i water and oil flow regime identification using

i

WATER AND OIL FLOW REGIME IDENTIFICATION USING

TRANSMISSION-MODE ULTRASONIC TOMOGRAPHY

MUHAMAD AHNAF BIN MOHD ABD. GHAFAR

This thesis is submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the

Bachelor of Electrical Engineering (Electronics)

Faculty of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Universiti Malaysia Pahang

JUNE, 2012

v

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this project is to develop a suitable ultrasonic tomography

system that can identify two phase flow regime. By using ultrasonic, emphasis is

placed on the evaluation of its performance in flow regime identification and cross-

sectional measurement. The transmission-mode approach has been used for sensing

the water and oil two-phase flow. The transmission mode for sensing purpose was

implemented where 4x4 projections is produced. This is one of the non-invasive

methods that do not disturb the internal flow of the pipeline, hence, water and oil

flow inside the pipe could be monitored by this system in an uninterrupted manner

and flow regime determined based on the sum of all the sensor’s values. Analysis

and result measurement was using oscilloscope are presented.

vi

ABSTRAK

Tujuan projek ini adalah untuk membangunkan sistem tomografi ultrasonik

yang boleh mengenal pasti dua fasa aliran komposisi. Dengan menggunakan

pendekatan ultrasonik, penekanan diletakkan pada penilaian prestasi dalam aliran

komposisi aliran pengenalan dan pengukuran keratan rentas. Mod penghantaran terus

telah digunakan untuk mengesan air dan minyak aliran dua fasa. Mod penghantaran

terus pengesanan yang dilaksanakan menghasilkan unjuran 4x4. Ini adalah salah satu

kaedah yang bukan invasif yang bermaksud tidak mengganggu aliran dalaman paip,

oleh itu, air dan aliran minyak di dalam paip boleh dipantau oleh sistem ini dengan

cara yang tidak terganggu dan regim aliran ditentukan berdasarkan jumlah semua

sensor nilai-nilai. Pengukuran dan hasil analisis menggunakan osiloskop.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS xiv

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Overview of Process Tomography 1

1.2 Importance of Study 2

1.3 Background Statement 3

1.4 Objective of Project 3

1.5 Scope of Project 4

1.6 The Thesis Outline 4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction of Ultrasound 6

2.2 Fundamental of Ultrasound 7

2.3 Piezoelectric Effect 8

viii

2.4 Frequency, Period and Wavelength of Ultrasound 10

2.5 Acoustic Impedance 11

2.6 Attenuation of Ultrasound 14

2.7 Type of Tomography 15

2.8 Electrical Capacitance Tomography 15

2.9 Electrical Impedance Tomography 15

2.10 Optical Tomography 16

2.11 Ultrasonic Tomography Process 16

2.12 Ultrasonic Sensing Modes 17

2.12.1 Transmission mode 17

2.12.2 Reflection mode 18

2.12.3 Diffraction mode 18

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction of Ultrasonic Tomography System 19

3.2 Hardware System 21

3.2.1 Ultrasonic Sensor Setup 22

3.2.1.1 Ultrasonic Transducer 22

3.2.1.2 Ultrasonic Transducer Fabrication 24

3.2.2 Electronic Measurement Circuit 25

3.2.2.1 Microcontroller Circuits 25

3.2.2.2 Signal Generator Circuit 28

3.2.2.2 Signal Condition Circuit 31

3.3 Software System 35

3.3.1 Proteus ISIS/ARES Professional

Version 7.9 Service Pack 1 35

3.3.2 PCWHD Compiler 37

ix

3.2.2.1 Programming of Microcontroller Pulse Projection 37

3.2.2.2 Amplified Microcontroller Pulse Projection 39

3.3.3 PICkit 2 Programmer 39

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 42

4.2 Result of Full Calibration Water Composition 43

4.3 Time of Flight Analysis 44

4.4 First Highest Peak Value Analysis 46

4.5 Problems Faced 47

4.2.1 Signal Conditioning Observation 47

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 50

5.2 Problem Encountered 50

5.3 Recommendation 51

REFERENCES 52

Appendices A - M 56 - 71

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LIST OF TABLES TABLES TITLE PAGE

NO.

2.1 Acoustic impedance of experimental materials 11

3.1 PIC18FXX2X device family basic comparison 26

4.1 Time of Flight (µs) 43

4.2 First Highest Peak Value (mV) 43

4.3 Sampling Period (µs) 43

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO.

