Human DevelopmentChapter 9

AP PsychologyAlice F. Short

Hilliard Davidson High School

Discussion Question:

• At what age do you stop becoming more mature?

• The text states that the “body, mind and emotion are interdependent.” Imagine the loss of function in one of these areas. What would it be like if one of these was at a diminished capacity?

Chapter Outline

• Exploring Human Development• Child Development• Adolescence• Emerging Adulthood, Adult Development, and

Aging• Human Development and Health and Wellness

Development

• development - the pattern of continuity and change that occurs throughout the lifespan– physical processes– cognitive processes– socioemotional processes

Development

• biological processes

• cognitive processes

• socioemotional processes

Research Methods in Development Psychology

• Age-Related Differences– cross-sectional studies• cohort effects

– DISCUSSION: What cohort effects exist within your generation?

• faster

– longitudinal studies• takes a LONG time

• Very happy people? Old or young? What do you think? (p. 279)

Nature vs. Nurture

• nature – biological inheritance• nurture – environmental experiences• the developer – individuals take active roles in

own development

• Which leads to / influences optimal life experiences more?

A SHORT Time to Ponder• Critical Controversy: Genes or Superparents? (p. 281)

– Judith Harris (1998) The Nurture Assumption – parents make no difference

– Sandra Scarr – “superparenting” is unnecessary– Diana Baumrind – “good enough” is not good enough– W. Andrew Collins (2000) – even w/ genetic influence taken into

account, parenting practices made a difference in children’s lives.

– If you have decide to have children in the future, how might the information in this Critical Controversy affect your approach to parenting?

– Why might today’s parents be more likely than parents in the past to try to be superparents?

– How influential are your peers in your life? Is the influence positive or negative?

– What should you do of your child falls in with the “wrong crowd”?

Resilient Children

• early experience versus later experience • resilience – a person’s ability to recover from

or adapt to difficult times• resilient children become capable adults

Prenatal Development

• Germinal Period (weeks 1-2)– conception– fertilization– zygote

• Embryonic Period (weeks 3-8)• Fetal Period (months 2-9)

Prenatal Development

• Teratogens… agents that cause birth defects– diseases (ruebella, German measles, etc.)– nicotine– alcohol– STIs

• Effects of teratogens depend on…– timing of exposure– genetic characteristics– postnatal environment

Physical Development

• reflexes - genetically wired behaviors that are crucial for survival– persist throughout life• coughing, blinking, yawning

– disappear with neurological development• grasping

Physical Development

• perceptual and motor skills• preferential looking– give “choice” and measure preferences

Brain Development

• myelination continues after birth• dramatic increase in synaptic connections• brain imaging techniques illuminate

developmental changes in the brain

Cognitive Development

• Jean Piaget (1896-1980)– Children actively construct their cognitive world

using…• schemas – concepts or frameworks that

organize information• assimilation – incorporate new info into existing

schemas• accommodation – adjust schemas to new information

Piaget’s Theory

• sensorimotor stage• preoperational stage• concrete operational stage• formal operational stage

Piaget’s Theory:

Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 years)– coordinate sensations with movements– object permanence

• Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)– symbolic thinking– intuitive reasoning – egocentrism

• Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 yrs)– operational thinking (e.g., conservation)– classification skills– logical thinking in concrete contexts

• Formal Operational Stage (11-15 yrs)– lasts through adulthood– abstract and idealistic thought– hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

• some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought

• Piaget overestimated formal operations• culture and education also influence development

• Lev Vygotsky, Russian psychology (1962): Cognitive Development– is an interpersonal process. – happens in a cultural context.– is facilitated by the process of scaffolding.

Temperament

• an individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding

• three clusters of temperament – easy– difficult– slow-to-warm-up

• another perspective (effortful control/self-regulation, inhibition, and negative affectivity)

Infant Attachment

• Harlow Study – infant rhesus monkeys– is it nourishment or contact that matters?– chose between two surrogate “mothers”

• cold wire mother versus warm cloth mother• -infants preferred cloth mother across situations

– contact comfort is critical to attachment

– the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

– may provide important foundation for subsequent development

Infant Attachment

• Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation– Caregivers leave infant alone with stranger, then

return…secure attachment or insecure attachment?

– Criticism: cultural variations

Socioemotional Development

• Erik Erikson (1902-1994)– theory emphasizes lifelong development– eight psychosocial stages of development• first four stages: childhood

– each stage represents a developmental task• crisis that must be resolved• personal competence or weakness

Erik Erikson: Socioemotional

Development

• First Four Stages: Childhood– trust versus mistrust– autonomy versus shame and doubt– initiative versus guilt– industry versus inferiority

Evaluating Erikson

• primary focus on case-study research• omitted important developmental tasks

Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian– parents are controlling and punitive– correlated with lack of initiative, poor

communication skills, social incompetence• Authoritative– parents encourage independence with limits– correlated with social competence, social responsibility,

and self-reliance• Neglectful– parents are generally uninvolved– correlated with less social incompetence and poor self-

control• Permissive– parents are involved, but place few limits– correlated with poor social competence, lack of respect for

others, poor self-control

Friendships

• talking over life problems• co-rumination– worrying about a topic without finding a

resolution. – girls co-ruminate more than boys– increased feelings of depression and anxiety

Moral Development

• Kohlberg (1927-1987) – presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses– Preconventional• behavior guided by punishments and rewards

