international journal of scientific and innovative research 2014; 2(2)p issn 2347-2189, e- issn...

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(2) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 163

DR. B.R. PANDEY

DIRECTOR (RESEARCH)SKY INSTITUTE, KURSI ROAD, LUCKNOW, U.P, INDIA

FORMER JOINT DIRECTOR, COUNCIL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, UP, LUCKNOW

(DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, UP GOVERNMENT), INDIA

FORMER PROFESSOR, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HERBAL MEDICINE (IIHM), LUCKNOW, U.P., INDIA

E-MAIL ID: [email protected], MOBILE-: 9794849800

Dr. B.C.TripathiAssistant Prof.

Deptt. of Educa-

tion,

Rama P.G. College,

Chinhat, Lucknow,

Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Pankaj Verma

Senior Research Fellow,

Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial

Surgery,

Faculty of Dental Sciences,

K.G. Medical University,

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Shri Sanjay Pandey Assistant Prof.

National Institute of

Fashion Technology,

Raebareli,

Uttar Pradesh

Shri Ashish TiwariResearch Scholar,

Sai Nath University,

Ranchi,

Jharkhand

ADVISORY BOARD

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

COMMITTEE FOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

Prof.(Dr.)S. P. OjhaFormer Vice Chancellor, CCS Meerut University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)V.K. SrivastavaFormer Prof & Head, Deptt. of Community Medicine

King George Medical University, Lucknow.

Former Director, Integral Institute of Medical Sciences & Research,

Integral University, Lucknow

Former Vice -Chancellor,

Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana, South America

Prof.(Dr.) M.I. KhanProf & Head, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg.,

Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.K. AvasthiFormer Director, H.B.T.I., Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Amrika SinghProf & Head (Chemistry), Deptt. of Applied Sciences,

Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) U.N. DwivediProf & Ex- Head, Deptt of Biochemistry, Former Pro- Vice Chancellor,

Former Dean, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) U.K. MisraHead, Deptt. of Neurology, Ex Dean,

Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. A.K. GuptaFormer Deputy Director General,

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Ansari Nagar, New Delhi

Prof.(Dr.) V.K.TondonFormer Prof & Head, Deptt. of Chemistry, Ex- Dean Faculty of Science,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Amod Kumar Tiwari,Prof.- Director, Bhabha Institute of Engg.& Technology, Kanpur, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) Chandra Dhar DwivediFormer Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of

Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Borokings, South Dakota, USA

Prof.(Dr.) Vimal KishoreProf. & Chairman, Deptt. of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences,

Xevier College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana, 7325,

Palmetto Street New Orlens, Louisiana USA

Prof .(Dr.) M.C. Pant,Former Director,R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow and Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Radiotherapy, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.P. SinghFormer Prof & Head, Deptt. of Pharmacology,

G. S. V. M. Medical College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) R. L. SinghProf & Head, Department of Biochemistry & Coordinator Biotechnology

Program , Dr. R. M. L. University Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Sarita VermaHead, Deptt. of Home Sci., Mahila P.G. College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.K.AgarwalPro. & Ex-Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University,

Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Bharat SahDirector,

National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)N.S. VermaProf., Deptt. of Physiology,

K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)A.K. TripathiProf. & Head, Deptt. of Clinical Hematology & Medical Oncology,

K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)C.M. PandeyProf. & Head, Deptt. of Biostatistics & Health Informatics,

Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar

Pradesh

Dr. Rupesh ChaturvediAssociate Prof., School of Biotechnology,

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Former Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of

Pharmaceutical Sciences , College of Pharmacy, Vanderbilt University,

Tennessee, USA

Dr. S.SinhaAsstt. Prof. Deptt. of Internal Medicine, CD University,

C. David Giffen School of Medi., University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Dr. K.RamanPrincipal Scientist, Martek Biosciences Corporation,

6480 Dobbin Road, Columbia, MD 21045, USA

Dr. P.K.AgarwalEditor –in – Chief, Natural Product Communication,

Natural Product Inc 7963, Anderson Park Lane West Terville, OH, USA

Dr. R.K.Singh,Chief Scientist, Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research

Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Mohd. TariqueProf., Deptt of Physical Edu., Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

1

Shri Sanjay DixitScientist,

Sky Institute

Lucknow

Uttar Pradesh

164 www.ijsir.co.in


EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof.(Dr.) Y.B. TripathiProf. & Head, Deptt. of Medicinal Chemistry,Institute of Medical Sciences,Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. SinghProf. & Head , Deptt. of Biochemistry, Shri Guru Ram RaiInstitute of Medical &Health Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand & Former Prof. & Head, Department ofBiochemistry, K. G. Medical University , Lucknow, U.P.

Prof. (Dr.) R.S.DiwediFormer Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) , ICAR,Junagarh, Gujarat & Former Principal Scientist – Head, Deptt. of PlantPhysiology, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Nuzhat HusainProf. & Head , Deptt of Pathology & Acting Director, R. M. L. Institute ofMedical Sciences, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Amita JainProf. Deptt. of Microbiology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Sudhir MahrotraAssociate Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof. (Dr.) Vibha SinghProf., Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences,K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) U.S. PalProf. & Head, Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences,K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr. ) K.K. PantProf. & Head , Deptt. of Pharmacology & Therapeutics,K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. C.M.K.TripathiFormer Deputy Director & Head, Division of Fermentation Technology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. R.D. TripathiChief Scientist & ProfessorPlant Ecology & Environmental Science Division,Uttar Pradesh CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) Ashwani K. SrivastavProf. & Head, Deptt. of Biosciences, Integral University,Lucknow,Former Senior Scientist, Birbal Sbahani Institute Paleobotany, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) L. PandeyProf. & Head , Postgraduate Deptt . of Physics,Former Dean, Faculty of Science,Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Prof .(Dr.) Bali RamProf., Deptt. of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) J.P.N.RaiProf.& Head, Deptt. of Environmental Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agr. &Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand

Prof.(Dr. )R. S. DubeyProf. & Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.

Prof. (Dr.) OmkarDeptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Sudhir KumarProf., Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Naveen KhareProf., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) S. M. NatuProf., Deptt. of Pathalogy,K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Kusum Lata Mishra,In-charge, Coagulation Laboratory, Deptt. of Pathology,

K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Sharma,Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. ShuklaProf., Deptt. of Physics, Lucknow University, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)Anil GaurProf., Deptt. of Biotechnology & Genetic Engg., G.B. Pant University of Agr. &Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand

Dr. Mahesh PalPrincipal Scientist ,Phytochemistry Division, CSIR- National Botanical ResearchInstitute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Vinod SinghAssoc. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Microbiology, Baruktulla University, Bhopal,Madhya Pradesh

Dr. K.K.VermaAssoc. Prof., Deptt. of Physics & Electronics.Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University ,Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Atul GuptaSenior Scientist, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Saudan Singh,Senior Principal Scientist,CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants ,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.K.TiwariSenior Principal Scientist ,CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Shivani Pandey,Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry,K.G.Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. B.C. Yadav,Lucknow Associate Prof. & Coordinator, Deptt. of Applied Physics, School forPhysical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Anchal Srivastava,Prof., Deptt of Physics, Lucknow University,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Shalini BariarAsstt. Professor, Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India

Dr.A.K.PandeyPrincipal Scientist, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,Lucknow, U.P.