2.1 Sound classification due range frequency 6

2.2 Application of ultrasound at different frequency 7

2.3 Propagation of longitudinal wave 8

2.4 Propagation of transverse wave 8

2.5 (1) Piezoelectric crystal remains at normal shape without giving

any electricity supply. (2) The crystal gets thicker, due to a

distortion of the crystal lattice. (3) The effect inverses with

polarity change 9

2.6 A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystal‘s

resonant frequency 9

2.7 Continuous wave of ultrasound 10

2.8 Ultrasonic propagation from PVC pipe to water medium 12

2.9 Ultrasonic propagation from water to oil medium 13

2.10 Attenuation of ultrasound 14

3.1 Hardware installation scope 19

3.2 The ultrasonic sensors mounting technique 20

3.3 Example of transmitted and received signal of ultrasonic 21

3.4 Placement of Ultrasonic Transmitter (Tx) and

Ultrasonic Receiver (Rx) 22

3.5 Air ultrasonic ceramic transducer with twisted cable 23

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3.6 Dimensions of ultrasonic transducer by PROWAVE 23

3.7 Specification for transmitter and receiver 23

3.8 Fabrication of ultrasonic transducer 24

3.9 40-pin PDIP of 18F4620 26

3.10 Schematic diagram of microcontroller circuit unit 27

3.11 Microcontroller unit on Printed Circuit Board (PCB) 27

3.12 Output from microcontroller circuit 28

3.13 Generated Signal by Transmitter 28

3.14 Schematic diagram of signal generator circuit 29

3.15 Real microcontroller unit and signal generator circuit 30

3.16 Amplified output signal from generator circuit and

microcontroller 31

3.17 Schematic diagram of signal conditioning circuit 32

3.18 Real conditioning circuit using LM833N 33

3.19 Signal from Receiver Obtained after Transmitted Dual-pulse Tone

from Transmitter 33

3.20 Schematic diagram of sample and hold circuit 34

3.21 Real sample and hold circuit on PCB 34

3.22 Analogue analysis by using Proteus ISIS Virtual System

Modelling (VSM) 35

3.23 Routed circuit of microcontroller unit and signal generator 36

3.24: 3D Model of microcontroller unit and signal generator 36

3.25 Example of programming using PCWHD 37

3.26 Program of dual pulse for transmitter channel 0 38

3.27 Experimental amplified signal generated by TLE2141 39

3.28 Typical In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) application circuit 40

3.29 UIC00B USB ICSP PIC Programmer 41

4.1 The graph of time of flight (TOF) measured in microsecond, µs 44

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4.2 The graph of first highest peak of received signal measured in

miliVolt,µV 46

4.1 Experiment output of signal conditioning. Dotted circuit

shows cross-talk noise. 47

4.2 Coupling circuit and schematic diagram consisted of 2 pair 10µF

capacitor 48

4.3 Reducing cross-talk noise on received signal 49

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

c − Velocity f − Frequency λ − Wavelength of ultrasound ρ − Density R − Reflection Coefficient T − Transmission Coefficient Z − Acoustic Impedance Vref − Reference Voltage Tx − Transmitter Rx − Receiver V − Volt(s) Vp-p − Peak to peak voltage

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Overview of Process Tomography

An identical meaning of word ‘tomography’ came from the Greek words

‘tomos’ meaning ‘to slice’ and ‘graph’ meaning ‘image’ (Yasmin, 2009). Hence,

process tomography knew as a process of obtaining the plane-section images of a

three-dimensional object. Applying this process techniques produce cross-section

images of the flow composition in a pipeline, thus, propose great potential for the

development, and verification of flow models, and also for process diagnostic.

Constructed tomography gives impressive information that can be used,

commonly, in the design and control of processes. The operation and design of

processes dealing multi-composition phases become easier by differentiated

compositions in a process to be imaged in real-time or offline system using non-

destructive sensors (Hafiz, 2009). Vector velocity and component concentration

distribution in periphery-type pipelines will be determined from the constructed

tomogram due information on the flow regime.

Despite their popularity is widely used in industry, tomographic imaging has

actually been introduced in medicine field a few recent decades. A number of

applications of tomographic imaging of process equipment were described in the

1970s but generally these involved using ionizing radiation from X-ray or isotope

sources (Ng Wei Yap, 2005). However, this approach does not satisfactorily meet the

2

requirements for cost and safety factors. Optical tomography is an attractive method

since it may prove to be less expensive, have a better dynamic response, and more

portable for routine use in process plant other than radiation-based tomographic

methods such as positron emission, nuclear magnetic resonance, gamma photon

emission and x-ray tomography. Its performance is also independent of temperature,

pressure and viscosity of fluid (Mustafa, 2008).

