fisio report factors influencing salivary flow and

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Factors Influencing Salivary Flow and Composition Several factors may influence SF and its composition. As a result, these vary greatly among individuals and in the same individual under different circumstances.3,5,9,10,36 Individual Hydration The degree of individual hydration is the most important factor that interferes in salivary secretion.10 When the body water content is reduced by 8%, SF virtually diminishes to zero, whereas hyperhydration causes an increase in SF.9 During dehydration, the salivary glands cease secretion to conserve water.37 Body Posture, Lighting, and Smoking SF varies in accordance with body posture, lighting conditions, and smoking. Patients kept standing up or lying down present higher and lower SF,respectively, than seated patients. There is a decrease of 30% to 40% in SF of people that are blindfolded or in the dark. However, the flow is not less in blind people, when compared with people with normal vision. This suggests that blind people adapt to the lack of light that enters through the eyes. Olfactive stimulation and smoking cause a temporary increase in unstimulated SF.9 Men that smoke present significantly higher stimulated SF than non-smoking men.38 The irritating effect of tobacco increases glandular excretion,39 and nicotine causes severe morphologic and functional alterations in the salivary glands.40 The Circadian and Circannual Cycle SF attains its peak at the end of the afternoon but goes down to almost zero during sleep. Salivary composition is not constant and is related to the Circadian cycle.4,41 The concentration of total proteins attains its peak at the end of the afternoon, while the peak production levels of sodium and chloride occur at the beginning of the morning.9 According to Edgar,9 the circannual rhythm also influences salivary secretion. In the summer lower volumes of salivary flows from the parotid gland, while in the winter there are peak volumes of secretion. However, these data were obtained in the state of Texas in the southern United States and the reduction in SF may be associated with dehydration that occurs because of the hot weather. Medications Many classes of drugs, particularly those that have anticholinergic action (antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, antihistaminics, and antihypertensives), may cause reduction in SF and alter its composition.9,18,42,43 Thinking of Food and Visual Stimulation Thinking of food or looking at food are weak salivation stimuli in humans. It may seem that people salivate simply because of thinking of food, but in reality they become more conscious of the saliva in the floor of the mouth between swallows. Some researchers observed a small increase in SF in the face of visual stimuli, while others observed no effect whatever.9 Regular Stimulation of Salivary Flow Although there is evidence regular stimulation of SF with the use of chewing gum leads to an increase in stimulated SF, further studies are required to explain whether this stimulation increases unstimulated SF.9 Size of Salivary Glands and Body Weight Stimulated SF is directly related to the size of the salivary gland, contrary to unstimulated SF which does not depend on its size.9 Unstimulated SF appears to be independent of body weight;10 on the other hand, obese boys present significantly lower salivary amylase concentration in comparison with controls.44 Salivary Flow Index The main factor affecting salivary composition is the flow index8,9 which varies in accordance with the type, intensity, and duration of the stimulus.5,12,17 As the SF

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Fisio Report Factors Influencing Salivary Flow And

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Page 1: Fisio Report Factors Influencing Salivary Flow And

Factors Influencing Salivary Flow andCompositionSeveral factors may influence SF and its composition. As a result, these vary greatly among individuals and in the same individual under different circumstances.3,5,9,10,36

Individual HydrationThe degree of individual hydration is the most important factor that interferes in salivary secretion.10 When the bodywater content is reduced by 8%, SF virtually diminishes to zero, whereas hyperhydration causes an increase in SF.9

During dehydration, the salivary glands cease secretion to conserve water.37

Body Posture, Lighting, and SmokingSF varies in accordance with body posture, lighting conditions, and smoking. Patients kept standing up or lying down present higher and lower SF,respectively, than seated patients. There is a decrease of 30% to 40% in SF of people that are blindfolded or in the dark. However, the flow is not less in blind people, when compared with people with normal vision. This suggests that blind people adapt to the lack of light that enters through the eyes. Olfactive stimulation and smoking cause a temporary increase in unstimulated SF.9 Men that smoke present significantly higher stimulated SF than non-smoking men.38 The irritating effect of tobacco increases glandular excretion,39 andnicotine causes severe morphologic and functional alterations in the salivary glands.40

The Circadian and Circannual CycleSF attains its peak at the end of the afternoon but goes down to almost zero during sleep. Salivary composition is not constant and is related to the Circadian cycle.4,41 The concentration of total proteins attains its peak at the end of the afternoon, while the peak production levels of sodium and chloride occur at the beginning of the morning.9

According to Edgar,9 the circannual rhythm also influences salivary secretion. In the summer lower volumes of salivary flows from the parotid gland, while in the winter there are peak volumes of secretion. However, these data were obtained in the state of Texas in the southern United States and the reduction in SF may be associated with dehydration that occurs because of the hot weather.

