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CHAPTER - V

CONTEMPORARY INDIAN THINKERS ON

VALUES AND ETHICS

The valuesand ethical trend in contemporary Indianphilosophy

may beseen inphilosophy ofM.K.Gandhi, Vivekananda, Aurobindo,

Ravindranath Tagore and Radhakrishnan. M.K. Gandhi and

RadhakrishnanfollowtheIndianbrandofhumanisticvaluesandethics

comingfromtheancientVedas,theUpaniads,andtheBhagavadGt.

Thiswill be further clear by theanalysis of theNeo-Vedanta trend in

contemporary Indian philosophy. While fundamentally, there is no

essentialdifferencebetweentheWesternandIndianvalues,thelateris

represented by the traditionalist group of Indian philosophers. There-

fore, it is their values which form the essential element of Indian

philosophy.206

The h ktiMovement:

TheexistenceofrelationshipbetweenGodanddevoteeisnotof

now it is theresince theVedic times i.e. about5000 years ago. This

relationshipisconsideredtobedevotional.Bhaktihasprovedattractive

over a period of two thousand years as the devotional path brought

together feelings and forms easily recognizable, generally acceptable

andnearlypleasurable.Dr.S.RadhakrishnansaysthattheBhaktiisthe

meanstoattainsalvation.

206

Battacharya., The Humanist Trend in Contemporary India, p. 27.


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Wehave had in our country from the timeoftheRig-Vedadowntoourowndaysalonglineof torch bearers who stress the primacy ofspiritualvalues,whopointoutthatevenasthehumanbeingisabovetheanimal, thespiritual

man is above the human. The exponents ofpureabstractspeculationfindtheirwayintotheminds of men through song and poetry. TheattainmentoflifeinGodisachievedmoreeasilyby Bhakti than by other means. The poets,singers and saints with their passionatedevotion to the ideals of beauty, harmony,freedom,andaspirationhavehadthestrongestimpactonsociety.207

TheBhakti Movement is remarkable of its kind for the religious

unityandfortheemancipationofpoverty.Theyhaveadvocatedequality

betweenmen andwomen. They have condemned idolworship. They

condemnedthesocialevilslikecasteismandSati.Theyhavepreached

theonenessofGod.

ThedoctrinethatallmenbothhighandlowareequalbeforeGod

has become the central idea that has rallied large sections of the

masses to fight against the priesthood and caste tyranny. This great

movementofthemiddleAgeshasnotonlyhelpedthedevelopmentofa

composite Indian culture embracing different linguistic and religious

communitiesbutalsopavedthewayforunitedstruggleagainstfeudal

oppression.208

TheBhakti movement has attainedvaryingdegreesof intensity

sweeping in different parts of the country. It appeared in a variety of

207Radhakrishnan, S., Foreword, The Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja, p. iii.208

Damodaran, K.,Indian Thought. A Critical Survey,p. 317.


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forms also. Yet, some basic principles underlie the movement as a

whole.

Ramananda 1400-1470 AD)

The movement which Ramanuja started in South India was

spread to the other parts of Northern India by his great disciple

Ramananda.HisconceptofGodisthatheisapersonwhocaresforall

menandrewardstheirdevotion.Ramanandabroughtaradicalreform.

He made no distinction between Brahmanas and members of the

degraded castes. He wanted to promote the ideal of inter-dining.

Another reformofRamanandawas the useof the vernaculars for the

propagationofthenewcreed.Hewasthefounderofanewschoolof

thought.Hetookpeople asdisciples fromall the castes including the

degradedcastes.209

ThemysticsareconsideredtobesaintswhobelievethatGodcan

berealizedinaprocessofself-culture.Godisconceivedasabeingwith

manyhumanattributes.TherelationofmanwithGodissimilartothatof

a master to his servant or a lover to the beloved.210 The prominent

feature of thesemystic saints was stated to be the spirit of religious

tolerance.ReligionisaquestionofindividualapproachtoGodwithout

thenecessityofanyoutsideinterference.BoththeMuslimsandHindus

areequalandtheyarethechildrenoftheonlytrueGod.Nevertheless

themysticswerefearlessinpointingoutthedefectsinthebeliefofboth

209Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, pp. 67.210

George Kotheran.,Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi, p. 118.


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HindusandMuslims.They foughtagainstcasteismand idolatryof the

Hindus.GeorgeKotturanwrites:

TherehadbeenaprocessofacculturationofHindu andMuslim in India since a long time.Islamic contactwith Indiamade people closerto the outside India which gave rise to newsocialandreligiousthinkingandopenedanewvistaofknowledge.Indianpeoplewerereadytowelcomenew ideasandassimilatenewways.TheHindusocietywokeuptoreformitself.211

The ideal of Islamic brotherhoodexerted profound influence on

Hindusocialthinking.Islamtreatsallmenequalwhichwasindisregard

tocasteinthenewdevelopmentofBhaktiphilosophy.Themysticsheld

thatinthesightofGodtherewasnodifferencebetweenahighcaste

Brahmin and an outcaste. The love of God is universal. The whole

universe is tied up in brotherhood. This practical ideology owes its

existence due to the synthesis of Hindu and Islamic teachings.

Ramananda started a religious renaissance: He ably guided the

spiritual life of the Indian people and introduced social and religious

reforms.Herecognizednodifferenceofcasteandcreed.Accordingto

himallmenandwomenareequal.212

He insisted upon correct moral conduct anda life dedicated to

virtueandcharity.HehadMuslimsandHindusashisfollowers.Inthe

matter of caste he was indifferent. He had Sudras the outcaste or

untouchablesashisdisciples.ThemagneticpersonalityofRamananda

attractedthousandsofpeopleasselflessdisciples.HesaidthatGodis

211Ibid, p. 119.212

George Kotheran.,Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi,p. 121.


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omnipresent. The divine energy envelops the whole universe. God

revealedtohimthatheisinhisheart.Godfilledtheentireuniversewith

hispresence.

