinsky differ in regard to how to
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leverage power and social vision, in many ways Alinsky

(through the Chicago school) is an unwitting protg of Addams

when it comes to social epistemology and participative

democracy.

The Addams Model of Community Organizing

In the late 19 th century and early 20 th century, Addams

authored a series of articles that served to define the social

settlement movement and establish Addams as the spokesperson

for the movement. Addams viewed social settlements as

experiments in learning that cut across culture and class:

Hull-House endeavors to make social intercourse express the

growing sense of the economic unity of society, and may be

described as an effort to add the social function to

democracy. [v] Her ultimate goal was social advancement, and

she felt this was only possible if citizens were highly

invested in one another. This social democracy required

what she described as sympathetic knowledge or a duty to

learn about others in society, no matter how unfamiliar those

others were, with an openness to caring for and acting on

behalf of those others. For Addams, sympathetic knowledge is

the connective understanding necessary for a robust democracy.

[vi] Social settlements were physical manifestations of her

democratic philosophy. The settlement was a multifaceted

educational conduit that existed to facilitate social
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knowledge across boundaries of identity such as class and

culture. Those in the neighborhood had an opportunity to

learn about one another as well as about how to navigate and

succeed in the United States through settlement programs.

Simultaneously, settlement workers learned from the various

cultures around them. Addams reflected upon and thematized

what she learned through her writing and speeches thus

allowing those not involved in settlements to learn about the

experiences as well. The social settlements were

intentionally not charity organizations and Addams was quick

to criticize that label: I am always sorry to have Hull House

regarded as philanthropy. [vii] Starting from the feminist

ontological view that humans are fundamentally connected in a

web of relationships rather than atomistic agents, the social

settlements facilitated self sufficiency by supporting

community ties and promoting life long learning. Addams

analogized social settlements as good neighbors, and as such,

modeled the behavior of members in a healthy democracy. Good

neighbors listen carefully, respect community members, and

respond to their needs. If garbage needed to be collected, the

settlement workers found a way to get it picked up. If

working parents needed day care, the settlement workers

organized one.

One example of Addams concern for women and the

development of self sufficiency in the neighborhood can be

seen in the creation of the Jane Club, described in Twenty
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Years at Hull-House. At a time when collective bargaining did

not enjoy the legal protections that it does today, Addams

observed that single women labor union members were

particularly vulnerable when it came to periods of

unemployment created by strikes or lockouts. During labors

actions single working women could no longer afford rent

money. Such vulnerability reduced the power of the bargaining

unit and the influence of women within that unit.

Collaborating with labor leaders such as Mary Kenney, Addams

established a workingwomans cooperative, subsequently named

the Jane Club. This cooperative ensured that all members

rent was paid in the event of labor interruptions. Addams

secured funding to build housing for the Jane Club, but it

operated as an independent entity as described in the Hull-

House Year Book (1934): The club has been, from the

beginning, self-governing, the officers being elected by the

members from their own number. [viii] This report came after

the Jane Clubs 27 th year of continuous operation. The Jane

Club allowed individual members to flourish through the power

of communal enterprise. Addams organizational vision made

this project possible.

As seen in the example of the Jane Club, Addams

philosophy of community organizing was responsive, anti-

ideological, fluid, and methodologically anti-antagonistic.

Most of all, Hull House listened to the community and

responding to needs. It was non-ideological in that Hull


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House did not affiliate with any particular group. Although

socialists and anarchists were invited to speak at Hull House,

there was no affiliation. Many residents held religious

beliefs, but no settlement ties to organized religion were

made. Furthermore, Addams lack of ideology meant that she

was open to many different paths to achieving success. For

example, she was willing to collaborate with government

agencies in order to advance societal interests. Finally,

Addams philosophy of community organizing was anti-

antagonistic, which should not be confused with being

nonconfrontational. On many occasions, Addams confronted

entrenched others in her struggles to advance the interests of

the neighborhood. She did so without engaging in personal

rancor. For example, on three occasions she organized

unsuccessful opposition campaigns to unseat the local corrupt

alderman, Johnny Powers. However, Addams avoided personal

antagonism. Although disagreeing with Powers backroom deals

and cronyism, she was objective enough to admire his ability

to form close ties with the community. [ix] She refused to

villainize anyone, although she was not afraid of pointing out

their errors. In her account of the Pullman Strike, she

delineates the mistakes in leadership that George Pullman made

including a lack of connection to his workers and a blind

paternalism. [x] Despite her support for labor organizing, she

also recounted the errors of the workers. Pullman was not

characterized as inherently evil, but rather as an all too

human gone astray. In community organizing, Addams attempted


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to keep all people in the conversation and avoided alienating

individuals through unnecessary personal antagonism.

In summary, Addams community organizing supported her

political philosophy which emphasized social democracy,

widespread participation, and the development of

connected/sympathetic knowledge. Although Addams philosophy

came alive through the work of Hull House, it did not reflect

the entire settlement movement. The Settlement Movement was a

very disparate amalgamation of efforts. The over 400

settlements that existed at the movements peak had no formal

ties to one another. For example, although Hull House avoided

religious affiliation, many other settlement communities

overtly embraced religion. [xi] The movement also underwent

drastic changes through its decline in the 1930s; the largest

of which being the use of professional social workers. After

World War I, fewer volunteers were forthcoming resulting in

the settlements employing more contracted professionals who

did not reside at the settlement. These settlements became

increasingly bureaucratic and institutionalized and thus less

like the fluid and flat Hull House that Addams had managed.