MedicationsMany classes of drugs, particularly those that have anticholinergic action (antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, antihistaminics, and antihypertensives), may cause reduction in SF and alter its composition.9,18,42,43

Thinking of Food and Visual StimulationThinking of food or looking at food are weak salivation stimuli in humans. It may seem that people salivate simply because of thinking of food, but in reality they become more conscious of the saliva in the floor of the mouth between swallows. Some researchers observed a small increase in SF in the face of visual stimuli, while others observed no effect whatever.9

Regular Stimulation of Salivary FlowAlthough there is evidence regular stimulation of SF with the use of chewing gum leads to an increase in stimulated SF, further studies are required to explain whether this stimulation increases unstimulated SF.9

Size of Salivary Glands and Body WeightStimulated SF is directly related to the size of the salivary gland, contrary to unstimulated SF which does not depend on its size.9

Unstimulated SF appears to be independent of body weight;10 on the other hand, obese boys present significantly lower salivary amylase concentration in comparison with controls.44

Salivary Flow IndexThe main factor affecting salivary composition is the flow index8,9 which varies in accordance with the type, intensity, and duration of the stimulus.5,12,17 As the SF increases, the concentrations of total protein, sodium, calcium, chloride, and bicarbonate as well as the pH increases to various levels, whereas the concentrations of inorganic phosphate and magnesium diminish.3,8

Mechanical or chemical stimulus is associated with increased salivary secretion. The action of chewing something tasteless itself stimulates salivation but to a lesser degree than the tasty stimulation caused by citric acid.9 Acid substances are considered potent gustatory stimuli.10

Contributions of Different Salivary GlandsOther factors that influence total salivary composition are the relative contribution of the different salivary glands and the type of secretion.5,9 The percentage of contribution by the glands during unstimulated SF is as follows:• 20% by the parotid glands• 65%-70% submandibular glands• 7% to 8% sublingual glands• <10% by the minor salivary glandsWhen SF is stimulated, there is an alteration in the percentage of contribution of each gland with the parotids contributing over 50% of the total salivary secretion.3,4,11,12,45

The salivary secretions may be serous, mucous, or mixed. Serous secretions, produced mainly by the parotids, are rich in ions and enzymes. Mucous secretions are rich in mucins (glycoproteins) and present little or no enzymaticactivity. They are produced mainly by the smaller glands. In the mixed glands, such as the submandibular and sublingual glands, the salivary content depends on the proportion between the serous and mucous cells.2,8,13,17

Physical ExercisePhysical exercise can alter secretion and induces changes in various salivary components, such as: immunoglobulins, hormones, lactate, proteins, and electrolytes.46,47 In addition to the determined intensity of the

Page 2: Fisio Report Factors Influencing Salivary Flow And

exercise, there is a clear rise in salivary levels of -amilase and electrolytes (especially Na+).46 During physical activities sympathetic stimulation appears to be strong enough to diminish or inhibit salivary secretion.47

AlcoholThe intake of a single high dose of ethanol causes a significant reduction of stimulated SF. This diminishment results from the altered release of total proteins and amylase as well as in diminished release of electrolytes.29 Rats exposed to ethanol for a prolonged period showed significant reduction in salivary secretion and diminished release of proteins.40

Systemic Diseases and NutritionIn some chronic diseases such as: pancreatitis,diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, anorexia, bulimia, and celiac disease, the amylase level is high.2 Alterations in the psycho-emotional state may alter the biochemical composition of saliva. Depression is accompanied by diminished salivary proteins.48 Nutritional deficiencies may also influence salivary function and composition.4,11

Fasting and NauseaAlthough short-term fasting reduces SF it does not lead to hyposalivation, and the flow is restored to normal values immediately after the fasting period ends.11 Stimulated SF increases when preceded by gustatory stimulation in lessthan one hour before saliva collection.49 Saliva secretion increases before and during vomiting.9

AgeDespite numerous studies on salivary secretion the effect of aging on SF remains obscure due to conflicting observations in the literature leaving little information available regarding SF in healthy elderly persons.50

Histologic analyses have demonstrated with advancing age the parenchyma of the salivary glands is gradually replaced by adipose and fibrovascular tissue, and the volume of the acini is reduced.51,52 However, functional studies among healthy individuals indicate aging itself does not necessarily lead to diminished glandular capacity to produce saliva.19