Kabir 1440-1518 AD)

Kabir is a constructive reformer.He has founded a Panth or a

sect.ThefollowersofKabirsectaretobefoundprincipallyamonglower

castes.213 Freedom from egotism and self-seeking is of fundamental

importance.Ifthereisalittleinthewayofsocialphilosophy,therewould

be a repudiation of the arbitrary distinctions that India has kept man

fromman.214Kabirhasrefusedtoacknowledgeanycastedistinctions.

He claimed social equality for the low castedrs with the other

castes. In the Indian literature the unrealityof these castedistinctions

hasnotclearlybeenmentioned.InthewritingsofKabir,hesays:

Itisbutfollytoaskwhatthecasteofasaintmay be. The barber has sought God, thewasher-woman and the carpenter. EvenRavidas was a seeker after God. The iSwapachawasatannerbycaste.HindusandMuslims alike have achieved that End, whereremainsnomarkofdistinction.215

Kabirdenounceswhatisirrationalandinhumaninthedivisionof

societyintocastes.Hesays:

Ifyoureflectontheoriginofcastestheycameintobeingfromoneandthesame......Howisitthatoneisborn.Sudra,andremainsSudratillhisdeath....onemakesaBrahmaisthread

213

Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, p. 73.214John Mekenzie.,Hindu EthicsA Historical and Critical Essay, p. 174.

215Tagore, Ravindranath., One Hundred Poems of Kabir, p. II.


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oneselfandthenputs iton.Theworldisthusinconfusion. If thou art a Brahmin, born of aBrahmin, why art thou not born in a differentfashion....Ifyoumilkablackcowandwhitecowandthenmixtheirmilk,willyoubeableto

distinguishthemilkofonefromtheother.216

InanothercontextwefindKabirwatchingthewifeofagardener,

whogatheredflowerstoofferthemtoanidol.Hesaidtoher:

In thepetals of the flower, dwells thesoul ofvegetation,andtheidolstowhichyouaregoingto make your offering is lifeless. The vegetal

condition isbetter thanthemineralconditions.Theidoltowhichyouaregoingtoofferflowershasneitherfeelingnorlife.217

ThechiefaimoftheteachingofKabirwastofindanacceptable

meanstoreconcilethedifferencesbetweendiversecastesandreligious

communities.Hischerishedwishwastoabolishthecastesystemand

theantagonismofreligionbasedonblindsuperstitionorontheselfish

interest ofaminorgroupofpeople exploiting the ignoranceofothers.

Hisdesirewastoestablishpeaceinsocialandreligiousspheresamong

thepeopleandunitethemfor theywereseparatedonefromtheother

onthegroundsofreligion.

TheBhaktimovementhaspreachedhumanequalityandopenly

condemnedritualsandcasteprejudices.Itisradicallynewandbasically

different from the old established traditions and ideas of religious

authority. It seeks to refashion the collective life on the new lines

upholdingthevaluesofjusticeandequalityforallpeopleinthesociety.

216Yusuf Hussain., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, pp. 23-24.217

Yusuf Hussain., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, p. 16.


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Kabir holds very strongly the doctrine ofahis (non-violence) and

treatsitassinfuliflifeinanyformisinjuredortakenaway.218

Kabir preaches for the harmony, love, understanding ofHindus

and Muslims. He declares the equality of all men recognizing no

banners of caste or creed and peaceful co-existence. His concept of

non-violent(ahimsa)societyisindicativeofapeacefulcommunityliving

invirtueandgoodness.Hehassetbeforetheworldanideaofloveand

universalbrotherhood.AstheloveofGodprevailsintheworld,thelove

ofonesneighborshouldprevailamongstmen.Anoftenquotedsaying

ofKabiris:

That body in which love does not dwell is acrematorium;theheartwhichiswithoutloveislike a blacksmiths bellows, breathing butlifeless.219

Kabir demands themoral purity and does not restrict it to one

particularkindoflife.Obedience tothemaster tohiscommandsmust

notbeblind.Thebelieverhastorelyonhisreasonandfollowaccording

tothedetailsofhisconscience.220

Ravidasa 1450-1540 AD)

Ravidasa was a great Hindu saint and Philosopher during the

medieval times.Althoughhehailed froma lowcommunity,hedidnot

suffer from inferiority complex. He did not cherish ill-will or malice

againstanypeople.Hereturnedgoodtotheevil.Societyrecognizedhis

greatness. The poems of Ravidasa reflect his view on religion. He

218

Keavy, I. B. (Rev)., The Religious Life of India, p. 74.219George Kotheran.,Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi, p. 126.

220Barth, A., The Religions of India,p. 239.


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considersreligionasthebasicneedofman.Manhasreligiousinstinct

distinct from hunger and thirst. He says that if self-realization is the

dawn of the soul, self-negation is the dark night of the soul. He can

guidethosegroupingindarknesstotheirdestiny.

Ravidasa criticizes these teachings of religion which did not

appeal tothehumanreason.Hestandsagainstthe fallacyofthevain

religious action. Those religious actions that are contrary to human

naturearemistakes.Continence,yogiccontrol,andfastingarecontrary

to the human tendencies. He opposed them and termed them as

unhumanistic tendencies. Some religious books prescribe some

extremepathsofGodrealizationbutthesepathsarenotaccessibleto

everybody. As God is in all, the path way to him should also be

accessibletoall.Ifthepathwayissimple,everyonewouldbeableto

followit.Devotionalismleadstosuchdemocraticpath.TheVedasteach

theobservanceofindifferencestotheworld orcontrolover thesense

organs.Bothoftheseareverydifficulttoeveryonetofollow.Ravidasa

condemnsthesuperstitiouspracticesassociatedwithdevotion.Forhis

devotionwaschieflyintheformofservice.Accordingtohim:

ServicewithinthesphereofdevotionmeansservicetoGodandhiscreaturesbyservicetomankind isservice toGod.Hishospitalityandservice to thepoor andneedy isworthy to benoted.Lordresidesineverybodysheartsisnotknowable through rites or performances.Highest expression of religion in life is theserviceofman.221

221

Bhattacharya, Haridas., The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. IV. p. 380.