Dr.S.K.PandeyG.M. LML Factory, Kanpur Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Suneet Kumar Awasthi,Asst. Prof ,Deptt.of PhysicsJ.P. University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Dr.G. N. PandeyAsst. Prof, Deptt. of Physics Amity University, Noida ,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Mukesh VermaAsst. Prof., Deptt. of Physical Education, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Abhay Singh,Head, Physical Education, Delhi Public School, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Santosh GaurAsst. Prof. Deptt. of Physical Education, Jawahar Lal Nehru P.G. College,Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh

Dr.Sanjeev Kumar JhaSenior Scientist, DEOACC Patna

Dr. Shivlok SinghScientist, DEOACC, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Anurag Tripathi,Asstt . Prof. , Deptt. of Electrical Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, SitapurRoad, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. V.P.SharmaSenior Principal Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Krishna GopalFormer Deputy Director & Head , Aquatic Toxicology Division, CSIR- IndianInstitute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.P. ShuklaProf. , Deptt. of Civil Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road ,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Ajay MishraAssociate Prof. , Deptt. of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow , U. P.

Dr. Ashutosh SinghProf., Deptt. of Chemistry,Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad, U. P.

Dr. S.K. SinghPrincipal, Gita College of Education , Nimbari, Panipat, Haryana

Shri Sudesh BhatAdvisor (Education), Sky Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Krishna GopalAsst. Prof., Deptt. of English,Rama University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

2


www.ijsir.co.in 165

ABOUT EDITOR-IN- CHIEF : DR. B. R. PANDEY

Dr. B. R. Pandey is a well known academician and scientist with brilliant academic career and

research accomplishments . He has done M.Sc. ( organic chemistry) from Banaras Hindu University,

Varanasi, India in the year 1972. He has done PhD in Medicinal Chemistry under the guidance of world

renowned Biochemist & Medicinal Chemist, Professor S.S. Parmar , Professor of Medicinal Chemistry &

Chemical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College, Lucknow (

Presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India in the

year 1976. Dr. Pandey has all throughout first class educational qualifications and his research interest

covers medicinal chemistry, biochemical pharmacology, neurochemistry, neuro-toxicology, environmental

chemistry, herbal medicine & natural products. He is having extensive research experience of more than 40

years and published several research papers in peer reviewed journals of international repute. His research

particularly on the studies of central nervous system acting drugs and anti-inflammatory drugs and their

biochemical mode of action using animal models and enzymes such as monoamine oxidase, acetylcholine

esterase, purine catabolizing enzymes , proteolytic enzymes, membrane stabilizing enzymes, respiratory

enzymes, microsomal enzymes etc. has been well recognized as evidenced by his research publications .

Further, his research on developing herbal medicines has been found very useful in prevention and treatment

of chronic diseases and other refractory diseases for which modern system of medicine have no permanent

cure. He has worked on the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow,

Department of Science & Technology, Uttar Pradesh Government, India from the year 1979 to 2011, where

he successfully executed several R & D projects in various disciplines of Science & Technology including

chemical & pharmaceutical sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, environmental sciences etc.

During his tenure as Joint Director, he has been instrumental in launching and implementing important

schemes: Young Scientists Scheme, Young Scientist Visiting Fellowship Scheme, Establishment of Centre of

Excellence- Encephalitis Research Centre of Excellence in Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical

Sciences ( SGPGIMS), Lucknow , U. P. India ; Centre of Excellence in Materials Science ( nano materials)

in Z. H. College of Engg. & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. India, Establishment of

Patent Information Centre in the premises of Council of Science & Technology , U.P. He has also worked

on the post of Secretary ( as additional charge ) , Council of Science & Technology, U.P. several times and

functioned as Administrative Head of the Organization. Prior to taking over the position of Joint Director,

Council of Science & Technology, U.P. in the year 1979, he has worked as Junior Research Fellow/ Senior

Research Fellow ( Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi ), Assistant Research Officer (

Jawaharlal Nehru Laboratory of Molecular Biology) at Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K.

G. Medical College ( presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow,

Lucknow, India from the year 1972 to 1979 and involved in multidisciplinary biomedical research leading to

drug development . He has worked as Visiting Scientist / Faculty in the Department of Physiology, School

of Medicine, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA and also visited scientific

institutions in Sweden, U.K. and U.S.A. under Training Program on Capacity Building in Environmental

Research Management (World Bank Funding Project). After his superannuation in the year 2011, he has

been associated with International Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM), Lucknow, India as Professor and is

presently associated with Sky Institute, Lucknow , India as Director ( Research) and involved in programs

related to higher education and research of scientific & technological fields. He has organized several

3

166 www.ijsir.co.in


national and international conferences. He has actively participated in national and international conferences,

symposia and workshops and presented research papers and chaired scientific / technical sessions. He is

life member and fellow of many scientific societies such as National Academy of Sciences India , Society

of Toxicology of India, Indian Academy of Neurosciences, Bioved Research Society India, International

Society for Herbal Medicine (ISHM), Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development, India. He has

been member of several scientific expert committees/ advisory committees to evaluate scientific research

proposals. Dr. Pandey has been actively associated with various universities and institutions in India as

examiner for conducting graduate, post graduate and doctoral level examinations in disciplines like chemical

sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, biochemical sciences, biotechnology and allied areas and member of

Board of Studies for the academic development in the department. He has been approved research supervisor

for guiding research in chemistry, biotechnology and related areas from various universities of India leading

to PhD Degree. In view of his vast research and administrative experience and broad R & D vision, Dr.

Pandey has been associated with International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR) as

Editor-in-Chief.

4


www.ijsir.co.in 167

FROM THE DESK OF CHAIRMAN, SKY INSTITUTE

It is my privilege to state that I have great desire to contribute to the

development of our country and to bring about social transformation through

education, higher learning and research. This inner feeling prompted me to establish

Sky Institute in Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), the city known for its rich cultural heritage

and vibrant academic institutions of higher learning. Sky Institute, since its inception

in the year 2006, has been functioning to impart various educational and training

courses with a vision to improving lives through education, research and innovation. The institute provides

a professional learning environment that acts as a catalyst, for the exponential growth of student as well as

extracurricular abilities. It conducts regular courses at the level of graduate and post graduate followed by

research courses leading to M Phil and PhD in all subjects in association with universities .

I feel great pleasure to highlight that Sky Institute has started to publish a bi-annual journal

“International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research ( IJSIR ) which encourages to publish research

articles in all branches of science, technology ,engineering, health, agriculture and management. Research

articles in the field of education are also considered in order to improve educational standard in educational

institutions with innovative technologies. First volume of the journal has been successfully published. The

present issue of second volume of the journal contains useful and informative research articles which

may be interesting to readers and educational and research organizations. The association of eminent

faculty and scientists of reputed organizations with our journal is highly appreciable.

I call upon all the students who are willing to join various programs/courses being run at Sky

Institute in association with selected universities, to strive hard to gain knowledge, transform it into skills

with right attitude and inculcate the habit of learning, which will drive them to self directed learning.

My best wishes to all the aspiring students.