Addams viewed proximal relations as paramount. She overcame

her outsider status in the Hull House neighborhood by treating

her neighbors with dignity and respect, as well as living in

the area for almost 50 years. Subsequent settlement workers

had more specialized education, as described by Judith Ann

Trolander: In place of residents, the post-World War II


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settlement house hired increasing numbers of M.S.W.s, changed

its methods and image, enlarged its professional

organizations, and attracted different kinds of people as

settlement house works. Professionalization was the

underlying cause of these changes. [xii] These professional

social workers were more clearly marked as outsiders to the

community. Settlement houses continued to work for the

improvement of impoverished communities, but the philosophy of

community organizing moved away from Addams vision of a

highly connected and engaged good neighbor. I mention this

evolution because the settlement movement that Alinsky

confronted and criticized was not the same one that Addams had

created in the early decades at Hull House. Karl Marx once

famously declared, I am not a Marxist in response to the

many unsavory manifestations of his work. If Addams were to

confront the professionalized settlement movement of the

latter half of the 20 th century, she might similarly declare,

I am not a settlement worker.

The Alinsky Model of Community Organizing

Addams (with Ellen Gates Starr) opened Hull House in 1889

in West Chicago on Halstead Street. A half-century later, in

1939, Saul Alinsky and Joseph Meeghan organized the Back of

the Yards community located behind Chicagos Union Stock

Yards, the subject of Upton Sinclairs The Jungle. As early as


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1906, Addams described the sickening stench and scum in the

Chicago stock yards as unendurable. [xiii] The neighborhood

that Alinsky confronted was largely foreign born, suffered

from high rates of unemployment, and resided amidst the

environmental nightmare of the stockyards including its

pervasive putrid odor. Alinsky led the formation of the Back

of the Yards Neighborhood Council (BYNC), a confederation of

numerous local groups, brought together to collectively

address issues in the neighborhood. Many of the local ethnic

communities were at odds with one another, but Alinsky and

Meeghan negotiated a major public meeting where churches,

fraternal clubs, athletic clubs, local businesses, and labor

unions were represented. Alinsky did a great deal of behind

the scenes work to bring the parties together, and he

coordinated a highly effective campaign for the event.. The

local newspapers almost immediately hailed Alinsky as the

architect of a new movement for community justice. [xiv] The

Alinsky led coalition successfully leveraged public outrage to

bring expanded city services and political power to the Back

of the Yards community. This effort launched his 35 year

career in community organizing that found him replicating the

model in other beleaguered urban areas through the Industrial

Area Foundation (IAF). In 1940, after securing funding from

philanthropist Marshall Field and progressive Catholics in

Chicago, Alinsky created the IAF to systematize his community

organizing efforts. The IAF took the Alinsky method to

impoverished areas in Baltimore, Detroit, Little Rock,


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Rochester, San Antonio, and Toledo. Meeghan stayed to work in

the BYNC while Alinsky moved from battleground to

battleground.

Alinskys philosophy of community organizing is based on

power relations. He built grassroots organizations that

democratically leverage power to address social inequities.

It begins with understanding the community. Alinsky, drawing

upon his roots in social science, advocates social research to

thoroughly understand a neighborhood and its problems. As

Robert Bailey Jr. describes, organizers seek to mobilize a

communitys residents to attack problems affecting their

community. [xv] Social research is followed by the

identification and development of local leadership that

Alinsky describes as native or indigenous leadership.

[xvi] Alinsky views contacting and fostering native

leadership as crucial to the process of understanding the

neighborhood and rallying the community around a cause.

Professional organizers provide the skills, but the community

gains its power through participation and coordination in a

manner analogous to labor union organizing. Alinskys

approach is to create an overarching community organization

made up of representatives of local groups. Invitations are

extended to these community groups rather than individuals.

The strategy is one of strength in numbers that parallels the

solidarity crucial for effective collective bargaining.

Ultimately, Alinsky views community organizing as a power


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struggle to gain rights and privileges for marginalized

communities: The present power age denies and evaluates

everything in terms of power. To this common and accepted

view, the field of organization has been no exception. It is

universally assumed that the function of a Peoples

Organization is similar to that of any other kind of

organization, which is to become so strong, so powerful, that

it can achieve its ends. [xvii] For Alinsky, the operant

metaphor for community organizing is that of a battle or game

to be won.

The BYNC applied Alinskys organizing philosophy

successfully to bring tangible and intangible benefits to the

community. [xviii] Tangible benefits included improved

services to the neighborhood, and the intangible benefits

included a new sense of pride. One incident that reveals how

Alinsky valorized the leveraging of power occurred in 1944.

The event also serves as contrasting Alinskys approach with

that of Addams. An opportunity arose to bring the Infant

Welfare Societys (a childrens health clinic) branch station

to the Back of the Yards community. Two local organizations

vied to house the station: BYNC and the University of Chicago

Settlement. To win the battle, Alinsky told the Infant

Welfare Societys president that if the University of Chicago

Settlement housed the infant station, the priests of the

largely Catholic neighborhood would initiate a boycott from

the pulpit. Alinsky viewed this conflict as an opportunity to


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gain status for BYNC as the voice of the community and he was

determined not to lose. He escalated the antagonism by

accusing the Chicago Settlement of being anti-Catholic because

it gave out birth control information. Alinsky made this

accusation despite his own pro birth control beliefs. [xix] In

a public struggle, he backed the Chicago Settlement into a

corner and rebuffed their efforts at conciliation until it was

clear that BYNC was victorious. Alinsky had once again

demonstrated how effective his methods were. As a result of

the confrontation, the Chicago Settlement never fully regained

its stature in the community. [xx] The BYNC used its newfound

status to fight for increasing benefits for the community.