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Ravidasaconsiders the humanexistence as rare,and obtained

duetotheresultofmeritoriousdeeds.Somanshouldnotwastehislife

in ignorance.Heshouldutilizehis life inachieving thehighesthuman

aspirationwhichbecomes possibleonly by followingamoral codeof

discipline.ManaccordingtoRavidasaisofdoublenature.Hisnatureis

attachedatfirsttothisworld.Heisunboundtoanyformofexistencein

thephysicalworld.Ravidasacomparesgoodnesswithknowledge.With

the acquisition of knowledge, senses are not killed but live their

prosperous life with the difference. Mans essence lies in his self

determinationintherealizationofhisfreedom:Manisfoundtobein

bondage due to his sheer ignorance. Total removal of it involves a

virtuous life.Wisdom isthegreatest valueand the trueperspectiveof

things. Selfless service has been given an utmost importance both

beforeandaftertherealizationofGod.222

Ravidasaexhortsthepeopletoraiseaboveevilsofpride,anger,

greed,attachment,jealousyandlust.Truefreedomcanberealizedonly

intheabsenceofdeterminism.Reason,faith,contemplationhavebeen

attachedmuch importance.Reason isdependable and indispensable.

The philosophy of Ravidasa is marked by the values of self

transcendingexistenceofabsolutefreedom.

Tulasidas 1532-1623 AD)

Tulasidas was composed the greatworkRmacarita m nas

usually known asRmyaa. According to him, the supreme fruit of

222

Sangam Lal Pandey.,Existence, Devotion and Freedom, p. 115.


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devotionisdeliverancefromsinandpurificationofheart.223Knowledge

and devotion are the two paths for attaining God. Those who follow

thesemethodswieldpowerinthisworld.Inthewholecreation,thereis

nothingincomparisontosuchabidingvalueassaintlinessofcharacter.

Asainthas thecharacteristicsofdeepwisdomandboundless love.A

wisemanseesunityindiversityandidentifieshimselfwiththewholeof

creation.Thedevoteeradiatespeacewhichisactiveandexaltedwhich

silently and gently communicates itself to others. It transforms many

lives and lightens the hearts that are heavy laden with sorrows and

givesthemrest.

Tulasidaswriting,Ramacaritamnasrelatingtothelifestoryof

Rama stood as a great force in preventing disintegration of the

Sanatana Dharma. His writing helped the people in reposing faith in

themselves and in their own culture which had been shaken by the

Muslimrule.Thisworkisprovedtobeimmediatesuccessandhasbeen

enshrined in the heartof the commonman.AsHaridasBhattacharya

observes:

Tulasidasa captured the imagination of the

people further by making that God-head liveandmoveonearth.Ingivingfromtheformless,he brought within the orbit of conceptual thatBrahmanwhichtheVedasdescribeasnot(notthis)....theveryideathatGodlivedtilloneofus and shared our joys and sorrows: bringspeaceandsolacetothehumanheart.224

223Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor religious systems, p. 74.224

Bhattacharya, Haridas., The Cultural Heritage of India, p. 398.


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Tulasidassaysthatmanisresponsibleforhissorrowsandjoysin

life.Heattachesgreatimportancetothemanassociatingwiththegood

andholy.Thisissaidtobearecognizedwayprescribedfortheordinary

mortalstohelpthemselvestoprogressonGodwardpath.

Tukaram 1598-1649 AD)

Tukaramstoodagainstcasteism.HeassertsthataBrahminwho

does not care for the name of God is no Brahmin. An outcaste who

loves the name of God is indeed a Brahmin. He attaches utmost

importancetocharacterandvalues.Tukaramsaysthatdifferentcastes

havesprungfromthesamebeingandsaysthatthosealonearepure

wholoveGodwithlastingloveandfaith.Thosepeopleareprosperous

whoselovetranscendsthegreedformoney.Ifweservethepeopleour

servicereachesGod.Truthfulwordutteredisthebestserviceonecan

offertoothers.InTukaramsteachingswefindemphasisonthepointof

nocompromise for thosewho successively wish to follow the pathof

truth.Hesays:

Those who want to fulfill the wordly and thespiritual life together shall accomplish neither

oneneedstosurrenderhimselftoGod.225

Hesaysthathewhoistruthful inspeechthroughoutthiswordly

course is like lotus to which water does drench. The supreme spirit

dwells in thosewho serve and snow compassion on other creatures.

225

Savitribai Khanolar., Saints of Maharashtra, p. 157.


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Onesmeritliesinservingothersandsinisinjurydonetothem.Truthis

theonlytruereligionwhileobservancesarefalse.Tukaramsays:

Blessed in the world are the compassionate.Their true home isVaikuntha, but they havecome here to servemankind. They speak nofalseword:speaksays,sweetisthespeechontheirlips,thereisroomwithintheirhearts.226

Tukaramholdsthatmenoughttobehelpedintheirgooddeeds,

butnottodeterthem.Theirmeritliesinthat,hecallsthebenefactoras

onewhohasfinishedhisbenefactions.Hesaysthatheknowsnot the

differencebetweenhimselfandothers:

Take up the task you have found, to benefityourself; do not count your own toil. Look onthesoulsofothermenasyoulookonyourown,beheapofpurequalities.227

A man has to treat others as himself without any degree of

differencebetweenhimselfandothers.Hehastotreatothersasendsin

themselvesbutneverasmeanstohisownends.Totreatothersashis

means is to reduce the source of human value and dignity. In the

earliestofhumanattitudetowardsthisworldhesays:

Whenyouenter theworld, do this one thingWalkgraduallyinthepathofliberation.228

Heisoppressedtocasteism.Hestatesthatthesourceofvirtueis

in the inner parts; caste and family cannot ensure it. Standard of

goodnessismeasuredintermsofmeritsanddemeritsbutnotthebasis

226

Nelson Fraser, J. & K.B. Maratha., The Poems of Tukaram, p. 232.227Ibid, p. 234.

228Nelson Fraser, J. & K.B. Maratha, The Poems of Tukaram, p. 274.


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ofcaste. Tukaramdissuadesmen fromgiving uptheworld orretiring

fromtheworldandbecomereclusesinsteadheadvicesthemtorender

theservicetoGod.229

Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1772-1833 AD)

The Indian Renaissance of the nineteenth century lays more

stress essentially at revival of the Indian spirit, with the grandeur of

antiquity and purity profoundly affecting religion, society and culture.