5

Mohit Bajpai

Chairman

Sky Institute

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(2):000-000,

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in

CONTENTS PAGE

1. BACOPA MONNIERI PROMOTOR OF ANIOXIDANT PROPERTY IN MPTP-INDUCED 1

PARKINSON’S DISEASE Babita Singh, Abbas Ali Mahdi and Shivani Pandey

2. THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS OF AZADIRACHTA INDICA : AN OVERVIEW 8 B. R. Pandey, Pankaj verma, Raju Saw, Nidhi Sharma and Aashish Tiwari

3. ORGANIC POLY HERBAL INTERVENTION IN DISEASE MANAGEMENT: 17

A COMPERATIVE STUDY B. R. Pandey, Raju Saw and Pankaj Verma

4. INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF DISEASE VECTORS FOR RICHER HARVEST OF 21

QUALITY SEED POTATOES IN THE NORTHERN PLAINS S. S. Misra

5. SYNTHESIS, SPECTRAL CHARACTERIZATION AND BIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF 26

COORDINATION COMPOUNDS OF RUTHENIUM(III) WITH SCHIFF BASES

DERIVED FROM SULPHA DRUGS Rachna and V. K. Sharma

6. NEED OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN INSTITUTION EDUCATION 34 Amod Tiwari, Suman Sharma and O.M. Awasthi

7. IMPACT OF FDI IN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR 39 Manish Kumar Awasthi, Jyoti Agarwal, and S. C. Pandey

8. ACHIEVING SERVICE QUALITY THROUGH ITS VALUABLE DIMENSIONS 45

TANGIBILITY: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE INDIAN AIRLINES Renuka Singh

9. STUDY OF WORKPLACE STRESS, STRESSORS & IMPORTANCE OF 53

STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN AVIATION SECTOR OF INDIA Renuka Singh

10. TO CREATE A CUSTOMER OR SERVE THE SHAREHOLDER? WHAT DRIVES 60

THE CORPORATE BOARD ROOMS TO ACT UPON? Rajesh Kumar Nigah

11. GREEN MARKETING AND FORMING OF GREEN STRATEDGIES 65 Masood H. Siddiqui and Jyotishree Pandey

12. ECONOMY UPGRADATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION: 75

A CASE STUDY ON UTTRAKHAND DISASTER Shruti Aggarwal and Neeraj Jain

13. AIM, SCOPE & EDITORIAL POLICY OF THE JOURNAL 81

14. INSTRUCTION TO AUTHORS 82

15. SUBSCRIPTION FORM 86

16. UNDERTAKING 87

17. COVER LETTER 88

http://www.ijsir.co.in/

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(2) : 1-7,

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BACOPA MONNIERI PROMOTOR OF ANIOXIDANT PROPERTY

IN MPTP-INDUCED PARKINSON’S DISEASE

BABITA SINGH, ABBAS ALI MAHDI, * SHIVANI PANDEY

Department of Biochemistry, King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. Shivani Pandey , Associate Professor, Department of Biochemistry,King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India,

E-mail ID : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Bacopa monnieri (BM), an ayurvedic medicinal plant, has attracted considerable interest owingto its diverse neuro-pharmacological properties. The standardized extract of Bacopa monniera(BM) is a multifarious mixture of ingredients with a uniquely wide spectrum ofneuropharmacological influences upon the central nervous system including enhanced learningand memory with known antioxidant potential and protection of the brain from oxidative damage.The present study demonstrates the therapeutic efficacy of standardized ethanolic extract ofBM against MPTP induced oxidative damage, in Parkinson’s disease mice model. Thisexperimental study comprises of twenty four Swiss albino mice (30-45grams) grouped as follows:Control (A), MPTP (B), BM (C), and MPTP+ BM (D), 6 mice in each. Experimental mice weregiven 40mg/kg bodyweight BM treatment orally for one month with prior use of 15mg/kg b.w ofMPTP treatment for two weeks (total duration was 45 days). After that, behavioral study wasperformed and assessment of neuroprotective effect was studied via biochemical analysis. Ourstudy shows that BM extract treatment reduces the oxidative stress, prevent dopaminergicneurodegenration through increase in antioxidants SOD and Catalse, thereby proving itsantioxidant properties. These results support further investigations on this plant, and its activeconstituent compounds, as possible therapeutic intervention against Parkinson’s disease.

Keywords: Parkinson’s disease (PD), Bacopa monnieri (BM), Oxidative stress, Reactive oxygenspecies (ROS)

INTRODUCTION

Brain is more prone to undergo oxidativedamage due to its relatively low content ofantioxidant enzymes and high content of iron,which becomes easily released when cells areinjured and cannot be safely bound becausecerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) has no significant ironbinding capacity. Because of the sensitivity of thenervous system to oxidative damage, oxidantsare involved in the pathology ofneurodegenerative diseases. Parkinson’sdisease (PD or simply idiopathic Parkinsonism,primary Parkinsonism or paralysis agitans) is oneof the most widespread progressiveneurodegenerative disease found in the agingpopulation [1]. The selective loss of the neuronsin the midbrain area called the substantia nigrapars compacta which contains theneurotransmitter dopamine (DA), and their

projecting nerve fibers reside in the striatum. Thedegeneration of these dopaminergic neuronsleads to four cardinal, debilitating symptoms:resting tremor, muscular rigidity, bradykinesia,and postural imbalance. At current research, theetiology of PD is stil l not clearly known.Evidences suggest massive oxidative stressleading to the formation of free radical. Familialforms of PD involving mutations in a number ofgenes and the mechanism by which mutation ofthese genes lead to degeneration of the nigralneurons [2]. In both idiopathic and genetic casesof PD, oxidative stress is thought to be thecommon underlying mechanism that leads tocellular dysfunction. As such, the substantia nigraof PD patient’s exhibit increased levels ofoxidized lipids [3], proteins and DNA [4] anddecreased levels of reduced glutathione (GSH)[5]. Oxidative stress occurs when an imbalance

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is formed between production of reactive oxygenspecies (ROS) and cellular antioxidant activity.Because of the presence of ROS-generatingenzymes such as tyrosine hydroxylase andmonoamine oxidase, the DAergic neurons areparticularly prone to oxidative stress. In addition,the nigral DAergic neurons contain iron, whichcatalyzes the Fenton reaction, in whichsuperoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide cancontribute to further oxidative stress [6].

1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahyd-ropyridine (MPTP), is a potent neurotoxin & highlylipophilic. After systemic administration it rapidlycrosses the blood-brain barrier, enters astrocytesand is metabolized to its active metabolite MPP+by monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) [7, 8]. MPP+ isable to inhibit complex 1 of the mitochondrialelectron transport chain, resulting in the formationof ROS & leading to reduced ATP production.

Neuroprotection suggests preventing orslowing disease progression. Nevertheless,despite advances toward this goal, all currenttreatments are symptomatic; none halt or retarddopaminergic neuron degeneration. L-dopatreatment produces many distressing sideeffects, and its possible that metabolism ofexcess dopamine by the monoamine oxidaseenzymes in the brain produces too much H

2O

2.

An initial good response to symptomaticpharmacological treatment declines with time,and severe side effects develop and later onsurgical interventions are to be used. Theprogressive neurodegeneration in PD is notarrested by the currently used drug therapies.Hence, recent researches are focusing on findingtherapies, preferentially herbal drugs.