Common Themes

Superficially, Addams and Alinsky appear to have very

different organizing philosophies. However, a delineation

between style and philosophical commitments reveals more

commonality than usually attributed. Part of the challenge of

making this separation is that Alinsky and members of his

organization intentionally and forcefully depict themselves as

differing strongly from social settlements. Sidney Hyman,

whose sister had been a resident of Hull House, became an

activist for Alinsky in the BYNC. In a 1983 interview


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describing his enthusiasm for working with Alinsky, Hyman

contrasts Addams philosophy with that of Alinskys:

The good Episcopalian ladies with the good-bad

conscience did everything for Hull House. These

were the so-called hellfare workers, the Lady

Bountifuls. Going to work for Jane Addams at Hull-

House was a romantic thing to do for a young,

sensitive woman. [Their noble purpose was] to help,

but it was always the Lady Bountifuls who were doing

the helping. Now Saul comes along and turns it

around and sort of sets the whole Hull-House idea on

its head. He says he doesnt want the hellfare

worker, he doesnt want the Lady Bountiful; he wants

people to help themselves and that became a very

romantic idea. A lot of people wanted to get it on

that one, just like an earlier generation a lot of

people wanted to get in on the Hull-House idea. [xxi]

Hyman makes the error of associating Addams with unreflective

charity work; however, the real target of his critique should

have been what the settlements evolved into during the post-

Addams era rather than Addams philosophy. Addams would likely

be aghast at such an association with charity work because she

vehemently contended that settlements were intended to

facilitate education and connection, not charity. In

Democracy and Social Ethics , Addams devotes an entire chapter


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to criticizing well meaning, but ineffective charity workers

who fail to understand the communities that they attempt to

serve. Addams criticism of charity workers is strikingly

similar to Hyman and Alinskys criticism of social settlement

workers. Addams challenges the class structure of charity,

for example, when she criticizes the charity worker who judges

the cleanliness of the neighborhood home over against her own

parasitic cleanliness and a social standing only attained

through status. [xxii] The notion that Addams stood for

charity in opposition to Alinsky who stood for collective

action is not borne out by historical examination. It can be

demonstrated that Addams and Alinsky share much in terms of

their philosophy of community organizing, with some important

exceptions.

Addams and Alinsky shared a concern for listening and

learning the needs of the community employing both

quantitative and qualitative means to gain perspective. When

asked how to organize people, Alinsky responds, You find out

what they care about, what they are worried about, and you

organize them around these issues. [xxiii] Addams began her

settlement with the simple plan of being a good neighbor, but

within 5 years of opening Hull House, she and her cohort were

engaging in systematic research to understand the community.

In 1895, Addams co-authored Hull-House Maps and Papers, a

groundbreaking social study on the ethnicity and conditions

surrounding the settlement. Historian Kathryn Kish Sklar


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refers to this study as the single most important work by

American women social scientists before 1900. [xxiv] In the

introduction, Addams makes it clear that Hull-House Maps and

Papers , is not in the interest of science, but part of a

connection to the community that will serve to facilitate

progress:

The residents of Hull-House offer these maps and

papers to the public, not as exhaustive treatises,

but as recorded observations, which may possibly be

of value, because they are immediate, and the result

of long acquaintance. All the writers have been in

actual residence in Hull-House, some of them for

five years; their energies however, have been

chiefly directed not towards sociological

investigation, but to constructive work. [xxv]

In this manner, both Addams and Alinsky demonstrated a respect

for the knowledge generated by social science and the

scientific method, and each understood the need for presence

and responsiveness beyond quantitative analysis.

Both Alinsky and Addams advocated for the active

participation of community members in the organizing of social

efforts. Addams recognized that when existing social

institutions do not provide a reasonable means for citizen

participation, those citizens will organize to resist. For

example, according to Addams, an unresponsive government,


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forces the most patriotic citizens to ignore the Government

and to embody their scruples and hopes of progress in

voluntary organizations. [xxvi] Hull House afforded numerous

opportunities for local groups to organize, particularly as

clubs or labor unions. The settlement acted as an incubator

for such groups providing meeting space and expertise without

formal affiliations. Similarly, Alinsky viewed his

organizations as fully democratic: This kind of organization

can be built only if people are working together for real,

attainable objectives. [xxvii] Alinskys community groups

were democratic to the point that he regretted some of the

directions chosen by local groups he helped found. [xxviii]

Both Addams and Alinsky share a commitment to giving the

disenfranchised a voice. Addams may have held paternalistic

ideas when she opened Hull House, but she soon realized that

the community needed to speak for themselves: The residents

at Hull House find in themselves a constantly increasing

tendency to consult their neighbors on the advisability of

each new undertaking. [xxix] Addams came to view the active

participation of the marginalized as essential to the success

of the settlement. For Addams, settlements draw into

participation in our culture large numbers of persons who

would otherwise have to remain outside. [xxx] In the same

way, Alinsky is very concerned that the United States is

facing a crisis of disenfranchisement: It is a grave

situation when a people resign their citizenship or when a
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resident of a great city, though he may desire to take a hand,

lacks the means to participate. [xxxi] The community

organizations provided citizens with a means to reengage

themselves with political processes. In this trajectory,

Alinsky and Addams held an expansive view of democracy that

entailed a citizens duty for active involvement.

Correspondingly, both had an abiding faith in humanity.

Alinsky describes the community organizer as having a

complete commitment to the belief that if people have the

power, the opportunity to act, in the long run they will, most

of the time, reach the right decisions. [xxxii]

The resonance between the social philosophies of Addams

and Alinsky is not surprising if the Chicago School connection

is taken into account. Addams and Hull House helped shape the

sociology department of the University of Chicago, which in

turn influenced Alinskys approach to community organizing.

Mary Jo Deegan documents the strong ties between Addams and

the early sociologists of the Chicago School: George Herbert

Mead and William I. Thomas. During this early period, the

sociologists collaborated with Addams often, and were frequent

visitors to Hull House, just as Addams visited and lectured at

the University of Chicago. The academics hailed the

publication of Hull House Maps and Papers as a landmark work

in urban sociology. The next generation of sociologists,

including Robert Ezra Parks and Ernest W. Burgess were also

interested in social settlements, but were more concerned with


18/40

professionalizing the discipline of sociology in a manner that

distanced itself from social work. An implicit gender divide

emerged, as social workers were largely female and the

academic sociologists were almost exclusively male. Alinsky

attended the University of Chicago from 1926 to 1932 by which

time most of the first generation of sociologists had left.