National awakening has expressed itself as a reflection of religious

awakening.Intheinitialstages,religiousconsciousnessisfoundtobea

reflection of political consciousness. Social and political notions,

democratic and patriotic aspirations hope for a better life have been

expressedintheformofreligion.TheIndianRenaissanceinitiatedinthe

nineteenthcenturybythesocialreformersdoesnotaimatacomplete

breakwithreligion.Itisopposedtotheoutmodedreligiouscustomsand

practices on the one hand and reinterpretation and revitalization of

religiontosuitthenewconditionsontheother.Macicolsays:

RajaRamMohanRoyisthespiritualfatherofthisRenaissancewhoappearstobetheheraldofanewage.230

He is opposed to many customs and beliefs of the decadent

social system. Hehas totally rejected the dogmas prevalent inHindu

societyinregardtotheirnumerousGods,rituals,thedoctrineofrebirth;

avatars, theirpracticeof idolworship, animal sacrifices and aboveall

theevilpracticeofsatiprevalentinthosedayswhichinhumanlyforces

229Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious systems, p. 95.230

Macicol., The Making of Modern India, p. 172.


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widows to commit suicide by plunging into funeral pyres of their

husbands. He is the foremost opponentof thesebarbarous practices.

Hecontinuestofightagainstthisevilpracticeandcouldbesuccessfulin

arousing the public opinion through the wide spread campaign, it is

declared illegal in the regime of Lord William Bentinck.231 These

inhumanities have deeply inflicted the heart of RamMohan Roy and

longedtodeliverthecountryasanardentloverfromherdegradationsto

setherfeetonsafepathsforwhichhehasdevotedhiswholeenergies

withoutsparinganypains.232

In order to promote the human equality, the removal of the

disabilitiesofwomeninsociallifeisanotherimportantissue.Hestands

for the granting of equal property rights to men and women. He

campaignsinsupportofwidowremarriageandagainstchildmarriages.

He advocates thewomen education.He seeks to assimilate the new

values created byWestern science to blend themwith the traditional

valuesofIndiainordertomeetthechallengeofthenewage.Heholds

thatnonationcouldprosper if it justimitatesothernationsbutwhatis

neededisaglobalperspective.Thiswouldhelpinarousinganewspirit

ofenquiryandprogress.

Hinduism as he understands is rooted in a broad humanistic

outlook.ThereforehehassethimselfthetaskofpurifyingHinduismand

sweepingthecobwebsofsuperstitionswhichhaveaccumulatedthrough

231Damodaran, K.,Indian ThoughtA Critical Survey,p. 350.232

The Life and Letters of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, p. 78.


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the ages.He isof theopinion that the regeneration ofHinduismasa

trulynational religionwould suit to the newconditionsofsocial life.233

Hishumanismcanbetermedasuniversalhumanismforhisemphasis

on world fellowship with a liberal spirit, and for his laying stress on

cordialrelationshipamongthevariousnationsoftheworld.

He is the founder of Brahma Samaj. It opposes the social

discriminationwhichstandsagainstthehumanequalityanddignity.Itis

acreativeendeavourtofreethesocialconsciencefromthestiflinggrip

ofconservativethinkingand tomake thepeople respondtothecallof

thetime.ThetwocomplementaryconceptsofthephilosophyofBrahma

SamajarefaithinasingleGodheadandthebrotherhoodofman.The

conceptofbrotherhoodhelpsintheremovalofsocialevilsandsectarian

distinctions imposed by the Hindu orthodoxy. The concept of

monotheism reflects the urge for a synthesis of Hinduism, Islam and

Christianity. Thus the Brahma Samaj is not purely a religious reform

movement.Socialandpoliticalprogressislinkedwithreligiousreform.

Inthepopularizationofthe idealsof individualfreedom,national unity

and liberation of social institutions and social relations, the Brahma

Samajmovementhasundoubtedlyplayedagreatroleinquickeningthe

forcesofnationalregeneration.PlayingaglowingtributetoRamMohan

Roy,Vivekanandasays:

Raja RamMohan Roy had put India on themarchtowardsprogressandfreedom.234

233Damodaran, K.,Indian Thought. A Critical Survey, p. 350.234

The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, p. 317.


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Dayananda Saraswati 1824-1883 AD)

Dayananda Saraswati was one of the leaders of the Indian

renaissancewho has perhapswidely travelledandwell-informedman

asfarastheIndiansceneisconcerned.Heisanardentreformer.He

hasfearlesslydenouncedtheevilsofpost-vedicHinduismandrevolted

againstidolworship.Heholdsthatidolworshipisnotsanctionedbythe

Vedas.Neitheruntouchability,norchildmarriage,northesubjectionof

womentounequalstatuswithmenissanctioned.ThestudyofVedas

shouldbedeterminedinaccordancewithhismerits.235

Hisattackoncasteismismostnoteworthy.Themereaccidentof

birthcannotdeterminethesocialpositionofamanbutshouldberather

determined inaccordancewith hisqualification, accomplishments and

character. Even a cobblers son is competent to steady Vedas and

similarlyamanborninaBrhmaa,KatriyaoraVaiyafamilyshould

betreatedasaShudraifhisactionsresembledra,thelowcaste.His

appealtosticktotheVaravyavastha(divisionofcastesinaccordance

withsocialstatusandprogressions)hashadlittlepracticalresponse.It

has relaxed the rigidity of caste system, breaking the creed of

untouchabilityintopiecesinseveralquartersatseveralplaces.236

The sufferingwomenfolkwhose socialposition issimilar tothe

untouchables, whose lives are reduced to the sub-human level, also

235Theodre de Bary, U.M., Sources of Indian Tradition, p. 628.236

Yadav, K.C.,Autobiography of Dayananda Saraswati, p. 9.