In recent existence, a number of naturalcompounds have been identified that couldpotentially help in prevention and treatment ofdiseases. One plant that has been used in mentalconditions and illnesses is Bacopa monnieriWettst. (syn Herpestis monniera). It is commonlyknown as Indian water hyssop or Brahmi andbelongs to the family Scrophulariaceae anduseful in increasing the sharpness of perceptionby the sense organs and in the promotion ofmemory in children [9]. Extracts of Bacopamonnieri have been reported to exert cognitiveenhancing effects in animals [10]. Research onanxiety, epilepsy, bronchitis and asthma, irritable

bowel syndrome, and gastric ulcers also supportthe Ayurvedic uses of Bramhi [9, 11].

Therefore, in view of the above mentionedmultiple beneficial qualities of Bacopa, in thisstudy, an effort has been made to demonstratesthe therapeutic efficacy of standardized ethanolicextract of BM against MPTP induced oxidativedamage, in Parkinson’s disease mice model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydrop-yridine (MPTP) neurotoxicant was purchasedfrom Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).Prepared Ethanolic plant extract of Baccopamonnieri was purchased from Natural remediesprivate limited, Bangalore for treatment ofanimals. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA), trichloroaceticacid (TCA), Malonaldialdehyde (MDA), EDTA,Phenazine methosulphate (PMS),nitrobluetetrazolium (NBT) and NADH etc wereprocured from Sigma Chemicals Co., St. Louis,USA. All other chemicals used in study were ofhighest purity grade available.

Healthy male Swiss albino mice (8-10weeks old, 30-45g) were used for the study.Animals were obtained from the breeding colonyof IITR (Indian Institute of Toxicological Research)Lucknow and were used throughout the studywith the permission of the Institutional AnimalEthics Committee in accordance with theCPCSEA guideline. All the mice were maintainedon Hindustan Lever LTD (Mumbai; India) Pelletsdiet and water ad libitium. The cages were keptin temperature and humidity controlled room with12-hr light–dark cycle.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Male Swiss albino mice with weight 30-45grams were segregated into 4 groups with sixanimals in each group. Group A (Control)received normal saline water 10 ml/kg bodyweight orally. Group B (MPTP) was injected i.p.with MPTP (15mg/kg b.wt.) [12] for 15 consecutivedays. Group C (BM) received 40 mg/kg bodyweight [13] of Bacopa monnieri extracts (BM) orallyfor a period of one month. Group D (MPTP+BM)received MPTP treatment for 15 days thereafterBME treatment for 30 consecutive days. Next toentire dosing, neuro-behavioral studies wereperformed again to understand motor skill


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abnormalities by Spontaneous loco-motor activity(SLA) in each group. On completion ofexperimental period, animals were sacrificed byeuthanasia under ketamine anaesthesia.

Neurobehavioral analysis

Spontaneous locomotor activity (SLA)

SLA was monitored in a computerizedActimot (TSE, system Columbus InstrumentsOhio USA). The Actimot system is a horizontal 2D-activity meter, consisting of two arrays of 15infrared beams, which are placed perpendicularto each other. The beams are spaced about 1inch and each beam is very narrow (3 mmdiameter). It has an activity monitor with a set ofprogrammer/processor. This system helps ineliminating observer’s bias in quantification ofmotility following previously described method [14].Mice were individually placed in the chamber,acclimatized for 5 min and their locomotor activityscores were recorded for 5 min. Effect ondifferent parameters including total distancetravelled, resting time, stereotypic time and timemoving was studied in all the control and treatedgroups.

Biochemical analysis

To evaluate free radical mediated effectsfollowing MPTP neurotoxicity and scavengingpotential of standardized ethanolic extract ofBacopa Monnieri, estimation of lipid peroxidation(LPO) and Conjugated dienes (CD), Superoxidedismutase (SOD) and Catalase was carried outin tissue homogenate [Ten percent (w/v)] ofstriatum region of mice brain. Mice weresacrificed by cervical dislocation followed bydecapitation and brains were dissected quicklyon ice pack according to region required.Regions were then, weighed and processed freshfor preparation of tissue homogenate. Tenpercent (w/v) homogenate of Straitum regionswas prepared with the aid of York’s homogenizerfitted with Teflon plunger in cold KCl (0.15M) or0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.1), as perrequirement. The whole homogenate was firstcentrifuged at 2500 x g for 10 minutes in arefrigerated centrifuge. The pellet consisting ofnuclear fraction and cell debris was discarded.The supernatant was further centrifuged at11,000 x g for 15 minutes and mitochondrial

fraction was separated. The clear supernatantwas further centrifuged at 105,000 x g in ultracentrifuge for 90 minutes and the resultantsupernatant (cytosolic fraction) was used forestimation of oxidative stress. LPO wasmeasured by estimating malonaldialdehyde(MDA) levels following the method of Ohkawa etal [15]. Conjugated dienes (CD) were measuredby the method of Racknagel and Ghosal [16].Catalase activity was determined spectrophoto-metrically by the method of Aebi [17]. SOD activitywas determined spectrophotometricallyaccording to the method of McCord andFridovich[18].

Statistical analysis

All data were expressed as means +standard deviation. The test of one-way variance(ANOVA) followed by Student Newman Keulstest Compare experimental vs. Control in InStat3package program was used to detect thesignificant difference between the treated groupsand the control. The p-value less than 0.05 wereconsidered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Effect of Standardized ethanolic extract ofBME on Neurobehavioral studies-

To recognize the motor skill abnormalitiescaused by neurotoxicant MPTP and to see theefficacy of BM, we have studied neurobehavioralchanges by Spontaneous locomotor activity(SLA). Exposure of MPTP in mice causes asignificant decrease (p < 0.001) in total distancetravelled, stereotypic time, time moving and anincrease in resting time as compared to mice inthe control group (Table1). Simultaneous treat-ment with Bacopa monnieri extract (BM) in MPTPtreated mice (D) increases the total distancetravelled, stereotypic time, time moving anddecrease in the resting time as compared MPTPtreated groups (B). Although distance travelled,stereotypic time and time moving decreased inthe only BME treated group (C) as compared tocontrol group (A). But no significant change wasobserved between the control (A) and BM (C)group. Results are given in the table-1.

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Values are mean ±SE of six animals in each group. * p- value <0.01 considered as significant** p- value <0.001 considered as highly significant.

Table-1 Showing effect of Standardized ethanolic extract of BME on different parameters of locomotor

activity in mice: Neurobehavioral studies

A was observed (p < 0.001) in MDA and Catalaselevels. No significant change was observedbetween the control (A) and BM (C). The resultsare summarized in Fig -1, 2, 3, 4.

Biochemical analysis

MPTP treatment produced significantchanges in oxidant parameters (LPO and CD)and antioxidant parameters (SOD and Catalase)as compared to control (p < 0.001). BMadministration in MPTP treated animals (groupD) brought the levels of SOD, Catalase levelsclose to control values. Activities of enzymeswere attenuated in group D as compared to groupB. Statistical significance between groups D and

DISCUSSION

Our results reveal that Bacopa monnieri(BM) can be regarded as a neuroprotective agentin view of its facilitators effect on retention oflocomotion activity, preventing neurodegenera-tion and promoting neurogenesis. A decrease in


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locomotor activity in MPTP treated animals hasbeen observed, which could be closely linked tothe degree of dopaminergic dysfunctioning anddeterioration of motor performance. However, theanimals treated with BME have shown markedprotection in the neuro-behavioral activity.