1.2 Importance of Study

The technology of ultrasonic sensor has widely used especially in heavy

industry such as palm oil, petroleum and chemical industry. Industry need to utilize

resources more efficiently and to satisfy demand and legislation for product quality

and reduced environmental emissions. Therefore, engineer has discovered one of the

non-invasive techniques that can be used in the industry for monitoring the flow

composition of two liquids flow such as water and oil in vessel or pipe. Known as

ultrasonic tomography, this method can encounter conventional monitoring

measuring instrument that may be unsuitable to be exposed to the harsh internal

condition.

Ultrasonic sensor is a kind of non-destructive sensor and has been

successfully applied in process measurement particularly in flow measurement.

Moreover, this monitoring system does not disturb the internal flow of the pipe.

Ultrasonic technology provides the means to obtain quantitative, highly accurate and

reliable inspection data. The installation of the ultrasonic tomography system also

does not require the shutdown of the industry’s process. Thus, it also makes

installation easier and portable convenience.

The purpose of this project is to develop a suitable ultrasonic tomography

system that can identify two phase flow regime composition of the water and oil.

Transmission-mode sensing method is implemented by using 4x4 projections which

are 4 transmitters and 4 receivers of ultrasonic sensors. This project is divided into

3

two parts which are hardware and software. Collected data from the hardware will be

analysis and calculated.

1.3 Background Statement

In general, we know that a lot of pipes and vessel channels used in industrial

processes. This is very complicated of a monitoring system to identify flow

composition inside the pipeline and vessels. Thus, reliable systems have to be

developed whereby the system is able to view objects within these pipes without

interrupting the flow. The process tomography system requires the knowledge of

various disciplines such as instrumentation process, and optics to assist in the design

and development of the system (Mustafa, 2008). An ultrasonic tomography is one of

the non-destructive techniques that have been successfully used in industries in order

to monitor and identify the actual process flow inside pipelines and vessels by not

interrupting the process. Despite this method has been popularly used, many

researchers focus on the output tomogram produced for analysis regardless of the

physical structure of the examined pipeline. The way to analyze the result also is

emphasized for the production of accurate analysis. Although this project is far from

perfect compared to previous research, but with a focus on how to analyze the

tomogram will be the benchmark of this project that may be used for future research.

1.4 Objective of Project

The objective of this project is to develop a suitable ultrasonic tomography

system that can identify water and oil flow regime using transmission-mode

ultrasonic sensing method.

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1.5 Scope of Project

There are several scopes that involve in this project;

i. To determine the composition of water and oil flow by implementing the

transmission-mode of ultrasonic tomography.

ii. To design the simple circuit of ultrasonic tomography system.

iii. To implement transmission-mode sensing method of 4x4 projections.

iv. To implement microcontroller to project and controller a sign of ultrasound.

1.6 The Thesis Outline

This thesis consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to

process tomography follow by project background, background statements, objective

of the project and scope of the study.

Chapter 2 mainly discusses the literature review about ultrasound

architectures. It consists of an overview of process tomography, the significance of

developing the system, types of tomography and a historical review about the

evolvement of the process.

Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the project itself. The hardware

development process and way to analyze the output that implement in this project

was presented and explained detail.

Chapter 4 presents the results obtained from the experiments done on the

developed system. The results obtained are discussed and a conclusion was drawn

based on the analysis.

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Chapter 5 is written to discussing the conclusion and the recommendations on

matters that can improve the research project in the near future.

2.1 Introduction of Ultrasound

Ultrasounds known as sound with frequency that above 20 kHz. Ultrasound

behaves in a similar manner with audible sound, but it has much shorter wavelength.

This means that it can be reflected by very small surfaces such as defects inside the

materials. It is because of this that makes the ultrasound useful for non

testing of materials. Figure

meanwhile; Figure 2.

Figure 2.1:

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction of Ultrasound




is because of this that makes the ultrasound useful for non

Figure 2.1 shows the classification of sound due range frequency

Figure 2.2 shows the application of ultrasound at different frequencies.

Figure 2.1: Sound classification due range frequency

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is because of this that makes the ultrasound useful for non-destructive

the classification of sound due range frequency

shows the application of ultrasound at different frequencies.

Sound classification due range frequency

Figure 2.