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have drawn the attention of Dayananda. They are deprived of

education. The Paradah system, child marriage, polygamy, the evil

practiceofsati,forcedwidowhoodandseveralotherbadpracticesare

believedtobeinvogueonthesanctionofthe strs.Hehasopposed

all theseevilswith forceat his command andpleaded for theirdoing

awayatanycost.Hestandsfortheequalandjusttreatmentofwomen

inthehandsofmen.Heholdsthatimpartingofgoodeducationhelpsin

attendingtothehouseholdaffairs,andhomekeepingwhichcannever

besatisfactorilyconductedbytheuneducatedwomen.Theuneducated

cannot take part in the day to day affairs of the government in the

administration.Hisschemeenvisagesafreeandcompulsoryeducation

forall.Reactingreasonablytotheproblemofcurriculum,hesaysthatit

should bespread; representing all branchesof knowledge withequal

emphasisonlanguages,arts,scienceandtechnologyandintheschool

throughlessonsrelatingtosocialequalityshouldbetaught.

WefindDayanandagivingutmostimportancetoman.Hestrives

hard for thehappinessofman.Heexplorespossible humanways for

the radicalremovalofthehumansuffering.Hewantspeople tolivein

harmony and co-exist peacefully. He upholds human values and

emphasisestheneedfortheregenerationofmanandrestorationofthe

culturalvalues.His desire is to reform and redeem the individual and

society and create awarenessamong the people in the socio-political

context. He examines the elements that have contributed to the

degradationof the individualandworksout progressively todominate


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them.MahatmaGandhimakesasubstantialestimateofhischaracter.

Hesays:

Among the many rich legacies, that SwamiDayananda has left us his unequivocalpronouncement against untouchability isundoubtedlyone.237

Swami Vivekananda 1862-1902 AD)

Swami Vivekananda is one of the greatest thinkers of Indian

Renaissance. Vivekananda was moved with pity on seeing the

impoverishedstateofthemasses.Hesays:

Material civilization, may even luxuriesnecessarytocreateworkforthepoor.Bread,Ido not believe in aGodwho cannot give mebreadhere,givingmeeternalbliss inheaven.Pooh! India is to beraised thepoor are to befed, education is to spread, and the evil ofpriest craft removed.NoPriest craft,nosocial

tyranny: More bread, more opportunity foreverybody.238

AccordingtoSwamiVivekananda,social,economicandpolitical

reconstructionofthecountry isapre-requisite for thespiritualupliftof

themasses.Whenthepeopleaskforfood,toofferreligiontoastarving

peopleistoinsultthem.Toteachreligiousprinciplestoastarvingman

isanaffront tohis self-respect. He criticizes strongly the failingsand

weaknessesofthepeople,theevilpracticeofuntouchability,thefeeling

ofcastesuperiority,priestcraftandreligioustyranny.Hepreferstosee

thepeopleasconfirmedatheistsratherthanassuperstitiousfools,for

237Harabilas Sarada.,Dayananda Commemoration Volume, 1933.238

Selections from Swami Vivekananda, p. 862.


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the atheists may be of some use. But with regard to superstitions it

holds away, the brain is bread, the mind is frozen and decadence

engulfslife.Soitholdsgoodifthemankindbecomeatheistbyrelyingon

reasonratherthanblindlybelievingintwohundredmillionsofGodson

theauthorityofanybody.239

According to him freedom is the precondition for the human

growthbutfreedomdoesnotmeanabsenceofobstaclesinthewayof

social aggrendisement or economic exploitation. Commenting on the

meaningoffreedomhesays:

Ournaturalrighttobeallowedtouseyourownbody, intelligence andwealth according toourwill,withoutdoingany harmtoothers, andallthe members of a society ought to have thesame opportunity for obtaining wealth,educationorknowledge.240

Hehas expounded progressive ideasand vehemently opposed

escapist doctrines like mysticism. He maintains that occultism and

mysticismhavedestroyed thepeople.Theneedofthepresent isman

making religion.Any-thingthatweakenshas toberejectedaspoison.

He stands for reason. He says that no genuine inspiration ever

contradictsreasonwhensuchcontradictionisfound,itistoinspiration.

Vivekanandas outlook is essentially idealistic although it contains

elements of materialism. Mans objective is to identify with Brahman

throughself-purificationandserviceofthepeople.Manisthecentreof

239The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. II. p. 334.240

Selections from Swami Vivekananda, p. 561.


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religion conceived by him. He, who has set out in search of God,

ultimatelyrecognizesmanasthecentreofthisworld.Hecallsuponthe

peopletofindGodinman.241

Theonly hope for India he lays in the common people, for the

upper classes were exhausted physically and morally. He urges a

radicaltransformationofthesocialorderbecauseallthemembersofa

society ought to have the same opportunity for obtaining wealth,

education or knowledge and declares that these rules governing the

societywhichstandthewayoftheunfoldingofthefreedomareinjurious

and steps should be taken to destroy them speedily. To uplift the

massesspiritualandseculareducationisnecessary.Hesays:

Wehavetogivethemseculareducation.Wehave to follow the plan laid down by ourancestors that is to bringall the ideals slowly

down among the masses. Raise them slowlyup.Raisethemtoequality.Impart....Secularknowledgethroughreligion.242

In the whole idea of education, we find Swami Vivekananda

summing up as the manifestation of divinity in man. He realizes the

casteconsciousnessasabarriertoIndiasprogress.Casteismnarrows

restricts and separates the noble bond of humanity.For him the true

measure of man is worth but not birth. The ultimate end of Swami

Vivekanandaisthegoodofall.Headvocatestheideathatmanmust

striveforthisendeventothepointofsacrificinghimself.Themeansto

241Damodaran, K.,Indian ThoughtA Critical Survey,p. 359.242

Vivekananda Swami., On India and Her Problems, p. 71.


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beadopted for realizationof thisultimate endmustalsobeworthy of

thatend.243

Emancipation of women and uplift of the masses are the two

important items in Swami Vivekanandas programme of social

regeneration of India. He could notice the downfall of Indian Society

becauseofthecontinuedneglectofwomenandmasses.InIndiathere

aretwogreatevils:hewrites:

Uplift of the women, the awakening of themassesmustcomefirstandthenonlycananyrealgoodcomeaboutforthecountry.244

Thatcountryandthatnation,hesays,whichdonotrespectthe

womenhasneverbecomegreat,norwilleverbeinfuture.

