experiment 2 edaphic factors - appendix

7/22/2019 Experiment 2 Edaphic Factors - Appendix

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Wild Thornberries HAD

CHUMACERA, KRISTINE B. Date Performed: June 27, 2013Coden, Christelle Jae D. Date Submitted: July 5, 2013

Gelera, Mariel Grace M.

Jacinto, Justine April C.

Tanalgo, Baby Lyn Ann S.

Exercise No. 2The Edaphic Factors and the Soil Inhabitants

I. AbstractSoil is the component of the earths crust formed as a product of physical and chemical weathering. Through its ability to hold

water and store nutrients, it makes plant growth possible. Aside from plants, many small oragnisms also rely on soil as a habitat. Edaphic

factors, determine the survival of plants and soil inhabitants. The edaphic factors studied in this experiment include soil temperature,moisture, pH, organic matter, texure, horizon and nutrients and.The group was assigned to collect soil samples from the Oblation Gardenlast June 27, 2013 from 8:00 to 9:00 in the morning and study them through physical and chemical examination. Soil properties varied foreach of the sites studiedthe Oblation Garden, PGH, Taft and Paco Park. The factors were found to affect one another and the organisms

in the area. Soil types with optimum conditions for living were inhabited by more organisms. All study sites gave values suggesting

favourable conditions for plant growth and nutrient cycling.

Keywords: edaphic factors, soil horizon, soil texture, soil pH, soil moisture, organic matter

II. Introduction

Soil is the main medium where plants grow.

It is a complex mixture of sand, silt, clay, air, andbits of decaying animal and plant tissue (Miller andLevine 2003). It is a natural product formed andsynthesized through the weathering of rocks andaction of living organisms. Soil is composed of

minerals and organic matter which makes it capableto support terrestrial organisms such as plants (Smith2012). Soil is very important in determining the type

of plants that would grow in a certain environment.It controls how much water can be retained in

terrestrial environments. Microorganisms and otherterrestrial animals also depend on the type of soilthey live in. They obtain their nutrients from the soil

so it is very important for their survival. Thecapability of the soil to support plant and animal life

is dependent on edaphic factors. Edaphic factors aredefined as ecological influences properties of the

soil brought about by its physical and chemicalcharacteristics. It is very important to study thesefactors because they affect the organisms living in acertain type of soil. The availability of the nutrientsneeded by the organisms is dependent on soil

properties (Hallare).The objective of this experiment is to

investigate some edaphic factors of the soil such assoil profile, temperature, pH, moisture, organicmatter, nutrients, and texture. The students should be

able to explain the effects of these factors to thebiotic factors living in a certain type of soil. Through

this experiment, the students should be able todetermine the optimum value for each factor whichis suitable for living organisms. The type ofinhabitants in different soils was also examined. In

order to analyze the different edaphic factors, fieldand laboratory instruments were used.

III. Materials and Methods

Four areas, namely Paco Park, Taft AvenuePGH and Oblation Garden were selected to

determine soil characteristics. The following sets ofprocedure were performed.

A. The Edaphic Factors

1. Soil ProfileUsing a soil corer, five sets of soil samples

for the five random points in a specific study site

were collected. This consists of a hollow half-opened metal tube. The tube will be pushed into thesoil until the top of its level with the soil surface. Itwill then be pulled carefully from the soil and beexamined. The soil exhibits vertical zonation called

horizons. Enough information will be collectedconcerning the O, A and B horizons. Differences incolor, structure, and thickness within these majorhorizons will be taken. Moreover, complete soi

profiles can also be obtained conveniently from

recent excavations in the area.


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2. Soil TemperatureThe temperature was first equilibrated for at

least two minutes and was buried afterwards about 3

and 6 inches below the surface of the soil. A total offive readings for each study site were recorded andthe average temperature was calculated afterwards.

3. Soil pHTo determine the pH of the soil, soil samples

were collected from the different study sites. Soilsuspensions were then prepared by mixing equalamounts of soil with distilled water in a beaker (1

mg=1mL). The researchers used 2 g of soil sampleand 200 mL of distilled water. It was left for about

10 minutes until the particles settled down and aclear supernatant was achieved. The pH readingswere obtained through the use of a calibrated pHmeter dipped in the relatively clear supernatantformed.

4. Soil MoistureSoil moisture level is related to the amount

of rainfall, evapotranspiration and drainage, and the

water-holding capacity of the soil. The relativeamount of soil can be determined using qualitativeand quantitative means. For the quantitativecharacterization:

Dry soilwhen it is hard, crumbly and dry to touchMoist soilwhen it is pliable and damp to touch

Wet soil when it exudes water when squeezed,leaving the hand muddy

For quantitative measurement of the percentmoisture in the soil, samples were obtained fromshallow depth horizon and were sealed in separate

plastic bags. After transfer, a clean dry crucible wasweighed. 10 g of soil sample was then added and

was weighed together with the container. It wasoven-dried at 105C for 24 hours. The container was

removed from the oven using tongs and was cooledto room temperature. After cooling, the weight of the

sample and the container were recorded. The dryweight of the sample (Wd) is computed as theweight of the container with the oven-dried sample

(Wo) minus the weight of the container when empty(Wc):

Wd = WoWc.

The weight of the water in the sample is the

difference between the fresh weight and the dryweight. Therefore, the percentage of water in the

sample is the weight of the water divided by the dryweight multiplied by 100.

5. Soil Organic MatterOven-dried samples were obtained from the

previous activity in soil moisture. A clean drycrucible was weighed and recorded as Wc. Thecrucible was filled with 1-5 grams of oven-dried

sample and was weighed again together as Wo. Thesoil sample was heated in a muffle furnace at 450CIt was cooled and weighed afterwards. The ignitedsoil sample was recorded as Wi. Calculate theweight of the ignited soil sample by subtracting the

weight of the crucible (Wi-Wc). The loss of weighon ignition (Wo-Wi) gives the organic matter

content, which should be expressed as a percentageof the original (dry weight) of the sample.

% Organic Matter =[(Wo-Wc)(Wi-Wc)/(Wo-Wc)] x 100

6. Soil NutrientsSoil suspension for the five soil samples

were prepared and was used to determine the

presence of calcium, phosphate and nitrate. Thepresence of one of the aforementioned nutrients wasindicated by a positive (+) sign and absence of oneof the nutrients was indicated by negative (-) sign.

a) Soil Calcium10 drops of soil supernate was added with

10 drops of solution X (5 g of ammonium oxalate in100 mL distilled water). The solution was the shaked

vigorously to mix contents and left for 5 minutes. Amilky-white precipitate signified presence ofcalcium in varying amounts. No color change

indicated its absence.For determining the presence of calcium

carbonate, a small handful of soil in a crucible wasprepared and was added with concentrated HCl

Effervescence was observed and the presence ofCaCO3 was determined using the table below.