Oxidative stress, associated with increasedformation of reactive oxygen species (ROS),modifies phospholipids and proteins leading tolipid per-oxidation and oxidation of thiol groups[19]. Results of the present study clearlydemonstrates that MPTP causes significantoxidative damage in mice brain, as evidencedby significant increase in brain malondialdehyde(MDA – an end product of lipid per-oxidation) andConjugated dienes levels whereas decrease inantioxidant status in brain. There is growingevidence that generation of reactive oxygenspecies and mitochondrial dysfunction in thesubstantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) neuronsare implicated in the neuronal death in PD [20].Dopaminergic neurons provide fertileenvironment for the generation of ROS, as themetabolism of DA produces hydrogen peroxideand superoxide radicals, and auto- oxidation ofDA produces DA-quinone a molecule thatdamages protein by reacting with cysteineresidues. ROS generation also causesperoxidation of the mitochondria-specific lipidcardiolipin, which results in release ofcytochrome c to the cytosol, triggering apoptosis[21]. Thus ROS scavenging antioxidants may playan important role in the prevention of PD andcombat against OS-induced progressive loss ofneurons. Studies have also shown that 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)causes marked depletion of dopamine (DA)levels by reducing the activity of tyrosinehydroxylase (TH) in the nigrostriatal DA pathway.In the brain, the enzyme monoamine oxidase Bconverts MPTP to 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium(MPP+) which enters DA terminals via DA uptakesites. Within the DA terminals, MPP+ blocks themitochondrial complex I and causes ATPdepletion. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)generated after blockade of the complex I as wellas those generated due to DA oxidation couldbe the main cause of MPTP-induced terminaldegeneration [21, 22]. Certain brain regions likehippocampus & straitum are highly enriched withnon heme iron, which is catalytically involved in

the generation of ROS. There are similar reportsclaiming oxidative damage in nervous tissue inPD disease [21]. Oxy free radicals are removedby superoxide dismutase in healthy organisms,but during degeneration, the lowered activity ofSOD is caused by inhibition of the enzyme byexcess H

2O

2. This excess H

2O

2, besides inhibiting

SOD, can cause degradation of heme rings ofhemoglobin and releasing iron which is capableof free radical production via Fenton reaction [23].Catalase (CAT) is a heme enzyme whichremoves hydrogen peroxide. CAT has beensuggested to provide important pathway for H

2O

2

decomposition into H2O and O

2. Superoxide

radicals generate hydrogen peroxide asmetabolites, which in the presence of transitionmetals like iron, leads to the generation of thehighly toxic hydroxyl ions, known to induce lipidperoxidation. As such, an effective antioxidantagent should be capable of augmentingintracellular concentrations of not only SOD, butalso Catalase in finally reducing lipidperoxidation.

Bacopa monnieri (BM) is a well-knownmemory booster herbal plant and containsAlkaloids, Glycosides, Flavonoids and Saponins;however, saponins are considered to be theprincipal active constituents of the plant. Thesaponins consist of numerous subtypesdesignated as bacosides, bacopasides andbacopasaponins. Bacosides, the majorcomponents of Bacopa monnieri extract areknown to improve memory by modulatingacetylcholinesterase activity. BM haveantioxidant properties due to sulfhydryl andpolyphenol components which scavengesreactive oxygen species [9, 24]. Here, we used BMextract for its neuroprotective effect. The resultof the present study demonstrates the beneficialeffect of Bacopa monnieri extract in MPTP modelof Parkinson’s disease. MPTP administeredmice, when treated with BME (group D) reversedback to near normal condition indicating that BMEhave capacity for preventing theneurodegeneration in PD. Similar results wereshown by various other study [24, 25]. Studies haveshown that treatment with BM extract increasedthe antioxidant enzyme activity such assuperoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathioneperoxidase and levels of GSH and also inhibitedthe content of lipid peroxidation in the frontal

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cortex, striatum, and hippocampus [26, 27]. BMextract has shown neuroprotective effect againstaluminium-induced oxidative stress in thehippocampus of rat brain [28]. Abnormalities inthe cellular regulation and expression ofantioxidant enzymes could have a role in themechanisms of all the central nervousneurodegeneration. Our conclusions were in lineto previous study of BM in neuroprotection. BMEshowed neuroprotective effect on dopaminergicneurons which could be as a result of itspromising antioxidant capacity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors thank authorities of King George’sMedical University, Lucknow for facilitiesprovided. The financial assistance from UttarPradesh, Council of Science and Technology(UPCST), Lucknow, is greatly acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. De Lau L M and Breteler M M, Epidemiology ofParkinson’s disease, Lancet Neurol, 5(6), 525–535,2006.

2. Bekris L M, Mata I F and Zabetian C P, The geneticsof Parkinson disease, J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol,23, 228-242, 2010.

3. Bosco D A, Fowler D M, Zhang Q, Nieva J, PowersE T, Wentworth P Jr, Lerner R A and Kelly J W,Elevated levels of oxidized cholesterol metabolitesin Lewy body disease brains accelerate alpha-synuclein fibrilization, Nat Chem Biol, 2, 249-253,2006.

4. Nakabeppu Y, Tsuchimoto D, Yamaguchi H andSakumi K, Oxidative damage in nucleic acids andParkinson’s disease, J Neurosci Res, 85, 919-934,2007.

5. Zeevalk G D, Razmpour R and Bernard L P,Glutathione and Parkinson’s disease: is this theelephant in the room? Biomed Pharmacother, 62,236-249, 2008.

6. Halliwell B, Reactive oxygen species and the centralnervous system, J Neurochem 59, 1609-1623, 1992.

7. Przedborski S, Tieu K, Perier C and Vila M, MPTPas a mitochondrial neurotoxic model of Parkinson’sdisease, Journal of Bioenergetics andBiomembranes, 36, 375–379, 2004.

8. Duty S and Jenner P, Animal models of Parkinson’sdisease: a source of novel treatments and clues tothe cause of the disease, British Journ Pharmacol,164, 1357–1391, 2011.

9. Pandey S, Singh B and Mahdi A A, Therapeuticpotential of noo-tropic Bacopa monnieri in

prevention and treatment of diseases: an overview,Inter Journ of Scientific and Innovative Res, 1(2),12-24, 2013.

10. Stough C, Lloyd J, Clarke J, Downey L A, HutchisonC W, Rodgers T and Nathan P J, The chronic effectsof an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) oncognitive function in healthy human subjects,Psychopharmacology (Berl), 156, 481-484, 2001.

11. Paulose C S, Chathu F, Khan S R and KrishnakumarA, Neuroprotective role of Bacopa monnieri extractin epilepsy and effect of glucose supplementationduring hypoxia: glutamate receptor gene expression,Neurochem Res, 33, 1663-1671, 2008.

12. Gibrat C, Saint-Pierre M, Bousquet M, Lévesque D,Rouillard C and Cicchetti F J, Differences betweensubacute and chronic MPTP mice models:investigation of dopaminergic neuronal degenerationand á-synuclein inclusions, Neurochem 109, 1469-1482, 2009.

13. Rai D, Bhatia G, Palit G, Pal R, Singh S and SinghHK, Adap- togenic effect of Bacopa monniera(Brahmi), Pharmocol. Biochem, Behav 75, 823-830,2003.