Thestatewiththeassistanceofsocietycanfosterandpromote

thecommoninterestsofpeople,whichcanbringjustice,honesty,peace

etc.Thestatecannothaveintereststhantheinterestsoftheindividual

who form the society. The state is composed of individuals.Without

virtuousindividualsitisfutiletoexpectthestatebecomingprosperous.

Hestates:

The basis of all systems social or politicalrestsuponthegoodnessofman.Nonationisgreatorgoodbecauseparliamentenactsthisorthat, but because its men are great andgood.245

243

Arora, V.K., The Social and Political Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda, p. 55.244Majumdar, R.C., Swami Vivekananda, p. 400.

245The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda,Vol. V. p. 192.


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Theconceptofnationalismvis--visinternationalismvisualizedby

him is dynamicandencourages people to bemingledwith the life of

otherindividualsandnationswhichholdsgoodofthem,theirownwell-

being, progress and prosperity. His love for mankind transcends the

geographicallimitations.HisinterestsarenotconfinedtoIndiaalonebut

areextendedtointernationallevel.Hepleadsfortheharmonyandgood

relationshipwiththemultinationals.

Thus in Indian tradition from Vedas upto the present century

certainvalueswerecherishedandpropagatedwhicharehumanisticin

contentandspirit.OfcourseIndianhumanismhasnotdevelopedasa

systematicphilosophywithasoundmetaphysicsandepistemologyasin

thecaseofwesterntradition.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 1869-1948):

MohandasKaramchandGandhiwasoneofthevery fewpeople

who impressed an idea upon a historical epoch. That idea was non-

violence.Gandhiscreedofnon-violence insisted thatpeople struggle

for their rights should never violate their basic obligation to respect

life.246

ElementsofGandhisphilosophywererootedin the Indian religions of Jainism andBuddhism. Both of these advocate Ahims(non-violence),whichisabsenceofthedesiretokillorharm.247

InthewordsofJ.H.Holmes:

246The New Encyclopedia Britanica, 15 thed, p.109.247

Chapple, Christopher K..Non-violence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, p.10.


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GandhiisthegreatestIndiansinceGautamaBuddha and the greatest man since JesusChrist.248

Gandhiwasbothreligiousandopen-minded,andsawallreligions

aspathstoreachthesamegoal.Hewasinspiredbytheteachingsof

Jesus, in particular the emphasis on love for everyone, even ones

enemies,andtheneedtostriveforjustice.HealsotookfromHinduism

theimportanceofactioninoneslife,withoutconcernforsuccess.The

Hindutext

Bhagavad-Gtsays:

Onactionalonebethyinterest,/Neveronits fruits / Abiding in discipline performactions, / Abandoning attachment / Beingindifferenttosuccessorfailure249

Gandhis Godwas an immanent and his general philosophy of

Hinduism becomes an ethic of political action. Gandhis approach to

reality is religious rather than philosophical. He approached reality

through non-violence.250 Non-violence is an integral part of every

religion.Hesaysthat:Non -violenceisinHinduism,itisinChristianity

as well as in Islam.251 If non-violence disappears, Hindu Dharma

disappears. Islam does not forbid its followers from following non-

violenceasapolicy.252

AfterhavingstudiedtheBhagavad-Gtagainstthebackgroundof

Indian culture and tradition, he has come to the conclusion that the

248

Holmes, J.H, Harrington, D.S., The Enduring Greatness of Gandhi, p.275.249Wolpert,Stanley.,India,p.71.250

Mahadevan, T.K,, Truth and Nonviolence, ed, p.14.251Gandhi, M.K,, Communal Unity, p.593.

252Gandhi, M.K, The story of My Experiments with Truth, p.608.


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centralteachingoftheGtistofollowtruthandnon-violence.253When

thereisnodesirefortruth,thereisnotemptationforuntruthofviolence

but itmaybefreely admittedthat theGtwasnotwritten toestablish

non-violence.ThecentralteachingoftheGt isnotviolencebutnon-

violence. Violence is impossible without anger, without attachment,

without hatred, and theGt strives to carry us to the state beyond

sattva,rajsandtamas,astatethatexcludesanger,hatred,etc.,toone

whoreadsthespiritofGt, it teaches the secret ofnon-violence, the

secretofrealizingtheselfthroughthephysicalbody.254

The is discovered the law of non-violence in the midst of

violence.Havingthemselvesknowntheuseofarms,theyrealizedtheir

uselessness and taught the weary world that its salvation laid not

throughviolencebutthroughnon-violence.Inthisway,thesuperiorityof

thelawofnon-violenceisestablishedoverthelawofviolence.Violence

isdeclaredasuselessandnon-violenceisthewayofsalvation.Gandhi

says:

The sage who realized Truth found non-violenceoutofviolenceragingallabouthimand violence is unreal; non-violence is

real.255 According to him non-violence is the Kingdomof Heaven.256It

promises peace and bliss, harmony and concord, sympathy and co-

253

Gandhi, M.K,,Hindu Dharma,p.163.

254Gandhi, M.K.,Hindu Dharma, p.155.

255Ibid., p.183.

256Gandhi, M.K.,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, p.115.


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operation, inhumanaffairs. theseare its fruits.Astheaspirantseeks

the kingdom of heaven as the highest goal, so non-violence is the

Heaven,itisaperfectstate.Ourscripturestellusthatnon-violenceisall

conquering.257 It is also the supreme law. In his philosophic strain,

Gandhisaysthatatthecentreofnon-violenceisaforcewhichisself

acting.Thebeautyofnon-violencethereisthat itcarieswithinitsown

security.258

Gandhi as a Practical Idealist:

Gandhi was not a visionary but he claimed to be a practical

idealist. He was a man of action. It was the idealist that made him

functionasapracticalman.Hewasalsoanirrepressibleoptimist.259His

optimism was based on the belief that man is endowed with infinite

possibilities of development. His belief in the law as the ideal is

unquestionable. It matters whether individuals fall short of the ideal.

