CHAPTER 2

Early Societies in Southeast Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

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Mesopotamia

“Between the Rivers”Tigris and Euphrates

Contemporary Iran, Iraq Cultural continuum of

“fertile crescent”

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The Wealth of the Rivers

Nutrient-rich silt Key: irrigation

Necessity of coordinated effortsPromoted development of local governments City-states

Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 BCE By 5000 BCE, complex irrigation networks

Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 BCE Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture

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Sumerian City-States

Cities appear 4000 BCE Dominate region from 3200-2350 BCE

Ur (home of Abraham), Nineveh Ziggurat home of the god Divine mandate to Kings Regulation of Trade

Ziggurat

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Political Decline of Sumer Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia

overshadow SumerSargon of Akkad (2370-2315 BCE)○ Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created

empire based in Akkad○ Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions

Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 BCE)Improved taxation, legislationUsed local governors to maintain control of city-

states Babylonian Empire later destroyed by Hittites from

Anatolia, c. 1595 BCE

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Legal System

The Code of Hammurabi (18th c. BCE)282 itemslex talionis (item 196: “eye for an eye”)Social status and punishmentwomen as property, but some rights

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Technological Development in Mesopotamia

Bronze (copper with tin), c. 4000 BCEMilitary, agricultural applications

Iron, c. 1000 BCECheaper than bronze

Wheel, boats, c. 3500 BCE Shipbuilding increases trade networks

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Later Mesopotamian Empires

Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign invaders

Assyrians use new iron weaponryBeginning 1300 BCE, by 8th-7th centuries BCE

control Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of Egypt

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605-562) takes advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean (New Babylonian) Empire

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Social Classes Ruling classes based often on military prowess

Originally elected, later hereditaryPerceived as offspring of gods

Religious classesRole: intervention with gods to ensure fertility, safetyConsiderable landholdings, other economic activities

Free commonersPeasant cultivatorsSome urban professionals

SlavesPrisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors

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Patriarchal Society

Men as landowners, relationship to status Patriarchy: “rule of the father”

Right to sell wives, children Double standard of sexual morality

Women drowned for adulteryRelaxed sexual mores for men

Yet some possibilities of social mobility for womenCourt advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity

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Development of Writing

Sumerian writing systems form 3500 BCE Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”

Preservation of documents on clayDeclines from 400 BCE with spread of Greek

alphabetic script

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Uses for Writing

Trade Astronomy Mathematics

Agricultural applications Calculation of time

12-month year24-hour day, 60-minute hour

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Hebrews and Monotheism Moses introduces monotheism, belief in

single godDenies existence of competing parallel deitiesPersonal god: reward and punishment for

conformity with revealed lawThe Torah (“the teaching”)

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The Phoenicians

City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000 BCE

Extensive maritime tradeDominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 BCE

Development of alphabet symbolsSimpler alternative to cuneiformSpread of literacy

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Indo-European Migrations Common roots of many languages of

Europe, southwest Asia, India Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian

weaponry allowed them to spread widely

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Implications of Indo-European Migration Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, c. 1900 BCE, later

dominate Babylonia Influence on trade

Horses, chariots with spoked wheels, use of IronIron Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also

significant Influence on language and culture

Caste system in India