Table 1. Determination of % CaCO3 in soil sample(After Clarke, 1957)

%

CaCO3

Audible

EffectVisible Effcet

< 0.1 None None

0.5 Faint None

1.0Faint-

moderateBarely visible

2.0

Distinct,

heard awayfrom ear

Visible from veryclose


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5.0 Easily heardBubbles up to 3

mm easily seen

10.0 Easily heard

Strong

effervescencewith bubbles of 7

mm

b) Soil Nitrates10 drops of solution Y (0.33 g

diphenylamine in 25 mL H2SO4) was added to a testtube containing 10 drops of soil supernate and wasleft for 5 minutes. Brown to blue coloration

indicated the presence of varying amounts of nitratesin the soil sample.

c) Soil Phosphorus10 drops of solution Z (5 g ammonium

molybdate, 50 mL distilled water, 50 mL

concentrated HNO3) was added to 10 drops of soil

supernate in a test tube. A piece of tin was added andwas shaken to mix the contents. Gray to deep blue

coloration after 5 minutes indicated the presence ofvarying amounts of phosphorus in the soil sample.

7. Soil TextureClassification of soil as to texture was done

by first, feeling the soil whether it is grainy or

sticky. Then soil samples were collected andidentified whether sandy (between 0.5 and 2.0 mmin diameter, feel gritty or grainy) or clayish

(particles less than 0.002 mm, sticky and may coloryour hand). Ten to fifteen centimeters of the soil

sample was moistened, kneaded and was moldedinto a ball. A rough classification of the soil intotexture class was established based on the key givenon the laboratory manual (refer to Table 11 inAppendix).

Furthermore, soil can be broadly classifiedinto three types based on particle size distribution

(See Table 4 on page 21, Laboratory Manual forGeneral Ecology).

Fifty grams of soil sample was weighed and

was passed through the following sieves:No.16 (gravel)

No. 25 (coarse sand)No. 60 (medium sand)

No. 120 (fine sand)

Each grain portion from the sieving wascollected and placed in separate containers. Their

respective weights were determined and recorded.The weight of the fraction that passed through sieveno. 120 was collected and recorded as the mixture ofsilt and clay.

The percentages of sand fractions and ofsilt-clay mixture were calculated as follows:

% Sand = [weight of sand fraction (g) / weight

of oven-dried sample (g) ] x 100

% Silt-clay = [weight of silt-clay fraction (g) /weight of oven-dried sample (g) ] x 100

A frequency distribution was created topresent the obtained data.

B. The Soil Inhabitants

Samples of litter were collected and placed

in clear plastic bags. In the same area, a sample ofsoil, 10 cm deep, was removed and placed inseparate plastic bags. The bag was closed tightly andwas left for 5 minutes. It is then emptied into a white

paper and was exposed to strong light. Using

forceps, all organisms were put into a small vial ofalcohol. Each was identified and observed using astereomicroscope.

IV. Results

A. The Edaphic Factors1. Soil Profile

Table 2. The general soil profile characteristics of the five

random sample sites of the four locations

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco

ParkA Compact,

wet

blackish O

horizon,

light brown

A horizon

Loose, light

brown,

with some

air spaces

No photo

taken

Loose, dark

brown,

with air

spaces

B Crumblyand loose,

dry, very

light

brown,

with many

rocks

Compact,

dark

brown,

with rocks

in the

upper

portion

Compact,

light

brown,

with thin

O horizon

Compact,

dark

brown, no

air spaces

C Loose,very dark

brown,

with many

rocks

Compact,

mixture of

light

brown and

gray, with

many

rocks, with

thin O

horizon

Compact,

dry, very

light

brown to

grayish in

color

Loose,

medium

brown,

with air

spaces

D Compact,medium

Compact,

light

Compact,

dry, gray

Compact,

dark gray


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brown O

horizon,

light

brown A

horizon

brown O horizon,

gray A

horizon,

no air

spaces

E Compact,yellow

Compact,

light

brown

Compact,

reddish O

horizon,

light

brown A

horizon

Compact,

gray-

brown,

some air

spaces

The table shows the correspondingdescription of each stratum of the soil. The imagescan be seen at Appendix A.

2. Soil Temperature

Figure 1. Bar graph comparing the mean temperatures of thefour locations

The graph shows the mean temperature

readings for the four different study sites. It isevident that Paco Park has the highest mean

temperature of 30.2C and the Oblation garden hasthe relatively lowest temperature (28.6C). For therespective readings in the five random points of each

location, and values for other measures of centraltendencies, see Table 8 in Appendix B.

3. Soil pH

Figure 2. Bar graph comparing the mean soil pH of the four

locations

Different pH measurements were obtainedfrom the soil suspension of differennt study sitesPaco park is relatively the most basic with a pH of7.42 while Taft Avenue, with a pH of 7.18 is

relatively the most acidic. For the respectivereadings in the five random points of each locationand values for other measures of central tendenciessee Table 9 in Appendix C.

4. Soil Moisture

Figure 3. Bar graph comparing the mean soil moistures of the

four locations

Based on the graph, the mean soil moistureis highest in PGH soil samples (26.84%) and lowest

in the Paco Park soil samples (14.04%). For therespective soil moisture in the five random points of

each location, and values for other measures ofcentral tendencies, see Table 10 in Appendix D. For

computations and solution, refer to Appendix D.

5. Soil Organic Matter

Figure 4. Bar graph comparing the mean soil organic matter (%)of the four locations

The graph shows the different soil organic

matter expressed in percentage (%). PGH soisamples have the highest percent (29.42%) of

27.5

28

28.5

29

29.5

30

30.5

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco Parkmeantemperature

(C)

Soil Temperature30.2C

6.8

7

7.2

7.4

7.6

7.8

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco Park

meansoilpH

Soil pH

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco Park

me

ansoilmoisture(%)

Soil Moisture

0

5

1015

20

25

30

35

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco Park

meansoilorganicmatter(%)

Soil Organic Matter

28.8C 28.6C28.5C

7.187.28

7.42

7.42

25.26% 22.96% 26.84% 14.04%

5.27% 11.46% 29.42% 23.08%


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organic matter while Taft Avenue soil samples havea mean soil organic matter percentage of 5.27%. Forthe respective organic matter in the five random

points of each location, see Table 12 in Appendix F.

For computations and solution, also refer toAppendix F.

6. Soil NutrientsIn all of the Taft soil samples, calcium and

nitrates were absent and only phosphorus waspresent. In the Oble Garden soil samples, calciumwas absent, phosphorus was absent in all but thesecond soil sample and nitrates were present in all

samples. In all the PGH soil samples, calcium wasabsent meanwhile nitrates and phosphorus were

present. In all the Paco Park soil samples, calcium,nitrates and phosphorus were present . For thetabular presentation of the data including the fiverandom points for each location, refer to Table 11 ofAppendix E.

7. Soil TextureTable 3. Soil texture qualitative classifications for the fiverandom points from each of the four locations

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco

Park

A Loamy

Sand

Loamy

Sand

Sand and

silty clay

loam or

silt

Loamy

Sand

B Loamy

Sand

Loamy

Sand

Loamy

sand

Loamy

SandC Loamy

Sand

Loamy

Sand

Sand Loamy

Sand

D Loamy

Sand

Loamy

Sand

Sand Sand

E Loamy

Sand

Loamy

Sand

Sand Loamy

Sand

Texture determination of moistened soilusing Table 14 in Appendix G. Most of the soil

samples are loamy sand. Only PGH has a generalclassification of sandy.

Figure 5.Bar graph comparing the mean sand fractions of thefour locations for measuring quantitative soil texture

The percentages of sand fractions werecalculated and the graphical data are shown above

PGH having a texture classification of sandy has the

highest sand fraction (94.1%) among the other studysites. Taft avenue has the least percentage of sandfraction (79.6%).