– Conventional• standards learned from parents and society

– Postconventional• contracts, rights and abstract principles

Moral Development: Kohlberg

• 3 Levels, 6 stages, 2 stages in each level

Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory

• moral reasoning ≠ moral behavior– what we say and do are not always consistent

• women generally score lower than men– justice perspective (men)– care perspective (women) – Carol Gilligan

Current Research on Moral Development

• Prosocial Behavior– correlated with supportive parenting– correlated with self-control

• Conscience Formation– forms by age 3 and carries over into adulthood– parent-child interactions• clear, elaborate, rich with emotional content• shared positive emotion

Moral Development

• Parenting strategies associated with morality in children…– warm and supportive rather than harsh– reasoning with child when disciplining– help child learn to take others’ perspective– involve child in decision making– model moral behavior and thinking

Understanding Adolescence

• transition from childhood to adulthood• starts age 10-12• ends age 18-21

Adolescent Physical Development

• Puberty– rapid skeletal and sexual maturation– puberty begins at beginning of adolescence

• Testosterone (androgen) — boys – genital development, height, voice changes

• Estrodiol (estrogen) — girls– breast, uterine, and skeletal development

Adolescent Brain Development

• Early– amygdala• emotions

• Late – prefrontal cortex• reasoning and decision making• risk taking

Adolescent Cognitive Development

• Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage– Adolescent Egocentrism • the belief that others are as preoccupied with the

adolescent as he or she is• sense of uniqueness• sense of invincibility --> risky behaviors

Adolescent Socioemotional Development

• Erikson: Psychosocial Development– identity versus identity confusion (fifth stage)

• Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses– exploration and commitment• identity diffusion• identity foreclosure• identity moratorium• identity achievement

Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses

Adolescent Socioemotional Development

• Ethnic Identity– attachment to ones minority group– attachment to larger culture– biculturalism

• Influence of Parents and Peers– parent as manager/counselor/monitor– balance involvement and allowing to explore– peer relations peak in importance

Adult Development and Aging

• Emerging Adulthood – extended adolescence – five key features• identity exploration• instability• self-focus• feeling “in between”• age of possibilities

Physical Changes in Adulthood

• Early Adulthood– most reach the peak of physical development

• Middle Adulthood– most lose height, many gain weight– menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s)

• Late Adulthood– accumulated wear and tear– less ability to repair and regenerate

Biological Theories of Aging

• Cellular-Clock Theory– maximum # of cell divisions possible– predicts human life span of about 120 years– shortening telomeres

• Free-Radical Theory – cause DNA and cell damage

• Hormonal Stress Theory– stress hormones linger longer

The Aging Brain

• some new brain cells grow in hippocampus and olfactory bulb

• surviving/healthy neurons take up slack for their deceased/disabled neighbors

• reduced lateralization of brain function: both hemispheres used more equally

Cognitive Development

in Adulthood

• Early Adulthood– idealism gives way to realistic pragmatism– reflection on worldview

• Middle Adulthood– crystallized intelligence (vocabulary)

peaks– fluid intelligence (inductive reasoning)

peaks– numerical ability & perceptual speed

decline• Late Adulthood

– speed of processing generally declines– memory retrieval skills decline– wisdom increases in some individuals– strategy training and physical activity can

improve cognitive function

Cognitive Development

Socioemotional Development in Adulthood

• Erikson’s Theory– Last Four Stages

• identity versus role confusion (adolescence)

• intimacy versus isolation• generativity versus stagnation• integrity versus despair

Marriage

• Erikson’s Stage 6: intimacy v. isolation• women and men are marrying later• principles for successful marriages– nurturing fondness and admiration– turning toward each other as friends– giving up some power– solving conflicts together

Parenting

• Erikson’s Stage 7: generativity v. stagnation• wellness through contribution to next

generation• contribution through rearing children• constructive engagement with children

correlated with marital satisfaction, life satisfaction, career success

Winding Down

• Erikson’s Stage 8: integrity v. despair• wellness through reminiscence• seeking meaning through life review• confronting own pending death• importance of meaning: past and present!• more selective about social network• consider Bucket List

Human Development: Health and Wellness

• Development during adulthood marked by– physical and psychological decline– conscious awareness of aging

• Coping with life’s difficulties– assimilation and accommodation (Piaget)

• Victor Frankl – Life Themes– the uniqueness of each person and the finiteness

of life.

Chapter Summary

• Explain how psychologists think about development.• Describe children’s development from prenatal

stages to adolescence.• Identify the most important changes that occur in

adolescence.• Discuss adult development and the positive

dimensions of aging.• Discuss important factors in successful adult

psychological development.

Chapter Summary

• Development occurs across the lifespan and is influenced by both– nature – biological inheritance– nurture – environmental experience

• Physical Development– childhood– adolescence– adulthood

Chapter Summary

• Cognitive Development– childhood– adolescence– adulthood

• Socioemotional Development– childhood– adolescence– adulthood

Chapter Summary

• Piaget: Cognitive Development– schemas, assimilation, and accommodation– sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete

operational, and formal operational stages

• Kohlberg: Moral Development– preconventional, conventional, and

postconventional morality

Chapter Summary

• Erikson: Psychosocial Development– emphasizes lifelong development– eight psychosocial stages (crises) of development

• Positive Psychology and Development– most report being happy across the life span

• Coping, Life Themes, and Development