Park and Burgess likely mentioned Addams only sparingly in the

classroom, but this does not diminish her influence upon

them. As Lawrence J. Engel describes, Although these male

sociologists failed to acknowledge the significance of Addams,

their work was nevertheless influenced by Hull House: its

community-mapping techniques, its emphasis upon the social

dimensions of democratic neighborhood life, and its

institutional relationships within the community (labor

churches, city agencies, etc.). [xxxiii] Even though Alinsky

was loath to credit his academic roots in forming his

philosophy of community organizing, Engel identifies clear

evidence of connection. Equally compelling is Deegans

evidence for Addams influencing the Chicago School. This

genealogy places Addams as an indirect and unacknowledged

mentor of Alinsky and explains much of their philosophical

convergence.

Divergence


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Where Addams and Alinsky differed was in methodology and

long-range vision. Addams emphasized cooperation devoid of

antagonism. Her interest was in widening the circle of those

actively engaged in any particular issue and thus she avoided

unnecessary alienation. Addams believed in the power of

rational argument to sway the views of her opponents. She was

not nave about conflict and recognized that it occurred, but

she had faith in the ability of people to make common cause.

Addams recognized the role of power and the ability Hull

House had to leverage its power. For example, Addams

describes one function of the social settlement as big

brother whose mere presence on the play ground protects the

little ones from bullies. [xxxiv] Nevertheless, their

rhetorical methods diverged widely. Addams was guarded in her

remarks in order to keep people engaged in the conversation.

Alinsky was flamboyantly bombastic to intentionally provoke

opponents. For example, in describing the difference between

social workers and his organizers, Alinsky declared, they

organize to get rid of four-legged rats and stop there; we

organize to get rid of four-legged rats so we can get on to

removing two-legged rats. [xxxv] He enjoyed a good battle and

he particularly enjoyed winning. Alinskys organizations

viewed each effort at social justice as a contest: we are

concerned with how to create mass organization to seize power

and give it to the people. [xxxvi] Alinskys Rules for

Radicals maintains numerous war metaphors describing community

organizing as warfare with the enemy requiring tactics
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to gain and redistribute power. Accordingly, Alinskys

abrasiveness elicited numerous critics. Addams had her

detractors as well, but they were for the positions that she

took, not because of her rhetorical demeanor.

Methodology is not the only difference between the two.

Perhaps more substantially, Addams and Alinsky had different

approaches to the scope and long-range goals of community

organizing. Alinsky was vague about the broad social changes

he was attempting to institute and made little effort to

thematizing across the individual battles for social justice

that he was waging. Joseph Heathcott claims that Alinskys

lack of broader political vision makes his philosophy of

community organizing less serviceable in an environment where

large stable organizational constituencies such as unions and

churches are not there to support his planned confrontations.

By contrast, Addams viewed social progress as the overarching

goal for which all efforts are connected. For example, Addams

found no contradiction in arguing for labor rights at the

local level and advocating for peace at the international

level. Both advanced the cause of social democracy. For

Addams, war was regressive and wasteful and thus a threat to

society. The success of labor unions brought greater quality

of work life for all citizens and was thus a boon to society.

Addams philosophy also envisioned ongoing efforts at

community organizing. For Addams, the social settlements were

intended to be lasting good neighbors. She led the effort to


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convert the settlement workers outsider status to insider

status by living in proximity and reciprocity with oppressed

peoples. Alinskys organizations developed leadership talent

within the community, and intended it to be strong enough to

last, but there was no effort at a long-term presence by the

organizer. Once the community organized, it was on its own

with occasional consulting from the outside. These

differences in method and vision cannot be directly correlated

to success. Both Addams and Alinsky had their successes, and

their failures.

An interesting example of the stylistic difference

between Addams and Alinsky has to do with their approach to

higher education. They both were college educated and

benefited tremendously from the skills, knowledge, and mentors

of their academic experience. Both found fault with abstract

scholarship that found no basis in social advancement.

Alinsky is explicit, I never appealed to people based on

abstract values. [xxxvii] Addams also recognizes the

limitations of abstract ideals. When it came to organizing

social efforts around an issue such as prostitution or child

labor, Addams thought it was crucial to use tangible examples

that resonated with the audience in order to fuel interest and

passion for the subject. Nevertheless, Addams maintained a

commitment to scholarly reflection to help characterize and

give meaning to social issues. In regard to a holistic notion

of peace that was more than the absence of war and required


22/40

local and international effort, Addams proposed that, it

requires the philosopher to unify these spiritual efforts of

the common man into the internationalism of good

will. [xxxviii] Addams did have her criticism of scholarship

that became too academic, as reflected in her falling out with

the University of Chicago. Comparatively, Alinsky appears

almost bitter in his anti-intellectual tirades. In a 1965

interview, Alinsky muses, In college I took a lot of

sociology courses too, but I cant say they made a deep

impression on me. . . . Today the University of Chicago

sociology department is just a tribe of head

counters. [xxxix] The professionalized social settlement

workers of the era was one of the educated groups that Alinsky

railed against, referring to their training as formalized

garbage they learned in school. [xl]

Gender Mapping

Ultimately, Alinsky and his followers emphasize that they

were engaging in a new brand of community organizing. Note

that Alinsky reveled in the word radical. Alinskys two

most important works are Rules for Radicals and Reveille for

Radicals . Sanford D. Horwitts biography of Alinsky is titled

Let Them Call Me Radical, and Marion K. Sanders published

interview with Alinsky is titled The Professional Radical .

Alinsky defines a radical as, that unique person who actually


23/40

believes what he says. He is that person to whom the common

good is the greatest personal value. He is that person who

genuinely and completely believes in mankind. The radical is

so completely identified with mankind that he personally

shares the pain, the injustices, and the sufferings of all his

fell men. [xli] Despite this fixation with the term, was

Alinsky a radical? Alinsky advocated for social reform and

change using tactics designed to provoke and gain attention,

but he did not question fundamental institutions of society

such as capitalism. By many standards, including those of

feminist theorists, Alinsky is a mild radical at best.