Figure 6.Bar graph comparing the mean silt-clay fractions of the

four locations for measuring quantitative soil texture

The percentages for the silt-clay mixturewere calculated and the graphical data are presen

above. Taft Avenue has the highest silt-clay mixture(20.4%) and PGH has the lowest silt-clay mixture

(5.9%).The tabular form of the data (Sand fraction

and Silt-Clay Mixture) containing the specific

readings from the five random points, samplecomputation of soil texture (Oblation Garden) can beseen at the Appendix G, Table 15.

The following histograms represent theobtained data for each study site showing the

corresponding average weights in grams of gravelcoarse sand, medium sand and fine sand for each soisample in the five random points of each study site.

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco Park

sandfraction(%)

Sand Fraction

0

5

10

15

20

25

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco Parkmeansilt-cla

yfraction(%)

Silt-clay Fraction

79.6% 84.0% 94.1% 83.4%

20.4% 16.0% 5.9% 16.6%


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Figure 7. Frequency distribution of the weights of the differentsoil types in Taft

In Taft Avenue, gravel composes themajority of the weight distribution (22.32g).

Figure 8. Frequency distribution of the weights of the differentsoil types in Oble Garden

In the Oblation Garden, gravel is the major

component of the soil sample (27.06 g) for it has thegreatest weight. Fine sand has the least weight andmedium sand is heavier than the coarse sand.

Figure 9. Frequency distribution of the weights of the differentsoil types in PGH

In PGH, gravel is the major component ofthe soil sample for it has the greatest weight(19.12g). Fine sand has the least weight and medium

sand is heavier than the coarse sand.

Figure 10. Frequency distribution of the weights of the differentsoil types in Paco Park

In Paco park, coarse sand (17.2g) is of

greatest composition followed by medium sand andgravel. There is relatively least fine sand consituting

the soil samples collected from Paco Park.

0

5

10

15

20

25

Gravel Coarse

Sand

Medium

Sand

Fine Sand

weight(g)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Gravel Coarse

Sand

Medium

Sand

Fine Sand

weight(g)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Gravel Coarse

Sand

Medium

Sand

Fine Sand

weight(g)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Gravel Coarse

Sand

Medium

Sand

Fine San

weight(g)

27.06

6.8 8.16

1.54

22.32

6.72

10.74

6.54

19.12

11.76

16.16

2.96

10

17.2

2.6

14.5


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B. The Soil InhabitantsTable 4. The different orders of soil inhabitants found in the fourlocations

Study Site Orders Present

Taft Avenue Hymenoptera

DiplopodaDipteran larva

DipteraLepidopteran larvaHaplotaxida

Oblation Garden Hymenoptera

PGH Hymenoptera

Paco Park HymenopteraHaplotaxida

It can be seen in the table that most of thelocations are inhabited by Hymenoptera. TaftAvenue has the most diverse collection of Soil

inhabitants while PGH and Oblation Garden is the

least diverse. For images of the species collected,refer to Appendix H, Table 16.

V. Discussion

Soil Profile

A soil profile is a sequence of horizonlayers. These horizon layers are formed by changeswhich occur in soil from the surface going down.

Horizon layers can be differentiated by physical,chemical and biological characteristics (Smith &

Smith, 2012).There are four horizons in a soil profile and

these are O, A, B, and C. The topmost layer is the Ohorizon or the organic layer. It is called the organiclayer since it is mostly organic material

(decomposing plant materials). Below the O horizonis the A horizon or topsoil. The topsoil is made up of

mineral soil obtained from the parent material. It isusually dark in color due to the abundance oforganic material due to leaching from the O horizon.

In lower areas of the topsoil, downward movementof water may result in the loss of minerals and other

fine particles into the next layer, the B horizon. TheB horizon, also called the subsoil, is in turn abundantin minerals, clays, and salts because of leachingfrom the topsoil. Below the B horizon, is the Chorizon the unconsolidated material that is made

up of original material from which soil is developed(Smith & Smith, 2012).

It is probable that most of the sample soilprofiles (using the soil corer) only contains the Oand A horizons. This is because the O horizon is

supposedly very thin and would be followed by the

A horizon. It could be suggested that the only onelayer is present after the thin O horizon because ofthe overall similarity of the remaining soil (similarin texture, composition and color).

Differences in the soil samples per locationare probably due to the immediate environment. Forthe Taft location, it could be suggested thatdissimilar elevations lead to wetter looking soil anddry-looking soil as rainwater would tend to percolate

towards lower elevations (especially since it is therainy season and floods often occur). One soisample from the Taft location was colored yellowwhich suggests that it is highly weathered (by hightemperature and heavy leaching); it is most likely

acidic because of the loss of the bases (from heavyleaching) and rich in aluminum . For the Oble

Garden, it is possible that all look mostly alike sincethe soil in the location was not a product of naturalcauses (i.e. weathering, erosion); it was transportedfrom another place and deposited there. Varyingshades of brown could be because of the varying

amounts of nutrients and moisture. For PGH, lighbrown-grayish hues of soil were found whichsuggest that the severe leaching has occurred in thetopsoil leaving it acidic and infertile. The gray coloris caused by the presence quartz grains (Hallare

n.d.). Red soil was also found in the PGH area; thissuggests that the soil has iron oxide. This occurrenceis common to the tropics and subtropics (whichinclude the Philippines) wherein high temperatureand heavy precipitation causes rapid leaching and

weathering (Smith & Smith, 2012). The Paco Parkalso a manmade location probably has the same

treatment as the Oble Garden (soil from other placesis deposited into the location). It can be said thatsome areas of the Park is rich in organic matter and

nutrient meanwhile others are not due to thepresence of both dark brown soils and grayish soils.

Soil Temperature

Soil temperature is the measure of heat inthe soil. Soil temperature varies with depth, with

little change below 20 inches from the surface. Theprimary source of heat is the sun. Soil is capable o

storing heat and it can reserve heat absorbed duringthe day or warmer periods of the year and release itduring the night or colder periods.

Other soil properties like texture, moisturecolor and organic matter content affect the ability ofsoil to hold or diffuse heat. As water is a betterconductor of heat than air, moist compact soils loseheat faster than drier and more porous soils. (Soil

Temperature, n.d.) Darker soils absorbs more heatthan lighter colored soils. Soils richer in oragnic


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matter are also observed to have highertemperatures.

Seed germination and plant growth aredependent on soil temperature and it can be used as a

basis for soil fertility. Soil nutrients like phosphorus,responsible for root growth, decrease in lowtemperatures. Also, since the rate of decompositionis high in high temperatures, more nutrients areexpected to be present in soils with warmer

temperatures.According to AgriInfo.in, temperatures

between 25C and 35C are most favorable for soiloraganisms while 32C is optimum for nitrification.Though plants differ in the optimum temperature for

germination, temperature extremes below 9C andabove 50C suspend all plant growth (AgriInfo,

2011). Very high temperatures hasten transpirationwhile extremely low temperatures may freeze waterin the soil.