14. Agrawal A K, Chaturvedi R K, Shukla S, Seth K,Chauhan S, Ahmad A and Seth P K, Restorativepotential of dopaminergic grafts in presence ofantioxidants in rat model of Parkinson’s disease,Journ Chem Neuroanat, 28, 253–264, 2004.

15. Ohkawa H, Ohishi N and Yagi K, Assay of lipidperoxides in animal tissue by thiobarbutyric acidreaction, Anal Biochem , 95, 351-358, 1979.

16. Recknell R O & Ghosal A K, Quantitative estimationof peroxidative degeneration of rat liver microsomaland mitochondrial lipids alter carbon tetrachloridepoisoning, Exp Mol Pathol, 5, 413-426, 1966.

17. Aebi H, Catalase in vitro methods, Methods inEnzymology 105, 121–126, 1984.

18. McCord JM and Fridovich I, The role of superoxideanion in the auto-oxidation of epinephrine andsimple assay for superoxide dismutase, Journ BiolChem 224, 6049–6055, 1969.

19. Cerconi C, Cargnoni A, Pasini E, Condorelli E,Curello S and Ferrari R, Evaluation of phospholipidperoxidation as malondialdehyde during myocardialischemia and reperfusion injury, Am J Physiol, 260,1057-1061, 1991.

20. Chaturvedi R K, Shukla S, Seth K, Chauhan S, SinhaC, Shukla Y and Agrawal A K Neurobiol Disease,22, 421 – 434, 2006.

21. Hwang O, Role of Oxidative Stress in Parkinson’sDisease, Exp Neurobiol, 22(1), 11-17, 2013.

22. Nicklas WJ, Vyas I and Heikkila R E, Inhibition ofNADH-linked oxidation in brain mitochondria by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridine, a metabolite of theneurotoxin, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine, Life Sci 36, 2503–2508, 1985.


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23. De Lorgeril M, Richard MJ, Arnaud J, Boissonnat P,Guidollet J, Durcau G, Lipid peroxides andantioxidant defenses in accelerated transplantation-associated coronary arteriosclerosis. Am Heart J125, 974- 980, 1993.

24. Khan M B, Ahmad M, Ahmad S, Ishrat T, Vaibhav K,Khuwaja G and Islam F, Bacopa monnieraameliorates cognitive impairment andneurodegeneration induced byintracerebroventricularstreptozotocin in rat:behavioral, biochemical, immunohistochemical andhistopathological evidences, Metab Brain Dis, 30,115–127, 2015.

25. Jadiya P, Khan A, Sammi S R, Kaur S, Mir S S, NazirA, Anti-Parkinsonian effects of Bacopa monnieri:insights from transgenic and pharmacological

Caenorhabditiselegans models of Parkinson’sdisease, BiochemBiophys Res Commun, 413(4),605-610, 2011.

26. Rohini G, Sabitha K E and Devi C S, Bacopamonniera Linn. extract modulates antioxidant andmarker enzyme status in fibrosarcoma bearing rats,Indian J Exp Biol, 42,776–780, 2004.

27. Subramanian P, Prasanna V, Jayapalan J J, AbdulRahman P S, Hashim O H, Roleof Bacopa monnieri in the temporal regulation ofoxidative stress in clock mutant (cryb) of Drosophilamelanogaster, J Insect Physiol, 65:37-44, 2014.

28. Jyoti A and Sharma D, Neuroprotective role ofBacopa monniera extract against aluminium-induced oxidative stress in the hippocampus of rat

brain, Neurotoxicol, 27, 451-45, 2006.

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THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS OF AZADIRACHTA INDICA : AN OVERVIEW

* B. R. PANDEY1,2, PANKAJ VERMA3 ,RAJU SAW 4 , NIDHI SHARMA4 AASHISH TIWARI4,1Sky Institute, Kurshi Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, 2 International Institute of Herbal Medicine ( IIHM ),

Lucknow, U.P. India,3Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, U. P. ,

India, 4Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

*Address for Correspondence: Dr. B.R. Pandey , Director (Research), Sky Institute, Shivam Palace ll,Near Sports College, Opp. Petrol Pump, Mishrpur, Kurshi Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Azadirachta indica ( Neem) belonging to Meliaceae family is a very important medicinal planttraditionally used to treat different diseases in Ayurveda, Unani and Homeopathic Medicine andattracted worldwide prominence in recent years due to its wide range of therapeutic propertiesand has become a cynosure of modern medicine. All parts of the ever green Neem tree- leaves,flowers, seeds, fruits, roots and bark have been traditionally used for the treatment of variousdiseases including inflammation, infections, fever, skin diseases and dental disorders. Morethan 250 biologically active compounds with diverse complex chemical structures andpharmacological properties have been isolated from different parts of Neem. Thepharmacological properties exhibited by these compounds include immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycaemic, antiulcer, antimalarial, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral,antioxidant, antimutagenic , anticarcinogenic etc. The present review summarizing the widerange of therapeutic properties of Neem and its compounds may be useful for the developmentof therapeutically important drugs based on the ever green wonder tree “Neem” as eco-friendly sustainable approach for providing better healthcare to ailing humanity.

Keywords: Azadirachta indica, Phytochemical compounds, Pharmacological properties

INTRODUCTION

A large number of medicinal plants andherbs have been used for thousands of centuriesby many cultures to treat varieties of diseasesand found to play vital role in health care of ailinghumanity. Herbal treatment is very popularbecause it is easily available, cheap and lesstoxic. Further the recent resurgence of interestin plant derived drugs has focused the attentionof scientists and clinicians to develop safe andlong acting herbal products beneficial to diseaseconditions as the drugs available in modernsystem of medicine produce side effects and thepatients get immunologically deficient on longterm use of these allopathic medicines.Azadirachta indica (neem) belonging toMeliaceae family is very important medicinal plantwhich is traditionally used to treat differentdiseases. Azadirachta indica commonly knownas “Neem” has found a significant place in IndianSystem of Medicine due to its potential efficacy

in treatment of varieties of diseases includingchronic disorders. “Neem” is grown in India,Pakistan, Africa and China. Its temperament iscold and dry. All parts of tree have medicinalproperties [1]. It is still used as traditional medicine,for dental hygiene, for timber and most importantfor insect control [2]. Neem has two closely relatedspecies: A. indica A. Juss and M. azedarac, theformer is popularly known as Indian neem(margosa tree) or Indian lilac, and the other asthe Persian lilac. Almost all parts of the neemtree have been used as traditional Ayurvedic,unani and sidhha medicine in India [3] [4] [5] [6]. Neemoil, bark and leaf extracts have beentherapeutically used as folk medicine to controlleprosy, intestinal disorders, helminthiasis,respiratory disorders, constipation, blood purifierand also as a general health tonic [7] [8] [9]. It isalso used for the treatment of rheumatism,chronic syphilitic sores and indolent ulcer. Neemoil isolated from its fruits and seeds [10] [11] [12] isused to control various skin infections.


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Traditionally, neem is also widely used in IndianAyurvedic medicine system for the treatment ofincurable diabetes. [5] [13] [14] Bark ,leaf, root, flowerand fruit together cure blood morbidity, biliaryafflictions, itching, skin ulcers, burning sensationsand pthysis. Now a days, the formulation ofneem oil has been effective to controllingmosquito larvae in different breeding sites undernatural field conditions. This could be used asan alternative medicine for malaria control. [6] [8]

[15].