Sociologists Donald C. Reitzes and Dietrick C. Reitzes claim

that despite self description to the contrary, Alinskys

philosophy of community organizing is not radical and

revolutionary. [xlii] During the Civil Rights Movement in the

United States, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

held dialogues with Alinsky and his organizers, but they

became frustrated because he was only advocating reform. Mike

Miller, who worked for both SNCC and later an Alinsky

organization, describes: A common label attached to Alinsky

was that he was only local, failing to understand that major

decisions were made at a national level. [xliii] I suggest

that Alinsky was using the term radical not in the sense of

challenging existing institutions and structures, but as

describing a curmudgeon with integrity. Furthermore, the term

is clearly masculine in Alinskys mind. For Alinsky, a

radical is a man who does not use methods traditionally


24/40

described as feminine. Furthermore, all of Alinskys

examples of radicals John P. Altgeld, Edward Bellamy, John

Brown, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, Henry Lloyd, Horace

Mann, Thomas Paine, Upton Sinclair, and Lincoln Steffens--are

male.

What is intriguing about the difference in methodology

between Addams and Alinsky is how well it maps onto gender

stereotypes. Addams was cooperative and caring in fostering

life-long learning and relationships. Alinsky was competitive

and abrasive in trying to achieve victories in the name of

social justice. Alinskys organizing did not exclude women,

but its demands and style favored men, and this was borne out

demographically. [xliv] Kenneth Boulding describes Alinskys

community organizing as requiring, behavior more typically

identified as male; activism, aggression, self assertion, and

organizing more frequently associated with the managerial

sex. [xlv] Perhaps not surprisingly, the masculine

approach has been considered realistic and efficacious while

the feminine approach has been thought of as nave and

simplistic. Accordingly, for decades Alinsky has been

assigned the title of father of community organizing, while

Addams community organizing legacy through social settlements

has been overshadowed. Until recently, Addams has been

excluded from serious consideration in philosophy and

sociology [xlvi] as well as activism/community

organizing/radicalism. Given the breadth of her social


25/40

theorizing, the volume of her publications, her impact on

local communities and international policies and institutions,

one has to wonder if implicit sexism is not at the heart of

her exclusion.

Susan Stall and Randy Stoecker authored one of the few

comparative studies of gender and community organizing. They

compare the Alinsky approach to a women-centered approach

in community organizing, thus Addams is not a direct target of

comparison, but she is a leading figure in the women-centered

approach. This insightful and comprehensive study divides the

two approaches along a public/private sphere split. According

to Stall and Stoecker, Alinskys methods assume working within

the public sphere while a women-centered approach must

traverse the private to the public. The assumptions of the

two approaches are very different with the Alinsky model

assuming the self-interested agent and the women-centered

approach assuming a caring model. Accordingly, Alinskys

organizers must find the issues that resonate with peoples

individual self interest. The women-centered model seeks to

foster connections among community members to facilitate

caring. Although this is a useful and well-documented

analysis, a few of the assumptions of Stall and Stoeckers

discussion appear to belie the gender biases that they wished

to highlight. Comparing an individuals community organizing

approach (Alinskys) to an amalgamation of approaches (women-

centered) appears unbalanced. Stall and Stoecker claim,


26/40

unlike the Alinsky model, the women centered model of

community organizing cannot be attributed to a single person

or movement. [xlvii] The implication of this statement is

that Alinsky is solely responsible for his philosophy of

community organizing: the myth of the heroic male. Such a

decontextualized claim ignores Alinskys training and

acknowledged mentors such as labor organizer, John L. Lewis,

as well as the aforementioned Park and Burgess. Furthermore,

such an approach assumes that what Alinsky did was novel. His

tactics may have been unique, but much of his philosophy, a

social epistemology of participative and proximal relations,

can be found in Addams theories of the settlement movement.

Stall and Stoecker also seem to implicitly denigrate the

ability of a women-centered approach to structure large-scale

projects: The presence, and partial restriction, of women in

the private sphere leads the women-centered organizing model

to emphasize a very different organizing process formed around

creating an ideal private-sphere-like setting rather than a

large public sphere organization. [xlviii] Just because women

were restricted from the public sphere did not mean that they

did not enter or manipulate it. Addams Hull House was very

much an entre into the public sphere that Addams and her

cohort leveraged to become more widely influential. For

example, Robyn Muncy documents how Hull House residents were

responsible for creating the Womens Bureau, the first

government agency headed by a woman, longtime Hull House

resident Julia Lathrop. The Womens Bureau was not only a


27/40

women-centered organization, but it integrated numerous

feminist principles of operation. [xlix] To be fair, Stall and

Stoecker are not alone in assuming the primacy of Alinskys

community organizing, but it is intriguing that gender bias

runs so deep that even those attending to it cannot escape it.

[l]

Alinsky accomplished a great deal in his lifetime and

modern day activists do well to study his philosophy and

methods, but his legacy is perhaps generally overstated and

inflated to match his larger-than-life personality. Judith

Ann Trolander notes that Alinsky was a powerful spokesperson

for community organizing and a brilliant self promoter, which

served to advance his cause. [li] Perhaps Alinsky influenced

the extent of his own legacy.

Conclusion: Addams as a Model of Feminist Community Organizing

Marie Weil lists various United States social movements

with significant female leadership, and no one is associated

with more movements than Addams. Despite this delineation,

Weil falls prey to gender perceptions, claiming:

Despite a rich and proud heritage of female

organizers and movement leaders, the field of

community organization, in both its teaching models

and its major exponents, have been a male-dominated


28/40

preserve, where, even though values are expressed in

terms of participatory democracy, much of the focus

within the dominant practice methods has been

nonsupportive or antithetical to feminism.

Strategies have largely been based on macho-power

models, manipulativeness, and zero-sum gamesmanship.