As soil temperature changes with thefrequently changing atmospheric temperature, some

measures have to be taken to maintain soiluseability. Soil temperature can be controlled bymulching and adjusting soil moisture. Mulch acts aninsulator, protecting the soil from drastic gain andloss of heat, thus stabilizing soil temperature. On the

other hand, soil moisture and temperature areinversely related. High soil moisture contenttranslates to rapid evaporation, causing soil to losemuch heat. Therefore, it is advisable to reducemoisture when attempting to raise soil temperature.

The average soil temperature in the OblationGarden is 28.5C. This temperature falls within the

range and is suitable for plant growth, providingfavorable conditions for organic matterdecomposition and nutrient absorption. That a

variety of plants thrive in the Oblation Gardensupports these observations. Of the other sites, this isthe lowest. The thicker vegetative cover in the

Oblation Garden is seen as the cause of this. The soiltemperatures recorded from the other study sites also

fall within the favorable temperature with 28.8C forTaft, 28.6C for PGH and 30.2C for Paco Park.

Readings for Paco Park were made on open groundwith little insulation from heat. The points chosen

were noted to be either on the darker side of brownor gray-brown colors which absorb more heat.Samples from this site also had the least moisture,

thereby limiting evaporative cooling.

Soil pH

Soil pH is a measurement of the acidity or

alkalinity of a soil. On the pH scale, 7.0 is neutral.Below 7.0 is acidic and above 7.0 is basic. A pHrange of 6.8 to 7.2 is near neutral. The optimum pH

range for most plants is 6.5-7. Generally, areas withlimited rainfall have alkaline soils while areas withhigher rainfall typically have acid soils.

Soil pH is very significant in ecology

because it affects the availability of most nutrienelements for plant growth and occurrence ofdeficiency of elements (Hallare). Before a nutriencan be used by plants it must be dissolved in the soisolution. Most minerals and nutrients are more

soluble or available in acid soils than in neutral orslightly alkaline soils (Bickelhaupt). In Acid soilscalcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are lessavailable to plants. Aluminum (Al) and manganese(Mn) may reach toxic levels. Phosphorus is tied up

by iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al). In Alkaline soilsphosphorus (P) gets tied up by Ca and Mg. Iron (Fe)

zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) are less available. Italso affects the activity of microorganisms. Forexample at pH 5.5, there is a reduced microbialactivity in the soil. The soil pH can also influence

plant growth by its effect on activity of beneficia

microorganisms Bacteria that decompose soiorganic matter are hindered in strong acid soils. This

prevents organic matter from breaking downresulting in an accumulation of organic matter andthe tie up of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, that are

held in the organic matter. The effect of soil pH isgreat on the solubility of minerals or nutrients.

Soils tend to become acidic as a result ofrainwater leaching away basic ions (calciummagnesium, potassium and sodium); carbon dioxide

from decomposing organic matter and rootrespiration dissolving in soil water to form a weak

organic acid; formation of strong organic andinorganic acids, such as nitric and sulfuric acid, fromdecaying organic matter and oxidation of ammonium

and sulfur fertilizers. Lime is usually added to acidsoils to increase soil pH.

In the experiment, the average pH values of

the study sites were slightly. The Oblation Gardenhas an average pH of 7.3, Taft Avenue 7.2

Philippine General Hospital 7.4, and Paco Park7.6. The pH value was measured using a digital pH

meter. The study sites have a relatively close pHvalue since they are all located within Manila area

They have a slightly basic pH although areas withhigher rainfall are usually acidic. The soil in theseareas probably has presence of base cations

associated with carbonates and bicarbonates foundnaturally in soils and irrigation waters (McCauley etal). The alkalinity of soil is primarily due to low

precipitation where there is little leaching of basecations thus making the soil basic (McCauley et al)

This slightly basic pH of the soils does notnecessarily mean that the soil is not fertile. Plantscan still survive in pH values near neutral.


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Soil Moisture

Soil moisture is the water that is held in thespaces between soil particles. The soils hold water

due to their colloidal properties and aggregationqualities. The water is held on the surface of thecolloids and other particles and in the pores. Theforces responsible for retention of water in the soilafter the drainage has stopped are due to surface

tension and surface attraction and are called surfacemoisture tension. Field capacity is used to measuresoil moisture. It represents the maximum amount ofwater a soil can hold after gravitational water has

been drained (Hallare). Determining the soil

moisture is important because water is critical forplant growth. Soil moisture determines how much

water a soil can hold. If the moisture content of asoil is optimum for plant growth, plants can readilyabsorb soil water. Soil water dissolves salts andmakes up the soil solution, which is important asmedium for supply of nutrients to growing plants.

Capillary water is the water available forplant use. It is held between soil particles bycapillary forces. Hygroscopic water is the portion ofwater which is adhered to the soil particles forming athin film. This water is not available for plant use.

Soil moisture is also important in order to determinethe optimum water level wherein plants wouldthrive. A moisture level where a plant wilts andcannot recover its turgidity is called the wilting pointof plant.

The particle size and pore spaces affect thesoil moisture. Soils with more varied particle size

have more pore spaces wherein air can enter.Whereas in soils with more uniform particle size hasless pore spaces so there is almost no air space and

has more room for water (Hallare). Larger soilparticle size drains water more. Finer soil particlesdrains poorly but holds on to more water thus having

higher moisture level (Kopec, 1995). Heavy texturedsoils (clay loams, clay) hold the greatest amount of

water while sandy soils do not hold a lot of water(Kopec, 1995).

Atmospheric moisture should not get intothe sample because it will alter the actual moisture

of the soil. Atmospheric moisture can be preventedfrom getting into the soil by putting the soil samplein a sealed bags or containers.

In the experiment, the three study sites havea relatively close average moisture percentage. Forthe soils in Philippine General Hospital, the averageis 26.84%; 22. 96% for the Oblation Garden; and25.26% for Taft Avenue. Paco Park has the least

average moisture percentage of 2.32%. The moisturepercentage in Paco Park is small probably because itis an open area. The type of soil may also be sandier

in Paco Park since sandy soils do not store a lot ofwater (Kopec, 1995).

Soil Organic Matter

The presence of organic matter in soils isessential to living organisms most especially

plants. It is because organic matter is an essentiaelement in the formation of clay-humus micelles

which participate in the cation-exchange mechanismMost soil particles (the leading edges of clay

particles and soil organic matter or humus) ormicelles are negatively charged. Their negativelycharged sites prevent leaching (percolation of water

through soil) of positively charged nutrients. This ispossible because the positively charged ions (such as

potassium, calcium, ammonium and magnesium)adhere to the negatively charged sites and theyadhere because opposite charges attract. Cation-exchange happens when the useful mineral cationsfrom the soil particles are displaced by other cations

(present in the root, mostly H+) and the usefulmineral cations are absorbed by the root (Smith &Smith, 2012).

The cation-exchange mechanism is a criticalinteraction between the roots and the micelles which

allows for the exchange of essential ions andminerals needed for the plants growth anddevelopment. Increasing the organic matter contentin soil would also increase its cation-exchangecapacity (the ability of the soil to hold onto nutrients

and prevent them from leaching). Too little organicmatter present in soil will let organic nitrates and

other negatively charged particles leach into thegroundwater. Soils with an abundant amount organicmatter would have high field capacity; high field

capacity would mean that more water could beavailable for plant uptake. Soils with an abundantamount organic matter would also have high

porosity; high porosity would mean that some airspaces would be present, oxygen would be present in

soil and the plants would not suffocate (Hallaren.d.).