Neem has become important in globalcontext today because it offers answer to themajor concerns facing mankind. Neem(Azadirachta indica) is considered harmless tohumans, animals, birds, beneficial insects andearthworms, and has been approved by the USEnvironmental Protection Agency for use onFood crops [16]. More than 250 compounds havebeen isolated from different parts of neem andseveral reviews have also been published on thechemistry and structural diversity of thesecompounds [17] [18] [19]. The compounds have beendivided into two major classes: isoprenoids (likediterpenoids and triterpenoids containingprotomeliacins, limonoids, azadirone and itsderivatives, gedunin and its derivatives, vilasinintype of compounds and C- secomeliacins suchas nimbin, salanin and azadirachtin ) and non-isoprenoids, which are proteins (amino acids)and carbohydrates (polysaccharides),sulphurous compounds, polyphenolics such asflavonoids and their glycosides, dihydrochalcone,coumarin and tannins, aliphatic compounds, etc.Various biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, antipyretic,hypoglycaemic, antigastric ulcer, spermicidal,antifungal, antibacterial, diuretic, antimalarial,antitumour, immunomodulatory etc. have beenassociated with neem compounds [20] [21] [22].Nimbidin, a major crude bitter principle extractedfrom the oil of seed kernels of A. indicademonstrated several biological activities. Fromthis crude principle some tetranortriterpenes,including nimbin, nimbinin, nimbidinin, nimbolideand nimbidic acid have been isolated.

In view of beneficial actions of AzadirachtaIndica and its compounds in treatment of variouschronic diseases for which our modern systemof medicine have no permanent cure, attempts

have been made to review pharmacologicalproperties of this important tree and itscompounds which may be useful towardsdevelopment of therapeutically useful drugsbased on the wonderful tree “Neem” as eco-friendly approach for providing better healthcareto ailing humanity.

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEEM [23]

Two species of Neem (1) Azadirachtaindica: Found in Native to Indian subcontinent(2) Azadirachta excelsa: Found in Indonesiaand Philippines have been reported.

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Magnoliophyta

Order: Sapindales

Family: Meliaceae

Genus: Azadirachta

Species: A.indica

Phytochemical Compounds of Neem

The chemical constituent of the Neem plantis a blend of 3 to 4 actively related compounds,with over 20 lesser ones. Presently over 250compounds have been identified. Thecompounds have been divided into two majorclasses: isoprenoids (like diterpenoids andtriterpenoids containing protomeliacins,limonoids, azadirone and its derivatives, geduninand its derivatives, vilasinin type of compoundsand C- secomeliacins such as nimbin, salaninand azadirachtin ) and non-isoprenoids, whichare proteins (amino acids) and carbohydrates(polysaccharides), sulphurous compounds,polyphenolics such as flavonoids and theirglycosides, dihydrochalcone, coumarin andtannins, aliphatic compounds, etc. The importantclasses include triterpenoids and limonoids:saladucin, valassin, meliacin, Nimbin Nimbicin,geducin, Azadirachtin etc [24] [25] [26]. The highestconcentrations of the active ingredients are foundin the seed and oil, however the activeingredients are also found in lesser amounts inthe bark and the leaves. The pharmacologicalactivities of some of important compounds are-

Nimbin: anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-histamine, anti-fungal

Nimbidin : anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, anti-

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pyretic, hypoglycemic, antigastric ulcer, anti-fungal, spermicidal ,antibacterial, diuretic,analgesic, anti-arrhythmic

Ninbidol: anti-tubercular, anti-protozoan, anti-pyretic

Gedunin: vasodilator, anti-malarial, anti-fungal

Sodium nimbinate: diuretic, spermicide, anti-arthritic

Quercetin: anti-protozoal

Salannin: insect repellent

Azadirachtin: insect repellent, anti-feedant, anti-hormonal

Traditional Uses of Neem in Ayurveda

Traditionally Neem is used in Ayurveda fora number of conditions. It is one of the mainingredients in every blood purification formulaused in Ayurveda and it appears in most diabeticformulas as well. It is also used for arthritis,rheumatism, the removal of external and internalparasites, including malaria and fevers and asan insect repellent. One of the most famous usesfor Neem is to prevent tooth decay and gumdisease. Neem twigs and leaves have been usedfor thousands of years by millions of people inIndia to brush their teeth and cleanse their gumsto promote oral hygiene. Today hundreds ofscientific clinical studies confirm the wisdom ofIndia’s people and her Ancient Ayurvedic medicaltexts.

Pharmacological Activities of AzadirachtaIndica

Animal and in vitro studies

Anti-infectious activity :

Neem leaf extracts have been shown topossess broad antimicrobial activity.[27] [ 28] [ 29] [ 30]

[31]

· Antifungal against Trichophyton,Epidermophyton, Microsporium,Trichosporum, Geotricum, Candida

· Antiviral against vaccinia virus, measlesvirus, group- B Coxsackie viruses, humanpapilloma viruses, herpes virus type 1 andtype 2

· Antibacterial against Mycobacteriumtuberculosis streptomycin-resistant strains,

Vibrio cholerae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, S.aureus, S.coagulase, Streptococusmutans,Streptococus faecalis

· Antimalarial against Plasmodium falciparum

· Anthelmintic against Toxocara canis andToxoplasma

Wound healing activity:

Neem has been found to be safe andeffective pro-healer for burns. Tolerability studyin seven patients with 2nd degree burns revealedinitial stinging sensation on application of neemwhich disappeared on further continuation. Noother adverse effects were reported. The burnsepithelial zed by four weeks [32].

Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity:

Nimbidin (a bitter compound), gallic acid,epicatechin, catechin, and polysaccharidesisolated from neem possess significant dose-dependent anti-inflammatory, and antipyreticactivity in different animal models (carrageenin-induced acute paw edema in rats and formalin-induced arthritis) [28]. Neem extract was over timesmore effective at reducing inflammation thanhydrocortisone [33].

Mosquitoes repellent and protector againstvector-borne diseases:

The repellent action of neem (A. indica)cream (5% neem oil in vanishing cream) hasbeen reported to afford more than 90% protectionagainst both malaria vector (Anopheles gambiae)and culicine mosquitoes in the field [34]. Kerosenelamps containing neem oil reduce the biting andindoor resting density of mosquitoes, with betterprotection against Anopheles than Culex [35].

Immunomodulatory activity:

Neem leaf aqueous extracts or powder,when taken orally, have been shown to enhanceboth the cell-mediated and humoral immuneresponses via different mechanisms. It producedan increase in leukocytes, lymphocyte,erythrocyte counts and synthesis of antibodies[36] [37] [38]. Ovalbumin immunized mice treated withneem leaf extract (100mg/kg) had higher IgM,IgG and anti-ovalbumin antibody compared withcontrol. There was also enhancement ofmacrophage migration inhibition [39].


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Anti-allergic activity:

Neem has been found to inhibit allergicreactions when taken orally or applied externally,due to its antihistaminic effect [40]. Thus, it maybe useful in skin allergies, allergic bronchialasthma.

Hepatoprotective activity:

Neem leaf aqueous extract has been foundto exhibit hepatoprotective effect againstparacetamol-induced liver damage in rats [41].