[lii]

I would qualify Weils largely accurate description by

suggesting not that the field has been male dominated, but

that the portrayal of it has been. Much like Alinskys effort

to depict himself as using necessary masculine methods over

and against inferior feminine methods, history has masked the

successful communitarian and cooperative efforts of women

organizers as anachronistic. In this manner, feminist

community organizing is hidden behind the acclaim heaped upon

male organizing. The feminist process of reassessing given

historical truths reveals more grassroots organizing than is

commonly attributed.

Addams develops a feminist philosophy of community

organizing emphasizing proximal relations and sympathetic

knowledge that in some ways resonates more with modern

feminist sensibilities than it did with first or second wave

feminism. In 1990, Patricia Yancey Martin explored the

dimensions of a feminist organization. She offered numerous

definitions one of which is that a feminist organization is


29/40

pro-woman, political, and socially transformational. [liii]

Addams approach to community organizing was inclusive,

providing new and unique opportunities to empower women

including athletic expression, reproductive information

dissemination, and economic independence. Hull House

residents often found themselves engaged in political

conflicts. Ultimately, it was a women-centered community that

modeled what women could accomplish in the public sphere.

This form of community organizing has a modern quality in its

fluidity and cosmopolitanism, and yet sought to create lasting

social relationships. Addams settlement community was not

bogged down in layers of bureaucracy or institutional rules

and was therefore capable of responding quickly to the needs

of the neighborhood. Addams embraced diversity in a manner

ahead of her era. She believed cultural and intellectual

pluralism were crucial for the success of a democracy.

Finally, Addams approach to community organizing supported the

notion of setting down lasting roots in the community to

provide ongoing service. This quality might particularly

appeal to modern feminists in a world dominated by truncated

social transactions and technology that facilitates long

distance interactions. Hull House, and Addams reflections

upon society and social settlements, remain a fascinating

example of feminist community organizing that has not been

fully mined for its ongoing significance.


30/40

[i] The Chicago School is associated with scholars at the

University of Chicago in the very late 19 th century and early

20 th century in the fields of economics, philosophy,

psychology, religion, and sociology; however, the meaning of

the term has evolved differently in the various disciplines.

Addams was associated with early influential members of the

Chicago School including philosophers John Dewey and George

Herbert Mead while later sociologists, Robert Ezra Park and

Ernest W. Burgess, influenced Alinsky.

[ii] Robert A. Slayton, Back of the Yards: The Making of a Local

Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 198.

[iii] Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social

Settlements and the Progressive Movement 1890-1914 (New York:

Oxford University Press, 1967), 17, 20.

[iv] See, for example, Donald C. Reitzes and Dietric C. Reitzes,

Saul D. Alinsky: A Neglected Source But Promising Resource,

The American Sociologist 17 (Feb 1982): 47-56.

[v] Jane Addams, Hull House (Chicago), in ed. William D. P.

Bliss, Encyclopedia of Social Reform (New York: Funk &

Wagnalls Company, 1908), 587-90.
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[vi] For a discussion of sympathetic knowledge, see Maurice

Hamington, The Philosophy of Jane Addams (Urbana: University

of Illinois Press, forthcoming).

[vii] Jane Addams, The Objective Value of A Social Settlement,

in ed. Jean Bethke Elshtain The Jane Addams Reader (New York:

Basic Books, 2002), 45.

[viii] Hull-House Year Book: Forty-Fifth Year , 57.

[ix] Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics (Urbana:

University of Illinois Press, 2002), 99.

[x] Jane Addams, A Modern Lear Survey 29 (Nov. 2, 1912), 131-

7.

[xi] Mina Carson, Settlement Folk (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1990), 219 n38.

[xii] Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change:

From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers,

1886 to the Present (New York: Columbia University Press,

1987), 31-2.

[xiii] Addams identifies the problems in the Chicago Stock Yards,

as a failure of the local government to adhere to the will of

the local inhabitants, foreshadowing what Alinsky would

confront over 30 years later. Jane Addams, Newer Ideals of

Peace (Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2007), 58.
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[xiv] Sanford D. Horwitt, Let Them Call Me Rebel (New York:

Vintage Books, 1992), 75.

[xv] Robert Bailey, Jr., Radicals in Urban Politics: The

Alinsky Approach (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972),

49.

[xvi] Saul Alinsky, Reveille for Radicals, Vintage Edition (New

York: Random House, 1969), 64.

[xvii] Ibid., 53.

[xviii] The BYNC website lists dozens of accomplishments since

its inception. http://www.bync.org/site/information/bync

[xix] Saul Alinsky, Rules for Radicals: A Pragmatic Primer for

Realistic Radicals (New York: Vintage Books, 1971), 94.

[xx] Horwitt, Let Them Call Me Rebel , 138-43.

[xxi] Sidney Hyman quoted in Horwitt, Let Them Call Me Rebel ,

127.

[xxii] Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics , 12.

[xxiii] Saul Alinsky in Marion K. Sanders, The Professional

Radical: Conversations with Saul Alinsky (New York: Harper and

Row, 1970),
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[xxiv] Kathryn Kish Sklar, Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social

Science as Womens Work in the 1890s in ed. Helene

Silverberg, Gender and American Social Science: The Formative

Years , (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 127.

[xxv] Jane Addams, Prefatory Note in Hull-House Maps and

Papers: A Presentation of Nationalities an Wages in a

Congested District of Chicago, Together with Comments and

Essays on Problems Growing Out of the Social Conditions,

Residents of Hull House, (Urbana: University of Illinois

Press, 2007), 45.

[xxvi] Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace , 62.

[xxvii] Alinsky in Sanders, The Professional Radical , 48.

[xxviii] Bailey, Radicals in Urban Politics , 49.

[xxix] Addams, The Objective Value of A Social Settlement, 41.

[xxx] Jane Addams, Widening the Circle of Enlightenment

Journal of Adult Education 2:3 (June 1930), 279.

[xxxi] Alinsky, Rules for Radicals, xxvi.

[xxxii] Alinsky, Reveille for Radicals, xiv.