Of all four locations, PGH soil has the mostorganic matter content (almost 30%) which would

suggest that the PGH environment has an abundanceof decomposing matter and many sources of livingmatter (e.g. trees, grasses, leaves, invertebrate and

small animals). This is followed by the Paco Parkwith possible contributors to the organic matter

being the plants and animals in the park. The ObleGarden soil has a relatively small organic mattercontent because the Garden is artificial. Organic

matter present could probably be due to the fecaldeposits of the cats which live there. The areaswhere the soil samples were obtained had newly


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plantedArachi pintoi cuttings which suggest that noplants were previously present in that location.Another explanation could be that regular weedingremoves the possible organic matter which could be

contributed by the wild plants. Taft soil had the leastorganic matter because of its location. The only

plants which can be found along Taft are weeds andshort grasses; any organic matter from animals(mammals such as stray cats and dogs) are probably

concentrated at the locations where their fecalmatters are deposited.

Soil Nutrients

Unlike energy, most of which entersecosystems as light and leaves as heat, nutrients areregenerated and retained largely within the system.

Matter cycles through an ecosystem after it is takenup in inorganic forms and converted to biomass by

plants. Some of that matter is passed up the foodchain, but all of it eventually returns to inorganic

forms by the process of decomposition. The majornutrients cycled through the ecosystem, besideshydrogen and oxygen, are the elements carbon,nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.

The observation that fertilizers stimulate

plant growth in most environments suggests thatnutrients limit primary production. Production in

both terrestrial and aquatic environments can beenhanced by the addition of various nutrients,especially nitrogen and phosphorus. The addition of

nutrients stimulates production the most in systemsin which nutrient availabilities are lowest. The

relative availabilities of different nutrients have tomatch their requirements by plants to ensure theirmost efficient use. (Ricklefs, 2008)

a. CalciumCalcium is a macronutrient present in soil as a

cation. It is supplied to the soil by minerals like

liming agents, calcite and dolomite (Soil NutrientManagement, 2013). It is adsorbed by plants from

the colloidal soil medium. Calcium maintains acidbalance in the soil, enables enzyme activity, nitrate

uptake and metabolism, starch metabolism, andproper cell wall development (Agronomic Library,n.d.).

Calcium is transported through xylem sap andbecomes fixed as components of the cell wall.Calcium is a vital cell wall component. Byincreasing pectin concentration in the cell wall, it notonly enhances the rigidity of plant structures, but

also defends plants from pathogens and slowssenescence. Through its relationship with pectates, itis believed that calcium is important in promoting

root tip growth as well as pollen tube growth(Hepler, 2005). Also, through its influence onstomatal function, calcium helps plants surviveextended exposure to heat. (Patterson, n.d.).

Calcium, as a component of the cell wallregulates nutrient absorption from the soil byadjusting membrane permeability. In an experiment

by Hanson, it was shown that plants absorbed andretained less nutrients when calcium concentrations

were low (as cited in Hepler, 2005). Soils low incalcium then have low cation exchange capacity andare more prone to leaching and changes in pH.

Calcium concentration in soil decreases with pHas it is replaced by other ions like aluminum

Calcium is a basic ion and acidic soils tend to bedeficient in it. The soil pH obtained from the five

samples fall within the range of pH 7.1-7.5, thus itwas expected to have considerable amounts ofcalcium.

As it is not stored by the plant, a constant supplyof calcium in the soil solution is needed. Contrary to

what was expected, however, calcium testednegative in all samples from the Oblation GardenSince calcium is easily transportable, it possible thatthe calcium in the layer excavated was alreadyabsorbed by the plants in the area. This is likely

given that there is a variety of plants in the chosenpoints. PGH and Taft soil both tested negative forcalcium despite having near neutral pH, possibly forthe same reason. On the other hand, Paco Park soilwith an average pH of 7.6, tested positive for

calcium, as well as for nitrates and phoshoporusThough the soil samples are nutrient rich, plant

cover is scarce on the points from which they werecollected from and much remain in the soil to beabsorbed.

b. NitratesNitrogen is one of the energy elements which

are obtained from air or water and needed in

photosynthesis. The ultimate source of nitrogen forlife is molecular nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere

which constitutes the largest pool of nitrogen onearth (Ricklefs, 2008).It composes the 78% of the

Earths atmosphere. As an inert gas, it must be fixedinto nitrates or ammonium ions for it to be useful forchlorophyll, proteins and enzyme synthesis (Hallare

nd).Lightning discharges convert some molecular

nitrogen into forms that plants can assimilate, butmost enters the biological pathways of the nitrogencycle through its assimilation by certain

microorganisms in a process referred to as nitrogenfixation. Under anaerobic conditions in soilssediments, and deep waters, certain bacteria can use


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nitrate in place of oxygen as an oxidizing agent. Thisprocess, called denitrification, transforms nitrate intonitrite and eventually into nitrous oxide andmolecular nitrogen (Ricklefs, 2008).

Figure 11. Nitrogen mineralization/immobilizationprocessSource: (Espinoza, Norman et al., n,d)

In the detection of the presence of nitrogenin soil, a soil suspension was prepared to create an

aqueous sample that can be mixed with the reagentcalled as Solution X. Solution X is composed

diphenylamine and sulfuric acid. Since all nitratesare soluble in water, a precipitate is not an indicationof a positive result, color is. The nitrate test is also

known as the diphenylamine test, which is acolorimetric determination of the presence of nitrate.The blue color developed by nitrate in the presenceof much sulfuric acid is to be attributed to theformation of an oxidation product of

diphenylbenzidine (Kolthoff, 1933).All of the four sites namely, Paco Park,

PGH, Oblation Garden and Taft Avenue, exceptalong Taft Avenue tested positive for the presence of

nitrates. Soil properties play a dominant role innutrient transformation. The fixation of ammonicalnitrogen is based on the amount of clay present in

the soil. From the results, only soil samples fromTaft Avenue, tested negative for nitrate test. The soiltexture for Taft Avenue soil samples are all loamy

sand. Loamy sand is also the general soil texture forthe soil samples at Oblation garden and Paco Park

and sandy in PGH which were all a qualitativedetermination of the soil texture. In loamy sandtexture, the percentage for sand is greater than that

of silt and clay combined. Quantitatively, the meansand fraction is relatively the highest in Taft Avenue

among other study sites. More leaching ordownward movement of of NH4 and NO3 N wasobserved in coarse texture soils (sandy) than finetexture soil (clay loam). Sandy soils are coarse thusthe nitrates became unavailable at upper parts of the

soil profile and were leached down (Sathya, 2009).Also, Taft Avenue soil samples contained

the least amount of moisture. The emission ofnitrous oxide was more in loam soil compared to slitloam and sandy loam soil. Higher emission could be

attributed to the availability of optimum amount of

moisture and aeration in this type of soil providingcongenial environment to the soil microbes engagedin nitrification and denitrification processes. Therecovery of mineral N was higher in clay loam

than in sandy loam soil. This could be the reason ofhigher organic matter, available nitrogen and cation-exchange capacity (Sathya, 2009).