2.2 Fundamental of Ultrasound

There are several fundamentals of ultrasound that need to be known before it

is intended to be applied in non

Ultrasound travels in the form of a wave, similar to the way light travels. However,

unlike light waves, which can travel in vacuum, ultrasound requires elastic medium

such as solid and liquid to travel

Regarding propagation of ultrasound,

varying deformations or vibrations in material, which is referred as acoustics

(Ruzairi, 2007). Acoustics behaviour can describe as it focus on particles that contain

many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanica

types of waves that need to be known before carry on the ultrasonic testing such as

longitudinal waves, transverse (shear) waves, surfaces

Usually, longitudinal and transverse waves were selected to use wid

testing (Yasmin, 2009).

longitudinal and transverse wave propagation.

Figure 2.2: Application of ultrasound at different frequency

Fundamental of Ultrasound


is intended to be applied in non-destructive or non-invasive tomography testing.


waves, which can travel in vacuum, ultrasound requires elastic medium

such as solid and liquid to travel (Ng Wei Nyap, 2005).

propagation of ultrasound, ultrasonic testing is based on time


. Acoustics behaviour can describe as it focus on particles that contain

many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave. There are several


longitudinal waves, transverse (shear) waves, surfaces-Rayleigh and many more.

Usually, longitudinal and transverse waves were selected to use wid

(Yasmin, 2009). Figure 2.3 and figure 2.4 explain the direction of both

longitudinal and transverse wave propagation.

7

Application of ultrasound at different frequency


invasive tomography testing.


waves, which can travel in vacuum, ultrasound requires elastic medium

ultrasonic testing is based on time-


. Acoustics behaviour can describe as it focus on particles that contain

l wave. There are several


Rayleigh and many more.

Usually, longitudinal and transverse waves were selected to use widely on ultrasonic

explain the direction of both

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

2.3 Piezoelectric Effect

Ultrasonic transducers

piezoelectric effect to convert electrical energy into mechanical movement

applying number of principles that used to generate ultrasound

discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880

Piezo by definition knew as pressure, so piezoelectric means that pressure

based electrical energy generated is applied to a quartz crystal. When electrical

energy is applied to the face of the crystal, the shape of the crystal changes as a

function of the polarity

Figure 2.3: Propagation of longitudinal wave

Figure 2.4: Propagation of transverse wave

Piezoelectric Effect

ransducers commonly use an ultrasound physic principle so

piezoelectric effect to convert electrical energy into mechanical movement

applying number of principles that used to generate ultrasound

discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880 (Yasmin, 2009).

by definition knew as pressure, so piezoelectric means that pressure



rity due to applied electrical energy. As the crystal expands and

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an ultrasound physic principle so-called

piezoelectric effect to convert electrical energy into mechanical movement despite of

applying number of principles that used to generate ultrasound, which was

by definition knew as pressure, so piezoelectric means that pressure-



applied electrical energy. As the crystal expands and

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contracts it produces compressions and rarefactions, and creates sound waves. Figure

2.5 and figure 2.6 explained the effect of piezoelectric effect due to quartz crystal.

Figure 2.5: (1) Piezoelectric crystal remains at normal shape without giving any

electricity supply. (2) The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal

lattice. (3) The effect inverses with polarity change

Figure 2.6: A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystal‘s resonant

frequency

The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process as it can produce a pulse of

analogues electrical energy by mechanically exciting the crystal as occur at

ultrasonic receiver.

Piezoelectric crystal (Quartz)

(1) (2) (3)

Short pulse (<1µs)

10

2.4 Frequency, Period and Wavelength of Ultrasound

The wavelength, λ is the length of a complete cycle for ultrasound while the

period, T is the time taken to complete a full cycle of ultrasound and measure in

second. The frequency, f is the number of cycle completed in second, s or measured

in hertz, Hz (Yasmin, 2009). The relation of wavelength, λ and period, T in

continuous wave or sinusoidal wave shows as in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Continuous wave of ultrasound

The relation between frequency,f and period,T of a continuous wave of

ultrasound is given by equation 2.1.

f = 1/T ……. (Eq.2.1)

The relation between velocity,c , frequency, f, wavelength,λ and period,T is

given by equation 2.2 and equation 2.3.

λ = c/f ……. (Eq.2.2)

λ = cT ……. (Eq.2.3)

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2.5 Acoustic Impedance

A term that is used to describe the interaction of ultrasound with a material is

called acoustic impedance; z which is analogous to electrical impedance is equal to

the product of density, ρ and speed of sound, c (Ruzairi, 2007). The greater the

difference in acoustic impedance at interface, the greater will be the amount of

energy reflected. Conversely, if the impedances are similar, most of the energy is

transmitted (Ruzairi, 2005). Thus, we can simplify that the difference in acoustic

impedance at interface proportional to the amount of energy reflected. The equation

2.4 shows the relation between acoustic impedance, z, and product of density, ρ and

speed of sound, c.