Thoughhewasawareofthereality,hisstrivingwasalwaystoreachthe

idea.Heelucidatesthepointthus:

Euclids straight line exists only in ourconception but we have to postulate it.Wehave always to strive to draw a true line

corresponding to Euclids imaginary line.Idealscanneverbecompletelyembodiedinpractice. And yet it is never to be forgottenthat ideals do exist; that if they be notapproximatedattoall,thewholemattergoestowreck.260

257

Gandhi, M.K.,Hindu Dharma, p.231.

258

Gandhi., M.K, Communal Unity, p.166.259Gandhi, M.K.,For Pacifists, p.60.

260Gandhi., M.K,Non-Violence in Peace and War,Vol-1, p.339.


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Itisameansoffocusinghisattentiontotheultimategoal.Hehas

totreadtherightpathwithoutdigression.Thisistheyardstickbywhich

mansprogressismeasured.Gandhisphilosophywasthedirectresult

ofhumanrelationsanditwasinthesphereofhumaninteractionthathis

plan of action took concrete shape. His approach was liberal and

human. The world is there for all practical purposes. It is the field of

greatest activity.No turning ones back to, or running away from, the

worldisGandhisattitude.Accordingtohim:

Theworldoffersproblemsofmanandheismade to solve them. This is what Gandhithinks about man and the world. Thus, theworldisanarenawheremanhastofighthisbattlefortheconquestoflife.Theworldisanactive field. Man cannot remain inactive orstaticinit.Hisactivitycanbeprogressiveashe is a progressive being pushed up byNaturewhichisneveratastand-still.261

Gandhihasfaithinthefalliblemanwhocanimprovehiscondition

by cultivating a perfectly innocent heart incapable of evil. Thus, the

fallible man, being a hindrance to his own self-development, can be

corrected to follow thepath of progress in the right spirit. It canonly

happenthroughlife-education.Gandhiobservesthat:Itisnotliteracyor

learningwhichmakesamanbuteducationforreallife.262

TheteachingofGandhiismoreexplicitandimpliedinthesense

thatman is expected to usehisdiscretion in thechoiceof conflicting

duties.Inthisway,manistrainedintheexerciseofrankingtheordero f

261

Gandhi., M.K,Non-violence in Peace and War, Vol, II, p. 331.262Ibid.,p. 209.


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hisduties,withoutneglectingor ignoringanyonesingleduty.It isthe

conscious effort on the part of man to finalize his preference in the

scaleofduties.Thisduty-consciousmanisthecreationofGandhi.

Itwasonlyanextensionofmysocialactivity.IcouldnotbeleadingareligiouslifeunlessIidentifiedmyselfwiththewholemankind,andthat I could not do unless I took part inpolitics.Thewholegamutofmansactivitiestoday constitutes an indivisible whole. Youcannot divide social, economic,political andpurely religious work into watertightcompartments. I do not know any religion

apartfromhumanactivity.Itprovidesamoralbasistoallotheractivitieswhichtheywouldotherwise lack, reducing life to a mass ofsoundandfurysignifyingnothing.263

This crux of Gandhis philosophy, which is nothing more and

nothing less thanaction,philosophized.The rangeofhisactivity isas

wide as mans activity in respect of his interests. There can be no

questionofevading itashumanprogressisevidentin thedirectionof

equating lifewith the principle ofmorality.The presentage ofman is

becomingmoreandmorehuman-conscious.

Gandhi never practiced violence andaboveall never permitted

violence. The only thing lawful in his estimation is non-violence.

Violencecanneverbe lawful, i.e.,notaccordingtoman-made lawbut

according tothe lawmadebyNature forman.Thoughviolence isnot

lawful, when it is offered in self-defence or for the defence of the

defenceless,itisanactofbraveryfarbetterthancowardlysubmission.

263

Gandhi., M.K,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, pp, 170-171.


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There isanelementofbravery inviolentaction,but the soulof

Gandhi revoltsagainst the adoptionofviolenceasmeansofdefence.

Underviolence therearemanystagesandvarietiesof bravery;every

man must judge it for himself; no other person can or has the right.

Gandhischoicebetweenviolenceandnon-violencewasclear,buthe

had no hesitation in saying that it is better to be violent, if there is

violenceintheheartthantoputonthecloakofnon-violencetocover

the impotence.Thatviolence isanydaypreferable toimpotence,was

hisfirmconviction.Therefore,non-violenceisnocovetableweaponfor

theimpotentorthecoward.264

The ideaof sacrifice, in thephilosophyofGandhi is todie fora

noble cause, but to die in the act of killing is in essence to die

defeated.265Thus,mandiesinvainandhispurposeisdefeated.Itisa

sacrifice offered for no justifiable cause. Killing is an ignoble act for

whichnosacrificeisneeded.Peaceisacementing forceinthesense

that it promotes and encourages factors of human progress. Gandhi,

therefore,saysthatwayofpeaceinsuresinternalgrowthandstability.

266Gandhiscontributiontothehumancivilizationliesinhispresenting

truthandnon-violenceineverywalkoflifeforindividualsornations.267

Histreatmentofnon-violenceisdescribedasfollows:

I have been practicing with scientificprecisionno-violenceand itspossibilities foranunbrokenperiodofoverfiftyyears.Ihave

264

Gandhi, M.K.,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, p.240.265

Gandhi, M.K.,For Pacifists,1949. p. 75.266Ibid., p. 47.

267Gandhi, M.K., Women and Social Justice, p.27.


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applied it in every walk of life, domestic,institutional,economicandpolitical.Iknowofnosinglecaseinwhichithasfailed.Whereithasseemedsometimestohavefailed,Ihaveascribed it to my imperfections. I claim no

perfectionformyself.268

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1888-1975):

IncontemporaryIndianphilosophers,Radhakrishnanwasagreat

thinkerwhowas a professor in Eastern andWesternuniversitiesand

also as a Vice-Chancellor. As the head of the University Education

Commission he had an occasion to probe deep into the problems of

highereducationinIndia.Alongwithhiswideexperienceofthefieldof

education, Radhakrishnan had wide learning and deep insight into

Indian andWestern, ancient and contemporary philosophy. He was

undoubtedlyone of themost qualified persons tospeakabout Indian

philosophyofeducationwithauthority.Hisviewsarefoundscatteredin

his variousbookssuch asAnIdealistviewofLife,ThePhilosophyof

Rabindranath Tagore, The Brahma sutra, The Bhagavad-Gita, The

HinduViewofLife,EasternReligionandWesternThought.