In addition, soil pH also plays a significantrole in in the availability of N. Nitrification was

highest in pH 7.4, modest in pH 9.4 and lowest inpH 4.8. Thus, with the rise of soil pH, theavailability of nutrients exhibit increase. Theincrease of availability of N may be due toaccelerated rate of decomposition and mineralization

of organic matter owing to increased biologicalactivity. Among the four study sites, Taft Avenue

has the relatively lowest pH (mean of 7.18). Soiacidification can reportedly reduce the ammonialosses in submerged soil.

Furthermore, the presence of higher amountof organic matter ensured the highest nitrate nitrogen

content in soil. Among the four study sites, TaftAvenue soil samples contained the least amount oforganic matter present. The amount of organicmatter is directly proportional to the nitrate nitrogencontent in soil. This is due to the increased microbia

activity and resultant enhanced nitrification processwith a concomitant reduction in leaching losses.

c. PhosphorusEcologists have studied the role of phosphorus

in ecosystems intensively because organisms require

this element at a relatively high level (though onlyabout one-tenth that of nitrogen). Phosphorus isconsidered as one of the macronutrients which are

required in larger amounts. It is responsible for ATPtransfer, as a DNA component and transfer ofgenetic material (Hallare, n.d).

The phosphorus cycle has fewer steps than thenitrogen cycle because, except in a very few

microbial transformations, phosphorus does notundergo oxidationreduction reactions in its cycling

through ecosystems. Plants assimilate phosphorus, inthe form of phosphate ions (PO4

3-), from soil or

water and incorporate it directly into various organiccompounds.

Animals eliminate excess phosphorus in

their diets by excreting phosphate ions in urine;phosphatizing bacteria also convert phosphorus indetritus into phosphate ions. Phosphorus does notenter the atmosphere in any form other than dust, sothere is little phosphorus cycles between the

atmosphere and other compartments of ecosystems(Ricklefs, 2008).


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In the identification of the presence ofphosphorus in the soil samples, 10 drops of soilsupernatant was added to solution Z which is amixture of ammonium molybdate, distilled water

and concentrated nitric acid. Although not allphosphates are soluble, the extraction of soilorthophosphate or phosphate (PO4

3-) from the soil

samples was possible because orthophosphates arehighly soluble in water. Orthophosphate is the most

stable kind of phosphate, and is the form used byplants. (Murphy, 2007). Orthophosphates bond withammonium molybdate in acidic medium (HNO3)forming phosphomolybdate. The production of the

positive blue coloration is due to the reducing agent

stannous chloride or commonly known as tin. Thiscolometric determination of phosphate is also known

as the Deniges method (Yuen and Pollard, 2006).Phosphorus transformation is influenced by

various soil factors like physical condition, pH,organic matter, and amount and nature of clay.Phosphorus fixation is defined as conversion of

soluble form of P to insoluble forms of P. The Pfixation is the main ingredient of P transformationsin soils. The soluble form of P is assimilated bymicroorganisms or precipitated with soilcomponents or adsorbed by the colloidal complexes

of soil (Sathya, 2009).Soil texture, as well as clay content affects P

fixation in soil. Of the four sites, only OblationGarden soil samples lacked unanimity in the

phosphorus content, since only a specific random

point contained phosphorus while the remaining fourtested negative for phosphorus. The other study sites

(Paco Park, PGH and Taft Avenue) tested positivefor phosphorus. The type of soil texture for PacoPark Taft Avenue and Oblation Garden is loamy

sand. This type of soil texture has the greatestrelative clay content among the other soil samples.An increase in adsorption maxima values with

increasing clay content of the soil may be attributedto the availability of more adsorbing surface to the

added and native P. Therefore, clay content and Pfixation are positively correlated since clay surface

is the major site of P adsorption.It can be noted that the sandy type of soil

texture in the PGH soil samples, although not anideal type of texture for the availability of

phosphorus still tested positive for phosphorus. The

PGH soil samples have the highest relative organicmatter content which is indeed, positively correlatedto P adsorption. Also, a texture of sandy soil doescorrespond to absence of phosphorus but instead, a

phosphorus level which is ten times lesser than that

of clayey-textured soil (Espinosa, Norman et al.,n.d.).

Ideally, the Oblation Garden should haverelatively high amount of phosphorus but only at a

particular site was the detection positive. Sincephosphorus can be found dissolved in the soi

solution at very low amounts or associated with soilmaterials or organic materials (Espinoza and

Norman et al), there exists a possibility that theamount of phosphorus extracted from the soisamples in the four specific random points in

Oblation Garden where phosphorus is absent, is nosignificant enough to react with the ammoniummolybdate to form phosphomolybdate.

Phosphorous is generally reduced in all soipH ranges due to various reactions it undergoes. In

alkaline soils, phosphorous, in the form ofphosphate, reacts with Calcium, which is the mos

dominant ion in that pH range. The formation ofproducts with calcium decreases the solubility andavailability of phosphorous. In acidic soilsAluminum, as well as other metal ions, reacts with

phosphorous resulting to compounds of phosphorou

that are insoluble for uptake of plants. Therefore, pHvalues ranging from 6-7 will result to the greatestavailability of phosphorous (Busman et al, 2002).

Figure 12. The availability of phosphorous in various pH levels

Source: Busman et al, 2002

Uptake of inorganic nutrients by plants anddecomposition of detritus by microorganisms are

biochemical processes influenced by temperature

moisture, pH, and other factors. Thus, the rate ofnutrient cycling and the overall productivity of the

ecosystem are sensitive to these physical influences

Because nutrients move between ecosystemcompartments in turnthat is, from soil to plant to

detritus and back to soilthe rate of cycling islimited by the slowest step. In most cases, this step

is the decomposition of detritus (Rickfels, 2008).


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Soil tests are designed to help producerspredict their soil's available nutrient status. Onceexisting nutrient levels are established, producerscan use the data to best manage what nutrients are

applied, decide the application rate, and makedecisions concerning the profitability of theiroperations while managing for impacts such aserosion, nutrient runoff, and water quality(Mallarino, 2000).

Soil Texture

Particles that make up soil are of differentsizes, and vary in proportion. These differences in

proportion result to diverse soil textures, which arepartially derived from parent material, and from the

soil formation (Smith & Smith, 2012). Soils can beclassified as one of four major texture classes: sands,silts, loams, and clays (Berry et al, 2007).

Table 5. Soil particle classification according to size.

Particle classification Particle size (mm)Gravel > 2.0

Sand 0.05-2

Silt 0.002-0.05

Clay < 0.002

Table 5 lists the types of soil particlesclassified according to size. Gravel is the largest

type and does not contribute to the fine fraction ofsoil, whose texture is classified based on sand, silt,and clay proportion (Smith & Smith, 2012).

Sand is the easiest to see among the three

components of the fine fraction of the soil, and feelsgritty or rough, while silt can hardly be seen withoutmagnification and feels smooth. Dry silt particlesfeel floury while wet silt is not slick and sticky, butholds its molded form easily. On the other hand, clayis the smallest and is not visible even under an

ordinary microscope. Dry separate clay particles feelsmooth and powdery, dried chunks are especiallyhard and tough to break apart, and wet clay is slickand sticky, and can also hold its molded form easily(Anderson & Halsey, 2010). Clay is the most

significant one, as it affects the water-holding

capacity and ion-exchange (Smith & Smith, 2012).Soil texture is an important physical

characteristic because it influences not only the airand water movement in soil, but also root

penetration. Larger particles increase pore space,promotes more air and water movement. Finer

particles, on the other hand, decrease pore space butincreases the surface area of the soil; hence, morewater and nutrients can adhere to it. Half of an ideal

soil is composed of soil particles, while the other

half is made up of pore space (Smith & Smith2012).