Navazesh et al.53 found the total unstimulated SF is significantly lower in healthy patients between the ages of 65 and 83 years, in comparison with patients between the ages of 18 and 35 years. However, total stimulated SF was significantly higher in the elderly in comparison with the younger persons. Percival et al.50 also found the total unstimulated SF is related to age, being significantly reduced in healthy non-medicated elderly persons aged80 years or older. However, no age-related reductions in stimulated SF from the parotid were detected. It is suggested the elderly do not present dysfunctions in the ability to respond to sialogogues, however, the reductionin unstimulated SF could contribute to the appearance of diseases in the oral mucosa.Lima et al.54 demonstrated elderly persons presented a very low daily saliva production, and this appears to be more related to systemic diseases and the continuous use of medications than to aging.GenderThe differences in salivary secretion between men and women have been attributed to two theories: women present smaller salivary glands in comparison with men and the female hormonal pattern may contribute to diminished salivary secretion.50 However, menopause and hormone replacement therapy are not associated with salivary dysfunction of the parotid.55 There were no significant differences with regard to SF between healthy pre- and post-menopausal women and between post-menopausal women under hormonal treatment and women that did not receive treatment.56

Percival et al.50 found healthy, non-medicated women presented a lower mean for total unstimulated SF and for stimulated SF of theparotid when compared with men. Whereas, Shern et al.57 reported the total unstimulated SFwas not influenced by gender.ConclusionSince several factors can influence salivary secretion and composition a precise standard for saliva collection must be established. Such a standard would make the test results obtained through sialometry and/or sialochemistry more helpful in characterizing the true functional state of the salivary glands which in turn would serve as indicators for a diagnosis when oral and/or systemic alterations are suspected.Clinical SignificanceSince many oral and systemic conditions manifest themselves as changes in the flow and composition of saliva the dental practitioner is advised to remain up-to-date with the current literature on the subject.

Page 3: Fisio Report Factors Influencing Salivary Flow And

Faktor yang Mempengaruhi saliva Flow dan

komposisi

Beberapa faktor dapat mempengaruhi SF dan komposisinya. Akibatnya, ini sangat bervariasi antara individu-individu dan pada individu yang sama di bawah circumstances.3,5,9,10,36 berbeda

Hydration Sendiri

Tingkat hidrasi individu adalah faktor yang paling penting yang mengganggu dalam secretion.10 saliva Ketika tubuh

kadar air berkurang sebesar 8%, SF hampir berkurang ke nol, sedangkan hiperhidrasi menyebabkan peningkatan SF.9 Selama dehidrasi, kelenjar ludah berhenti sekresi untuk menghemat water.37

Tubuh Postur, Lighting, dan Merokok

SF bervariasi sesuai dengan postur tubuh, kondisi pencahayaan, dan merokok. Pasien terus berdiri atau berbaring hadir lebih tinggi dan lebih rendah SF, masing-masing, dibandingkan dengan pasien duduk. Ada penurunan dari 30% menjadi 40% di SF dari orang-orang yang ditutup matanya atau dalam gelap. Namun, aliran tidak kurang pada orang buta, bila dibandingkan dengan orang dengan penglihatan normal. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang buta beradaptasi dengan kurangnya cahaya yang masuk melalui mata. Stimulasi olfactive dan merokok menyebabkan peningkatan sementara distimulasi SF.9 Pria yang merokok hadir secara signifikan lebih tinggi mendorong SF dibandingkan non-merokok laki-laki.38 Efek menjengkelkan meningkat tembakau ekskresi kelenjar, 39 dan

nikotin menyebabkan morfologi parah dan perubahan fungsional dalam glands.40 saliva

The Circadian dan Circannual Siklus

SF mencapai puncaknya pada akhir sore hari tapi turun ke hampir nol selama tidur. Komposisi saliva tidak konstan dan berhubungan dengan cycle.4,41 Circadian Konsentrasi total protein mencapai puncaknya pada akhir sore hari, sedangkan tingkat produksi puncak natrium dan klorida terjadi pada awal morning.9 yang

Menurut Edgar, 9 irama circannual juga mempengaruhi sekresi saliva. Di musim panas volume yang lebih rendah dari saliva mengalir dari kelenjar parotis, sementara di musim dingin ada volume puncak sekresi. Namun, data ini diperoleh di negara bagian Texas di Amerika Serikat bagian selatan dan penurunan SF dapat berhubungan dengan dehidrasi yang terjadi karena cuaca panas.