Z = ρc ……. (Eq.2.4)

There are several factors explaining the importance of the acoustic impedance

such as to determine the different of acoustic transmission and reflection at boundary

between two materials, to design ultrasonic transducers and assessing absorption of

sound in a medium (Yasmin, 2009).

Table 2.1 shows the acoustic impedance of several materials that used as

experimental medium.

Table 2.1: Acoustic impedance of experimental materials

Medium Material Acoustic Impedance, Z (kg m-2s-1)

Experimental column PVC 3.27x106

Liquid Water 1.50x106

Liquid Palm oil 1.35x106

The reflection and transmission coefficients are given as equation 2.5 and

equation 2.6 by considering the behaviour of a normal ultrasonic wave at an

interface.

Reflection coefficient, R =

Transmission coefficient, T =

Value of acoustic impedance is

transmission and reflection of the ultrasonic propagation in all materials.

and 2.5.2 explains the propagation of the ultrasonic wave occurred.

i) Propagation of the ultrasonic wave between

Figure 2.8: Ultrasonic propagation from

Refers to the experiment conducted, the acoustic impedance of material used for

PVC pipe, 푧 = 3.27x10

using equation 2.7 and 2.

R (PVC / Water) = 11

T (PVC / Water) = 1

Reflection coefficient, R = = 푧2 − 푧1 푧2 + 푧1

Transmission coefficient, T = = 2푧2 푧2 + 푧1

Value of acoustic impedance is too important in order to determine the

transmission and reflection of the ultrasonic propagation in all materials.

explains the propagation of the ultrasonic wave occurred.

Propagation of the ultrasonic wave between PVC pipe to w

Ultrasonic propagation from PVC pipe to water medium


= 3.27x106 kg m-2s-1 and for water, 푧 = 1.50x106 kg m

and 2.8, the calculation to determine R and T present as below:

1.50×106 – 3.27×106

1.50×106+ 3.27×106 = -0.3712 = 37.12%

2(1.50×106)1.50×106+ 3.27×106 = 0.6289 = 62.89%

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……. (Eq.2.5)

……. (Eq.2.6)

too important in order to determine the

transmission and reflection of the ultrasonic propagation in all materials. Figure 2.8

explains the propagation of the ultrasonic wave occurred.

pipe to water media.

to water medium


kg m-2s-1 , thus, by

calculation to determine R and T present as below:

0.3712 = 37.12% ……. (Eq.2.7)

……. (Eq.2.8)

From equation 2.

sign of reflection coefficient value calculated (Yasmin, 2009), mean that 37.12%

wave reflected in medium water

ii) Propagation of the ultrasonic wave between water to oil me

Figure 2.

The acoustic impedance of material used for water

and for oil, 푧 = 1.35x10

calculation to determine R

R (Water / Oil) = 11

T (Water / Oil) = 1.35

The ultrasonic wave almost reflected when it

it penetrated to PVC

water into oil get less reflection which is 5.26% and the transmission of wave was

being smooth which is 94.74%.

From equation 2.7, the reversal of the phase relative occurs due to negative

sign of reflection coefficient value calculated (Yasmin, 2009), mean that 37.12%

wave reflected in medium water.

Propagation of the ultrasonic wave between water to oil me

Figure 2.9: Ultrasonic propagation from water to oil medium

The acoustic impedance of material used for water, 푧 = 1.50x10

= 1.35x106 kg m-2s-1 , thus, by using equation 2.

calculation to determine R and T present as below:

1.35×106 – 1.50×106

1.35×106+ 1.50×106 = -0.0526 = 5.26%

2(1.35×106)35×106+ 1.50×106 = 0.9474 = 94.74%

The ultrasonic wave almost reflected when it propagates into the

surface which is 37.12%. Propagation of ultrasonic wave from


being smooth which is 94.74%.

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, the reversal of the phase relative occurs due to negative

sign of reflection coefficient value calculated (Yasmin, 2009), mean that 37.12% of

Propagation of the ultrasonic wave between water to oil media.

Ultrasonic propagation from water to oil medium

= 1.50x106 kg m-2s-1

, thus, by using equation 2.9 and 2.10, the

……. (Eq.2.9)

……. (Eq.2.10)

into the PVC pipe as

surface which is 37.12%. Propagation of ultrasonic wave from


i water and oil flow regime identification using

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