Coarse soils have lower field capacities thanfine-textured soils because of their large pore spaces

These spaces results to high drainage, hence, the soicannot hold as much water. Fine soils, on the otherhand, have finer particles and small pores, thus cancarry more water against free drainage, resulting to ahigher field capacity. Organic matter has a higher

water holding capacity than ordinary soil andimproves soil structure (USDA, 2008).

In the experiment, soil texture wasquantitatively and qualitatively evaluated. Thequantitative method involved sieving, which is used

to separate the different soil particles, whose weightswere measured to determine their respective percent

compositions.The soil texture calculator from the websitehttp://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/ from the United States Department ofAgriculture (USDA) was used to determine the

texture classification more easily. The website usesthe soil textural triangle shown in Figure 11, a

guide for evaluating soil texture based on theproportions of sand, silt, and clay.

Figure 13. Soil textural triangle (USDA).

The qualitative method was done by using adichotomous field key. Table 5 shows that theresults from the quantitative method nearly matchedthose of the qualitative method. It was noted thacoarse sandy loam is at the boundary between sandyloam and loamy sand.
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/


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Table 6. Comparisons of the quantitative and qualitative resultsfor soil texture.

Site Quantitative Qualitative

Taft Avenue Sandy clayloam

Loamy sand

Oblation

garden

Coarse sandy

loam

Loamy sand

PGH Sand Sand and silty

clay loam or

silt, loamysand, sand

Paco Park Coarse sandyloam

Loamy sand,sand

The study sites generally have a high sandcontent; on average, the soils of the sites have at

least 50% sand. High sand content is good fordrainage (Hallare, n.d.). Water moves more freely

through sandy soils than in soils with finer particles.Moreover, soils with good drainage have goodaeration, which is also more conducive to root

growth (Berry et al, 2007). Sand and loamy sand,with at least 70% sand content, are considered

coarse-textured and are relatively stable in both wetand dry conditions. However, due to the rapidmovement of water through these kinds of soils,

plants would not have access anymore to the waterduring dry periods. Because of this, maintenance is

importantthe plants need to be watered, especiallyin dry seasons (Anderson & Halsey, 2010). This isevident for most of the maintained study sites,

whose plants are frequently watered. For instance,Paco Park, together with oblation garden under the

University of the Philippines Manila, has staffassigned to water the plants. This makes it possible

for vegetation to thrive in soils with high waterdrainage. On the other hand, some areas in PGH, thesite with the highest average sand content, are not

maintained unlike the other study sites. This makesthe soil least conducive to healthy plant growth; as

such, some points chosen in PGH in which theexperiment was performed were observed to havemany weeds and relatively less, if not absent trees.

Soil InhabitantsThe most common soil inhabitants found in

the study sites were ants of the order Hymenoptera.These organisms are known to increase soil porosityand separation of soil particles according to sizewhen they dig and make channels through the soil.Ants are also found to neutralize pH and increase

nutrient content, namely nitrogen and phosphorus,resulting from the buildup of food in their nests andincrease of the rate of decomposition. Ant colors aredark and earthly, and help them camouflage in theirsoil environment (Frouz & Jilkova, 2008).

Earthworms of order haplotaxida were thenext frequent soil inhabitants found. Like antsearthworms increase soil porosity. This allows moregas exchange, water drainage, and plant roo

penetration. Moreover, they also increase nutriencontent as a result of digestion of microorganism andorganic matter in the soil. Nutrients that passthrough these animals guts change in forms moreavailable to plants. Earthworm adaptations in the soi

environment include the their streamlined bodies tomove more easily in soil, their bristly hairs calledsetae which aids the earthworms to grip the soil, andtheir brown color (Card, 2011).

VI. Conclusion and Recommendations

In the experiment, properties of the soil were

investigated. Soil was found to be an importantfactor in the ecosystem, comprised of biotic andabiotic factors which interact with one another, andare affected by the different properties of the soil

The soil properties themselves were also found toaffect each other. Moisture content, for instancevaried with different kinds of soil texture, and soi

pH affects the availability of nutrients for vegetationIn conclusion, soil is a significant part of the

ecosystem, and is the product of climatetopography, parent material, and biotic factorsthrough many years of interactions. Climate affectsthe diversity of organisms in an area and the rates ofweathering of parent material, leaching of

substances, erosion, and decomposition of organicmatter. Organic matter also depends on the soi

organisms. Aspects of topography like steepness anddirection affect patterns of water flow and erosionLastly, parent material is the matter from which soi

is basically and primarily made of.The study also showed that soil qualities

have also been affected by the actions of humankindSome of these actions aid in making theenvironment conducive for growth, as in watering

soils with high drainage; however, some actions donot, as when the chemical products of industria

activities cause acid rain and decrease soil pH.It is recommended that sites outside Manila

also be studied so that comparisons between urbanand rural soil characteristics can also be madeFurthermore, in future studies involving the use of a

furnace, the investigators should make sure that thelabels written on or attached to the crucibles wouldnot be incinerated. The investigators should alsoconsult with a professional in identifying theorganisms to avoid errors.


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reference to soil solutions and extracts(May 2006).Journal of the Science of Food

and Agriculture. 6: 223-229.
http://turf.arizona.edu/tips1095.htmlhttp://landresources.montana.edu/NM/Modules/Module8.pdfhttp://landresources.montana.edu/NM/Modules/Module8.pdfhttp://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NEW/info/TP.htmlhttp://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NEW/info/TP.htmlhttp://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=4&topicid=274http://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=4&topicid=274http://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/gardennotes/222.htmlhttp://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/gardennotes/222.htmlhttp://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htmhttp://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htmhttp://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/available_water_capacity_sq_physical_indicator_sheet.pdfhttp://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/available_water_capacity_sq_physical_indicator_sheet.pdfhttp://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/available_water_capacity_sq_physical_indicator_sheet.pdfhttp://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/aids/investigations/texture/http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/available_water_capacity_sq_physical_indicator_sheet.pdfhttp://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/available_water_capacity_sq_physical_indicator_sheet.pdfhttp://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/available_water_capacity_sq_physical_indicator_sheet.pdfhttp://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htmhttp://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htmhttp://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/gardennotes/222.htmlhttp://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/gardennotes/222.htmlhttp://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=4&topicid=274http://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=4&topicid=274http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NEW/info/TP.htmlhttp://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NEW/info/TP.htmlhttp://landresources.montana.edu/NM/Modules/Module8.pdfhttp://landresources.montana.edu/NM/Modules/Module8.pdfhttp://turf.arizona.edu/tips1095.html


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VIII. Appendix

A. Soil ProfileTable 7. The soil profiles of the four locations

TaftOble

GardenPGH Paco Park

A

Nophototaken

B

C

D

E

B. Soil TemperatureTable 8. Raw data for soil temperature with the computed

measures for central tendency

Taft ObleGarden

PGH PacoPark

A 29.0C 29.0C 28.0C 30.0CB 28.0C 28.0C 29.0C 30.0CC 27.5C 28.0C 28.5C 30.0C

D 29.0C 29.0C 28.5C 31.0CE 30.5C 28.5C 29.0C 30.0CMean 28.8C 28.5C 28.6C 30.2CStandarddeviation