Human nature an analysis

Radhakrishnans view

Radhakrishnan was an advocate of ancient Indian Vedanta

philosophy.Hewasanidealistphilosopher.Hedefinedphilosophyasa

combination of reflection and intuition. Radhakrishnans aim of

philosophyistosearchthatsynthesiswhichmayincludealltheaspects

ofcreation.Philosophy,accordingtohim:

268Gandhi, M.K.,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, pp.281-282.


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Isanattemptofhumanbeingtoknowtheproblemsofcreationandthenatureofultimatereality?269

Radhakrishnanadmittedthevalueofreasonandfaith,logicand

experience and the value of perceptual, conceptual and intuitive

knowledge in education. According to him intuitive knowledge is the

highestknowledge it isan integral experiences. He explainedmystic

experienceasapartofintuitiveexperience.Totalexperienceisgained

bytotalselfanditismuchhigherthananyotherexperiencegainedby

totalselfand it ismuchhigher thananyotherexperienceandcreative

insighthasanimportantplaceintotalknowledge.Hisphilosophyhas

beenrightlyinterpretedasintegralexperience,andthisexperiencefinds

placeforeveryothertypeofexperienceinit.

According to Radhakrishnan, human personality is not

determinedbyeconomic orphysicalenvironment. So far asphysical

changes are concerned they may be generally determined by the

environmentbythehumanwillwhichis freetodecidetowinor loose.

The real human freedom is the freedom of will. In the tradition of

ancient Indian thinkers Radhakrishnan had admitted the principle of

Karma.Accordingtothisprincipleourpresentisdeterminedbyourpast

andfuturedependsuponthepresent.InthewordsofRadhakrishnan:

Karmaorrelationshipswiththepastdoesnotmeanthatmancannotdo

269

Radhakrishnan, S., The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, p. 101


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anythingfreelybut freeactionis involvedinit.270ThelawofKarmais

notfatalism.Accordingtoit:

Anindividualwillgainaccordingtotheuseofhis energy. The world will respond to theindividual Jvtmas demand. The nature willreplytheinsistentcalloftheman.271

LikeKarlMarx,Radhakrishnanbelievedthatmancanchangethe

world.Onthebasisofhiswillhecanmakehisfuture.Theprinciplesof

Nature are the principles of justice. In nature and in human world,

everywhere,oneuniversal divine law functions. Therefore, the lawof

Karmaisnotanexternalbutaninternaldeterminantofhumanlife.In

thelineofevaluation,manisdistinguishedbyself-consciousnesswhich

isnotfoundeitherinplantsorinanimals.Thementalprocessescannot

beinterpretedintermsofphysicalchanges.Thephysicalmovements

donotexplaintotalbehavior.

Modern psychology takes a one-sided view of man while

presenting behaviouristic interpretation. Behaviorisms have only

historical value. Mans behavior cannot be explained by stimulus-

responseformula. Anorganismisnotmerelyasumtotalofpartsand

its parts are internally related. Consciousness does not come out of

matter, it is a new creation. Self-consciousness is not a biological

product.Therefore,psychologicalphenomenashouldnotbeexplained

270Radhakrishnan, S., The Hindu View of Life, p.256.271

Ibid.,


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in physiological or biological terms. With the evolution of self-

consciousness,Natureevolves toanew level ofexistence. The self-

consciousmanisrational,self-realizationistheaimoflifeandselfisthe

spirit.InthewordsofRadhakrishnan:

Spirit is life, not thing, power not status,real in itself and through itself and cannot becompared to any substance subjective orobjective.272

Humannatureisessentiallyspiritual,spiritualalsomeansnatural

becausenatureisasmuchanexpressionofspiritastheself. Human

lifeisnotonlynaturalbutalsodivinesinceitsessentialnatureisspirit.

The world is a gradual evolution towards spirit. The metaphysical

hypothesisisveryimportantinthephilosophyofeducation.Thechild

willdeveloponlythatwhichispotentialinit.Whatisnotimplicitcannot

beexplicit,however,everylevelofevolutionexpressesnewelements.

Thecharacteristicsofspiritareseenincreativity,change,systemand

progress.

Radhakrishnanphilosophyismysticismso faras theconceptof

spiritisconcerned.InhisbookAnIdealistViewofLife,Radhakrishnan

hascalledspirittotalBrahman,brahmanprecedescretion.Identifying

GodandcreatorRadhakrishnansaid:Theyarethedifferentformsof

seeing the same ultimate reality.273 Thus, like Sri Aurobindo,

272Murihead and Radhakrishnan (Ed.), Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 2ndEd., p. 492.273

Radhakrishnan, S., Recovery of Faith, pp. 89-99


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Radhakrishnan believes the world to be the expression of God, the

metaphysicalpropositionlaysdownthespiritualgoalofeducationand

certifies its possibility. Radhakrishnan has synthesized idealism,

realism,mysticismandpragmatisminhisphilosophyofeducation.He

welcomesallsortsofexperiencesofarriveatsomegeneralprinciples.

Ashesaid:

We should weave differentparts of experience

in a total pattern. We should keep our generalideas connected so that different experiencesmaybeexplained.274

AsDavidHumehasrightlypointedout,theprincipleofcausation

inthefieldofscienceisamereprobability.Sofarasphysicalincidents

areconcerned,theyaredeterminedbynaturallawsbutmanhasbeen

providedfreedomofchoiceinlife.Heisnotfreetochoosehiscardsbut

heisfreetoplay,winorlooseashelikes.Thisfreedomofwinningor

loosing is given to man. This victory or defeat is not a physical

happeningbutofthemind.Therealfreedomisthefreedomofthewill.

InspiteofbeingavotaryofscienceRadhakrishnanisnotadeterminist

orenvironmentalist.Thisfactisofcapitalimportanceinhisexplanation

ofhumannatureandinhisphilosophyofeducation.Scienceprovesthat

everyeffecthasacausebutisdoesnotdefinitelyprovethecauseof

everyeffect.

indian thinkers

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