obat

Banyak kelas obat, terutama mereka yang memiliki tindakan antikolinergik (antidepresan, anxiolytics, antipsikotik, anthistamin, dan antihipertensi), dapat menyebabkan penurunan SF dan mengubah composition.9,18,42,43 nya

Berpikir Makanan dan Visual Stimulasi

Berpikir makanan atau melihat makanan yang rangsangan air liur yang lemah pada manusia. Ini mungkin tampak bahwa orang-orang mengeluarkan air liur hanya karena memikirkan makanan, tetapi dalam kenyataannya mereka menjadi lebih sadar air liur di lantai mulut antara menelan. Beberapa peneliti mengamati peningkatan kecil di SF dalam menghadapi rangsangan visual, sementara yang lain mengamati tidak ada efek whatever.9

Stimulasi rutin saliva Arus

Meskipun ada bukti stimulasi teratur SF dengan menggunakan permen karet menyebabkan peningkatan dirangsang SF, studi lebih lanjut diperlukan untuk menjelaskan apakah ini rangsangan meningkat SF.9 distimulasi

Ukuran saliva Kelenjar dan Berat Badan

Page 4: Fisio Report Factors Influencing Salivary Flow And

Merangsang SF secara langsung berhubungan dengan ukuran kelenjar ludah, bertentangan dengan distimulasi SF yang tidak tergantung pada size.9 nya

Distimulasi SF tampaknya independen dari berat badan, 10 di sisi lain, anak-anak obesitas menyajikan konsentrasi saliva amilase secara signifikan lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan controls.44

Flow Index saliva

Faktor utama yang mempengaruhi komposisi saliva adalah index8,9 aliran yang bervariasi sesuai dengan jenis, intensitas, dan durasi stimulus.5,12,17 Seperti meningkat SF, konsentrasi total protein, natrium, kalsium, klorida, dan bikarbonat serta peningkatan pH untuk berbagai tingkatan, sedangkan konsentrasi fosfat anorganik dan magnesium diminish.3,8

Stimulus mekanik atau kimia dikaitkan dengan peningkatan sekresi saliva. Tindakan mengunyah sesuatu hambar itu sendiri merangsang air liur tetapi untuk tingkat yang lebih rendah daripada stimulasi lezat disebabkan oleh sitrat acid.9 zat asam dianggap ampuh stimuli.10 gustatory

Kontribusi dari Kelenjar saliva yang berbeda-beda

Faktor-faktor lain yang mempengaruhi komposisi saliva keseluruhan adalah kontribusi relatif dari kelenjar ludah yang berbeda dan jenis secretion.5,9 Persentase kontribusi oleh kelenjar selama distimulasi SF adalah sebagai berikut:

• 20% oleh kelenjar parotis

• 65% -70% kelenjar submandibula

• 7% sampai 8% kelenjar sublingual

• <10% oleh kelenjar ludah minor

Ketika SF dirangsang, ada perubahan dalam persentase kontribusi masing-masing kelenjar dengan parotids kontribusi lebih dari 50% dari total saliva secretion.3,4,11,12,45

Sekresi saliva mungkin serous, lendir, atau campuran. Sekresi serosa, diproduksi terutama oleh parotids, kaya ion dan enzim. Sekresi lendir kaya mucins (glikoprotein) dan sekarang sedikit atau tidak ada enzimatik

aktivitas. Mereka diproduksi terutama oleh kelenjar kecil. Dalam kelenjar campuran, seperti kelenjar submandibular dan sublingual, isi saliva tergantung pada proporsi antara cells.2,8,13,17 serosa dan mukosa

Latihan fisik

Latihan fisik dapat mengubah sekresi dan menyebabkan perubahan di berbagai komponen saliva, seperti: imunoglobulin, hormon, laktat, protein, dan electrolytes.46,47 Selain intensitas ditentukan latihan, ada kenaikan jelas dalam tingkat ludah -amilase dan elektrolit (terutama Na +). Selama 46 kegiatan fisik stimulasi simpatis tampaknya cukup kuat untuk mengurangi atau menghambat secretion.47 saliva

alkohol

Asupan dosis tinggi tunggal etanol menyebabkan penurunan yang signifikan dari dirangsang SF. Diminishment ini hasil dari rilis berubah total protein dan amilase serta dalam rilis berkurang dari electrolytes.29 Tikus terkena etanol dalam waktu lama menunjukkan penurunan yang signifikan dalam sekresi saliva dan pelepasan berkurang dari proteins.40