1.2C 0.5 0.4C 0.4C

Mode 29.0C 28.0C,29.0C

28.5,

29.0C30.0C

Median 29.0C 28.5C 28.5C 30.0C

C. Soil pHTable 9. Raw data for pH with the computed measures forcentral tendency

Taft ObleGarden

PGH PacoPark

A 7.9 7.5 7.8 7.6

B 7.2 7.1 7.5 7.4

C 6.9 7.2 7.6 7.5

D 7.2 7.3 6.9 7.9

E 6.7 7.3 7.3 7.8Mean 7.18 7.28 7.42 7.64

Standarddeviation

0.45 0.15 0.34 0.21

Mode 7.2 7.3 - -

Median 7.2 7.3 7.5 7.6

D. Soil MoistureSample calculation for soil texture

(from Oblation Garden, Site A only)

Wd= Wo-Wc37.4g22g = 8.4gW

d=8.4 g

% of water=

Table 10. Data for soil moisture with the computed measures for

central tendency

Taft Oble

Garden

PGH Paco

Park

A 19.05% 19.05% 42.85% 40.85%

B 21.95% 29.87% 28.21% 9.89%

C 21.95% 20.48% 20.48% 8.70%


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D 20.48% 23.46% 17.65% 2.04%

E 42.86% 21.95% 25.00% 8.70%

Mean 25.26% 22.96% 26.84% 14.04%

Standarddeviation

9.91% 4.20% 9.83% 15.31%

Mode 21.95% - - -

Median 21.95% 21.95% 25.00% 8.70%

E.

Soil NutrientsTable 11. Summarization of presence and absence of soilnutrients per location

Calcium Nitrates Phosphorus

Taft A - - +

Taft B - - +

Taft C - - +

Taft D - - +

Taft E - - +

Oble

Garden A

- + -

Oble

Garden B

- + +

Oble

Garden C

- + -

Oble

Garden D

- + -

Oble

Garden E

- + -

PGH A - + +

PGH B - + +

PGH C - + +PGH D - + +

PGH E - + +

Paco Park

A

+ + +

Paco Park

B

+ + +

Paco Park

C

+ + +

Paco Park

D

+ + +

Paco ParkE

+ + +

F. Soil Organic MatterTable 12. Data for soil organic matter with the respective means

Taft Oblation

Garden

PGH Paco

Park

A 6.00% 16.67% 61.43% 24.37%

B 16.00% 9.09% 39.74% 25.87%

C 2.00% 20.48% 12.05% 26.98%

D 0.36% 7.41% 17.65% 21.02%

E 2.00% 3.66% 16.25% 17.18%

Mean 5.27% 11.46% 29.42% 23.08%

Sample calculation for soil texture(from Oblation Garden, Site A only)

Table 13. Data for soil organic matter of the five random pointsin Oblation Garden

( ) ( )( )

( ) ( )

( )

( )

G. Soil Texture Table 14. Field Key to Soil Texture Class.

Point Soil

(g)

Wc

(g)

Wo

(g)

Wd

(g)

Wi

(g)

%OM

A 10 29 37.4 8.4 36 16.6666

B 10 27.7 35.4 7.7 34.7 9.09090

C 10 28.4 36.7 8.3 35 20.4819

D 10 24.7 32.8 8.1 32.2 7.40740

E 10 25.4 33.6 8.2 33.3 3.65853


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1 Soil does not remain in aball when squeezed....SAND

1 Soil remains in a ball when squeezed......2

2 Squeeze the ball between your thumb and forefinger,attempting to make a ribbon that you push up over your

finger. Soil makes no ribbon.......LOAMY SAND

2 Soil makes a ribbon (may be very short).....3

3 Ribbon extends less than 1 inch before breaking....4

3 Ribbon extends an inch or more before breaking....5

4 Add excess water to small amount of soil. Soil feels at leastslightly gritty...............LOAM OR SANDY LOAM

4 Soil feels smooth..SILT LOAM5 Soil makes a ribbon that breaks when 1-2 inches long:cracks if bent into a ring.6

5 Soil makes a ribbon longer than 2 inches: can be bent into a

ring without cracking..7

6 Add excess water to small amount of soil: soil feels at least

slightly grittyCLAY LOAM OR SANDY CLAY LOAM

6 Soil feels smooth...SILTY CLAY LOAM OR SILT

7 Add excess water to small amount of soil: soil feels at leastslightly gritty.CLAY OR SANDY CLAY

7 Soil feels smoothSILTY CLAY

Sample calculation for soiltexture (from OblationGarden)

Average weight of soil

Sieve # 16 = 27.1 g

Sieve # 25 = 6.8 gSieve # 60 = 8.2 g

Sieve # 120 = 1.5 g

Spillages = 6.4 g

Percentages of soil collected in sieves # 16, 25, and

60 were also calculated to aid in determining soil

texture more accurately.

Figure 12. Soil texture calculator (USDA).


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Table 15.Raw data and the sand and silt-clay fractions of the five random sites of the four locations and their respective means

Sieve #16

(g)

Sieve #25 (g) Sieve #60(g) Sieve #120

(g)

Sand Fraction

(%)

Silt-clay

fraction(%)Taft A 21.1 6.2 9.1 2.5 72.8 27.2

Taft B 30.7 2.2 1.9 1.7 69.6 30.4

Taft C 31.1 13.6 7.2 1.7 103.8 -3.8

Taft D 22.4 8.4 13.6 6.9 88.8 11.2

Taft E 6.3 3.2 21.9 19.9 62.8 37.2

Taft mean 22.32 6.72 10.74 6.54 79.6 20.4

ObleGardenA 29.6 7.8 6.7 0.8 88.2 11.8

ObleGardenB 27.4 8 5.5 0.5 81.8 18.2

ObleGardenC 29.1 6.3 7 1.8 84.8 15.2

ObleGardenD 26.6 4.7 11.3 1.4 85.2 14.8

ObleGardenE 22.6 7.2 10.3 3.2 80.2 19.8

Oble Garden mean 27.06 6.8 8.16 1.54 84.0 16.0

PGH A 19.5 13.3 14.9 2.3 95.4 4.6PGH B 27 18.1 4.5 0.4 99.2 0.8

PGH C 8.4 5.6 31 5 90 10

PGH D 27.7 11.1 9.5 1.7 96.6 3.4

PGH E 13 10.7 20.9 5.4 89.2 10.8

PGH mean 19.12 11.76 16.16 2.96 94.1 5.9

Paco Park A 11.5 7 25 0.1 87 13

Paco Park B 3.5 33 2.5 0.2 78 22

Paco Park C 10 12 22 3 88 12

Paco Park D 13.5 8 18.5 9.5 80 20

Paco Park E 11.5 26 4.5 0.2 84 16

Paco Park mean 10 17.2 14.5 2.6 83.4 16.6

Table 15. The different soil inhabitants found in the fourlocations

TaftOble

GardenPGH

PacoPark

A No photosof

organisms

taken

No photosof

organisms

taken

H. Soil Inhabitants


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B

C

D

E

experiment 2 edaphic factors - appendix

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