[xxxiii] Lawrence J. Engel, Saul D. Alinsky and the Chicago

School The Journal of Speculative Philosophy 16:1 (2002), 63.
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[xxxiv] Addams, The Objective Value of A Social Settlement,

43.

[xxxv] Alinsky, Rules for Radicals, 68.

[xxxvi] Ibid., 3.

[xxxvii] Saul Alinsky in Sanders, The Professional Radical , 31.

[xxxviii] Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace , 15.

[xxxix] Ibid., 14-15.

[xl] Alinsky, Rules for Radicals , 68.

[xli] Alinsky, Reveille for Radicals , 15.

[xlii] Reitzes and Reitzes, Saul D. Alinsky, 54.

[xliii] Mike Miller, The 60s Student Movement & Saul Alinsky:

An Alliance that Never Happened. Social Policy 34:2&3

(Winter 2003, Spring 2004): 106.

[xliv] Susan Stall and Randy Stoecker, Community Organizing or

Organizing Community? Gender and the Crafts of Empowerment

Gender & Society 12:6 (December 1998), 735; and, Trolander,

Professionalism and Social Change , 65.

[xlv] Kenneth Boulding, Alienation and Economic Development:

The Larger Background of the Settlement Movement,
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Neighborhood Goals in a Rapidly Changing World (New York:

NFS, 1958), 62-3.

[xlvi] The pioneering work of Mary Jo Deegan and Charlene

Haddock Seigfried has asserted Addams intellectual

significance in sociology and philosophy respectively.

Deegan, Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School; and

Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Pragmatism and Feminism: Reweaving

the Social Fabric (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1996).

[xlvii] Susan Stall and Randy Stoecker, Community Organizing or

Organizing Community? Gender and the Crafts of Empowerment

Gender & Society 12:6 (December 1998), 736.

[xlviii]Ibid., 746.

[xlix] Robyn Muncy, Creating A Female Dominion in American

Reform, 1890-1935 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).

[l] Joan Acker has observed that men, making feminist analysis

without implicit assumptions about masculine primacy

challenging, dominate organizational theory. Joan Acker,

Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered

Organizations Gender & Society 4:2 (June 1990), 139-58.

[li] Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 144.
http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref46http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref47http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref48http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref49http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref50http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref51http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref46http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref47http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref48http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref49http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref50http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/MSU/P04R.html#_ednref51


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[lii] Marie Weil, Women, Community, and Organizing in Nan Van

Den Bergh and Lynn B. Cooper, eds. Feminist Visions for Social

Work (Silver Spring, Md: National Association of Social

Workers, 1986), 192.

[liii] Patricia Yancey Martin, Rethinking Feminist

Organizations Gender & Society 4:2 (June 1990), 182.

Core Components of CommunityOrganizing

As we searched the literature and conducted interviews, seven key components of organizingemerged across different styles and approaches.

More information about each component and its relationship to the evaluation of organizingis provided. Although there is overlap among the key components, it is useful to focus oneach of these points.

1. Development of Power 2. Development of Constituent Leadership and Power 3. Participation and Membership4. Organizing "Wins"5. Meaningful Impact of Organizing Work 6. Organizational Capacity and Management7. Ongoing Reflection and Innovation

1. Development of Power

Increasing the collective power of a constituency or organization is a critical component of community organizing, recognized across different organizing theories and philosophies.Though closely related to the attainment of organizing "wins" on an organizational level, thedevelopment of power speaks more broadly to the perception of the organizing group in thebroader political sphere. It is reflected in the ability to gain access to politicians, the ability toput issues on the map, and recognition of the organization as a "go-to" group on a particular issue, among others. When evaluating a group's organizing work, one should keep an eye onits strategies and success in developing its power, especially beyond the confines of anindividual campaign.

Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation: The development of collective power is one of the most challenging core components to evaluate. Challenges include the fact that "power"

is difficult to measure and can take many years to attain. In evaluating communityorganizing efforts, it is important to consider what "power" looks like, "indicators" that the
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constituency and organization are gaining power, and that evaluating this aspect of acommunity organizing group's work may require seeking input from stakeholders outside theorganization and the constituency.

2. Development of Constituent Leadership and Power

Two of the key features that distinguish community organizing from other types of changeefforts are its focus on developing leadership and developing constituents' sense of purposeand power. Well-crafted pathways for constituent leadership development within theorganizing process (including intentional processes for consciousness raising and thedevelopment of critical analysis skills) take time, effort, and skill. Ensuring that theorganizing process reinforces a healthy sense of strength among constituents is alsosomething that requires intentional action. Though almost all organizing groups note thecritical role of constituent leadership and power, the demands of ongoing campaign work sometimes lead organizers to trust that simple participation in campaign activities will createresults in these arenas.

Additionally, these components are often viewed more as "processes" than "outcomes,"making it difficult for many groups to evaluate their performance in these areas. However,tracking an organization's strategy and capacity for developing leadership and constituentpower is a critical part of understanding how successful that organization will be atcommunity organizing, especially in the long run.

Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation : One of the most common challenges toevaluating this core component is creating and measuring indicators of leadershipdevelopment that move beyond simple participation in campaign activities. In addition to

defining measurable indicators for leadership, power, and sense of purpose, evaluation of thiscomponent should include how to track and evaluate an organization's strategy and capacityfor developing leadership and constituent power.

3. Participation and Membership

Closely related to the development of constituent leadership and power, constituentparticipation in decision making (often expressed as membership within the organization) isanother hallmark of the organizing process. This participation can take place in identifyingorganizing goals, deciding on strategies and tactics, negotiating changes in plans throughoutthe organizing process, and even deciding organizational policies as a board member.

Organizational training to facilitate such participation can be key. Also as much "process" as"outcome," some organizations do not include constituent participation in their evaluationsbeyond such measures as increases in membership or participation in annual meetings.Because of the central importance of participation to the organizing process, a more nuancedlook at participation mechanisms and success is critical.

Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation: As with constituent leadership and power, oneof the most common challenges to evaluating this core component is developing meaningfuland measurable indicators of participation beyond counting the number of members and thenumber of meetings they attend. Evaluation of this component should include indicators of participation in other aspects of organizational decision making beyond organizingcampaigns, such as training and evaluation decisions It should demonstrate if there is a lineof progression by which those engaged in organizing and those benefiting from it can


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participate in campaigns, and eventually take leadership roles within the organization,including governance of the organization. Identifying related indicators and ways to measurethem can be an organization wide conversation.

4. Organizing "Wins"

The actual objective of a campaign or, as it is often called in organizing jargon, the "win" is often the most visible part of the organizing process and is probably the most commonlyevaluated. Related to the development of power, in that achieving the outcome of acampaign is often associated with developing the power necessary to win the campaign, it isusually fairly easy to objectively identify whether or not an organization has reached itscampaign objective. Yet, it is important for many groups to include a more nuanceddefinition of the organizing win that includes such outcomes as resident empowerment andorganizational development.

Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation: Organizations' wins can be externally or internally focused. Evaluation of external organizing "wins" is seemingly straightforwardand easy to measure by whether or not a campaign objective was met. Campaign objectivesare frequently long-term, though, and a group might work toward an objective for severalyears, or longer. From an evaluation standpoint, organizations need to think about how tobreak down long-term campaign goals into shorter-term interim objectives. For example,gaining support for an issue from key neighborhood leaders or city council members can bean important stepping stone towards an eventual policy change sought. Some internal interimobjectives might be "stepping stones" toward longer-term goals, and important "wins" in andof themselves, such as changes in constituent leadership and power, or changes inorganizational capacity. An organization might lose a campaign but at the same time

accomplish a "win" by building its power significantly.

5. Meaningful Impact

While the evaluation of an organization's success at reaching its campaign objectives iscritical, it is also important to gauge the meaningfulness of the campaign objective in terms of its impact on a community or on a particular issue. Choosing and winning campaigns that, inand of themselves, do not have a meaningful impact does not necessarily indicate successfulorganizing work. Including measures of the larger impact of organizing campaigns helps ussee the forest for the trees.

As an additional note for this component, many organizations recognize the need to think beyond individual campaign outcomes and focus on how the organizing process alsocontributes to a larger movement for change. Including the concept of meaningful impact inevaluation conversations not only helps organizations think critically about the relevance of their campaign objectives, but also about how the process of achieving these objectives cancontribute to a larger vision of positive change.

Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation: Evaluating "meaningful impact" is somethingthat organizations need to start thinking about in the early planning stages of a campaign, or even in the issue identification stage. They can ask themselves what will be different for people in the community if the campaign is won and what will be the measurableimprovement in people's lives. Another question about impact is what will be the range of people that benefit from the changes sought. Further, it is critical that constituents


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themselves be involved in defining what is meaningful. A longer term challenge is toidentify ways to track outcomes beyond the life of the campaign. For example, once a grouphas won a policy change it might track the implementation of that change and measure itsimpact on people's lives.

6. Organizational Capacity and Management

In order to engage meaningfully in long-term community organizing work, an organizationneeds to continue to assess and develop its capacity to do and manage organizing. Thegreater the focus (among staff, membership and board members) on analyzing root causesand structural causes of social problems, and the use of this analysis to sharpen theidentification and attainment of campaign objectives, the greater the impact an organizationwill have in creating small- and large-scale social change. Additionally, an organizationneeds to be developing its capacity (from the board to the staff level) to manage andunderstand the role of organizing work within its vision, mission, strategic plan, etc. Criticalareas within organizational development include, but are not limited to, organizationaloperations, the development of relationships and collaborations, and planning andimplementation capacity.

Despite its importance, especially for longer-term movement building work, an organization'sability to build capacity for and manage organizing, as well as an organizational structure thatsupports organizing, is easy to overlook, and often gets lost in the day-to-day needs of anorganizing campaign. However, the intentional development of organizational capacity andmanagement will often distinguish a group with the ability to have one successful campaignfrom a group that has the ability to make a more lasting impact.

Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation: While many tools have been recentlydeveloped for assessing nonprofit organizational capacity, identifying capacity needs, andmeasuring results of capacity building efforts, there has been less research and are fewer assessment and evaluation tools tailored to evaluating organizational capacity for effectivecommunity organizing. Organizations considering their key evaluation questions andappropriate indicators of capacity for organizing might include the organization's capacity to:cultivate and manage membership; engage diverse stakeholders in setting goals and priorities;adapt those goals and priorities quickly in response to changes in the environment; and createand maintain internal systems that support organizing (such as appropriate supervision for organizers and personnel policies that reflect the organization's social justice goals). One keyevaluation question is whether or not a group is part of a larger world of organizing in order

to aggregate power to accomplish its mission.

7. Ongoing Reflection and Innovation

Related to organizational capacity building and management, but more specifically focusedon ongoing implementation and adaptation of campaign strategies and tactics, a criticalcomponent to organizing success is the process of reflection and innovation. Organizing is asmuch art or craft as science, and organizers and the organizations that support them need tobe able to recognize when situations mandate changes to the organizing formula. Equally asimportant, as campaigns come to a close, a process of reflection and celebration are critical and again often overlooked pieces to successful organizing work.


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Key Issues and Implications for Evaluation: Evaluation, at its heart, is about incorporatingongoing reflection and learning into an organization's work. Community organizing work inparticular is about learning as you go learning about what kinds of strategies and tacticswork when, where, and under what conditions, and paying close attention to process and howleaders grow and develop. The implications of this for evaluation are twofold: (1) it suggests

that a highly participatory form of evaluation that engages all stakeholders in the process of defining evaluation questions (what is to be learned through the evaluation) and carrying outthe evaluation is appropriate; and (2) it suggests that an organization's evaluation plan shouldensure that the process builds in points along the way for stopping and looking at evaluation"results" to date, reflecting on them, and drawing lessons learned.

comm org philosophies

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