Penyakit sistemik dan Gizi

Dalam beberapa penyakit kronis seperti: pankreatitis, diabetes mellitus, insufisiensi ginjal, anoreksia, bulimia, dan penyakit celiac, tingkat amilase adalah Perubahan high.2 di negara psiko-emosional dapat mengubah komposisi biokimia air liur. Depresi disertai dengan kekurangan gizi berkurang saliva proteins.48 juga dapat mempengaruhi fungsi saliva dan composition.4,11

Page 5: Fisio Report Factors Influencing Salivary Flow And

Puasa dan Mual

Meskipun puasa jangka pendek mengurangi SF tidak menyebabkan hiposalivasi, dan aliran ini dikembalikan ke nilai normal segera setelah periode puasa ends.11 Merangsang SF meningkat ketika didahului oleh stimulasi gustatory dalam waktu kurang

dari satu jam sebelum kenaikan sekresi air liur collection.49 Saliva sebelum dan selama vomiting.9

Umur

Meskipun banyak penelitian pada sekresi saliva efek penuaan pada SF tetap jelas karena pengamatan yang bertentangan dalam literatur meninggalkan sedikit informasi yang tersedia mengenai SF di persons.50 tua yang sehat

Analisis histologis telah menunjukkan dengan usia lanjut parenkim kelenjar ludah secara bertahap digantikan oleh adiposa dan jaringan fibrovascular, dan volume asinus adalah reduced.51,52 Namun, penelitian fungsional antara individu-individu yang sehat mengindikasikan penuaan itu sendiri tidak selalu menyebabkan berkurang kapasitas kelenjar untuk menghasilkan saliva.19

Navazesh et al.53 menemukan total distimulasi SF secara signifikan lebih rendah pada pasien yang sehat antara usia 65 dan 83 tahun, dibandingkan dengan pasien antara usia 18 dan 35 tahun. Namun, jumlah dirangsang SF secara signifikan lebih tinggi pada orang tua dibandingkan dengan orang yang lebih muda. Percival et al.50 juga menemukan total distimulasi SF berhubungan dengan usia, yang secara signifikan berkurang pada orang tua non-obat sehat usia

80 tahun atau lebih. Namun, tidak ada pengurangan berhubungan dengan usia pada dirangsang SF dari parotid yang terdeteksi. Disarankan orang tua tidak disfungsi hadir dalam kemampuan untuk menanggapi sialogogues, namun, pengurangan

di terstimulasi SF dapat memberikan kontribusi untuk penampilan penyakit pada mukosa mulut.

Lima et al.54 menunjukkan orang tua disajikan produksi air liur harian yang sangat rendah, dan ini tampaknya lebih terkait dengan penyakit sistemik dan penggunaan terus menerus obat dari penuaan.

Jenis Kelamin

Perbedaan dalam sekresi saliva antara pria dan wanita telah dikaitkan dengan dua teori: perempuan yang hadir kelenjar ludah kecil dibandingkan dengan laki-laki dan pola hormonal wanita dapat menyebabkan berkurangnya saliva secretion.50 Namun, menopause dan terapi penggantian hormon tidak berhubungan dengan saliva disfungsi parotid.55 ada ada perbedaan yang signifikan berkaitan dengan SF antara pra dan wanita sehat pasca-menopause dan antara perempuan pasca-menopause di bawah perawatan hormon dan perempuan yang tidak menerima treatment.56

Percival et al.50 menemukan sehat, perempuan non-obat disajikan berarti lebih rendah untuk jumlah yang tidak distimulasi SF dan untuk merangsang SF dari theparotid bila dibandingkan dengan laki-laki. Padahal, Shern et al.57 melaporkan total distimulasi SF

tidak dipengaruhi oleh jenis kelamin.

kesimpulan

Karena beberapa faktor dapat mempengaruhi sekresi saliva dan komposisi standar yang tepat untuk koleksi saliva harus ditetapkan. Standar tersebut akan membuat hasil tes diperoleh melalui sialometry dan / atau sialochemistry lebih bermanfaat dalam menggambarkan keadaan fungsional sebenarnya dari kelenjar ludah yang pada gilirannya akan berfungsi sebagai indikator untuk diagnosis ketika perubahan lisan dan / atau sistemik diduga.

Signifikansi klinis

Karena banyak kondisi rongga mulut dan sistemik menampakkan diri sebagai perubahan arus dan komposisi air liur dokter gigi disarankan untuk tetap up-to-date dengan literatur saat ini pada subjek.