Contraceptive effect in both male and femaleanimals:

Contraceptive effect of neem oil and leafextract has been demonstrated in male andfemale rats [42] [43]. The studies have revealed thatthe total number of normal follicles wassignificantly reduced in rats orally treated with4.6ml/kg neem seed oil for 18 days [44]. In anotherstudy, polar and non-polar fractions of neem seedextract were administered by oral route (3 mgand 6 mg/kg body weight/day) to cyclic femalealbino rats and there was a significant reductionin the number of normal single layered follicles,follicles in various stages (I-VII) of folliculardevelopment, and the total number of normalfollicles has been observed [43].

Anti-cancer activity:

Different extracts of neem leaf have beenshown to produce chemopreventive effectsagainst polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons -induced skin and forestomach tumorigenesis inanimals [45] [46]. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsare omnipresent pollutants and represent a riskfactor for human carcinogenesis.

Hypolipidemic effect :

Alcoholic extract of neem leaves has beenfound to reduce serum cholesterol level by about30% [47].

Hypoglycemic effect :

Neem extract has been found to exhibithypoglycemic effect without altering serumcortisol concentration (as punarnava and tulsidid), thus its effect is not mediated through acortisol inhibition[48]. A possible mechanism ofantyhyperglycemic effect is represented by the

blockage of inhibitory action of serotonin oninsulin secretion mediated by glucose [47]. Thehypoglycemic effect of neem has been found tobe lower than that of bimbi (Coccinia indica),Madagascar periwinkle (Vinca rosea) andbibhitaki (Terminalia belerica), but higher thanthat of bilva (Aegle marmelos), ginger (Zingiberofficinale) and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) [49].

Anti-atherogenic activity:

The polyphenolic extracts of neem has beenfound to inhibit the transcriptional expression ofseveral genes having direct involvement inatherogenic process in normal humanmononuclear cells culture: the genes coding forLDLR, LKR alpha, PPARs (alpha, gamma), CD-36 and c-myc [50].

Antinociceptive effect :

Neem leaves have been reported to relievepain by opioidergic as well as non-opiodergicmechanisms [51] [52].

Hypotensive effect :

Neem leaf extracts have been shown tocause significant decrease of blood pressure.This hypotensive effect may be explainedthrough several mechanisms: vasodilatationproduced by nimbidin which acts as anantihistaminic agent, possesses diuretic activity[53] [14] [54].

Anti-arrhythmic activity:

Neem leaves extract has been shown toexhibit anti-arrhythmic and bradicardic activity [55].

Anti-ulcer activity:

Oral doses of neem leaf extracts have beenfound to protect against peptic ulcers, duodenalulcers and to enhance the healing process ofgastric lesions [56]. Anti-ulcer activity has severalmechanisms: reduction of hydrochloric acidsecretion and peptic activity of gastric fluids, anti-inflammatory activity, antibacterial activity(possible anti-Helicobacter pylori), involvementof H+ K+ ATPase inhibition and scavenging ofhydroxyl radical [57].

Toxicity at high doses:

Aqueous suspension of green or dried neemleaves given to goats and guinea pigs, at doses

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of 50 or 200 mg/kg for 8 weeks, has been shownto produce decrease in body weight, weakness,inappetence, decrease in heart pulse andrespiratory rates, increase in plasma levels ofhepatic transaminases. Histopathologically, therewere signs of hemorrhage, congestion anddegeneration in the liver, kidney, lung, brain andseminiferous tubules. No hematological changeswere observed, although there was a tendencytowards lowered erythrocyte counts, packed cellvolume and hemoglobin concentration [58].

Human clinical studies

Anti-psoriasis activity:

A double blind clinical drug trial (n=50)showed that patients with uncomplicatedpsoriasis taking an oral drug made up of aqueousextract of neem leaves in addition to conventionalcoal tar had shown a quicker and better responsein comparison to placebo group [59]. In anotherstudy, neem leaf extract (300mg daily) takenorally supplemented with application ofantipsoriatic coal tar ointment over lesionsresulted in reduction of erythema, desquamationand infiltration of psoriatic lesions [60].

Anti-scabie activity:

Neem and turmeric were used as a pastefor the treatment of scabies in 814 people. In 97%of cases cure was obtained within 3 to 15 daysof treatment. No toxic or adverse reaction wasobserved [61].

Hypolipidemic effect:

In a clinical trial carried out in a group ofmalarial patients severely infected withP.falciparum, the lipid level, especiallycholesterol, was found to be lower during neemextract therapy when compared to non-malariapatients [62].

Protection against periodontal disorders:

The leaves of neem has been found toproduce protection against human plaque, rootcaries and oral surfaces 176 pathogens likeActinomyces naeslundii, A. vicosus, Rothiadentocariosa, Corynebacterium matruchotti,Peptococus, Fusobacterium, Bacteroides, andCandida. Neem also contains fluoride which elicitanticariogenic effect when applied locally or

ingested (it become incorporated into enamel asfluoroapatite) [63] [64] [65].

Hypoglycemic effect:

Drinking of cup of mild neem leaf twice dailyhas been found to reduce significantly the needfor insulin [66].

Reducer of eosinophil count:

Oral administration of 100 mg nimbidin threetimes daily for 10 consecutive days to tropicaleosinophilia patients has been shown to cause25% reduction in total eosinophil count with amarked symptomatic relief [67].

Local spermicidal effect:

Minimum effective spermicidalconcentrations for tender and old neem leafextracts were 2.91 +/- 0.669 mg/million spermand 2.75 +/- 0.754 mg/million sperm, respectively.No change was observed in morphology of head,mid-piece and tail and no viable sperm seen. Theextract produced a linear decrease in percentagemotility of sperm, becoming zero at a 3 mg dosewithin 20s [68].

Safety, warnings:

Since leaves are extensively used by peoplein India as “reliever of sickness” and eaten byanimal as forage, it is obvious that their toxicity,especially when taken orally, is very low. Oneshould not take it for larger doses (more than 2capsules per day) for extended periods of time.Precautions should be taken concerning the useof neem oil: pregnant women or those trying toconceive should never take it orally or apply itintra-vaginally, since neem oil possesscontraceptive properties and abortifacientactivities [69].

DISSCUSSION

Human beings are prone to attack ofdiseases throughout the world, because ofincreasing population and environmentaldegradation more and more diseases are cominginto existence. In the present global scenario,rapid industrialization, changes in life style,environmental degradation and excessive useof pesticides, herbicides and other toxicchemicals in production of food materials arethreatening the life of human beings and posing


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health hazards resulting into causation ofdreadful diseases and chronic disorders likecardiovascular diseases, liver diseases, kidneydiseases, cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerativedisorders, AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis ,osteoarthritis,, respiratory diseases etc. for whichour modern systems of medicine have nopermanent cure. Further, the continuous use ofpotent drugs is associated with gradual decay ofthe bodies’ resistance mechanism and this, aswell as, the harmful side effects of thesemedicines have led to proscription of manystandard remedies in recent years. This has beenrealized both in affluent west as well as in thepoor east and there is now a growing tendencytowards the use of herbal remedies. Medicinalherbs can provide eco-friendly sustainablestrategy for health care of ailing humanity asthese herbs have been found to modulate theimmune system of the body thereby making thebody more capable to fight against complexdiseases . India’s century old heritage oftraditional medical systems using naturalproducts have been utilized for addressingpreventive as well as curative aspects of healthcare in the country. Preparations of plants or partsof them have been widely used in popularmedicine since ancient times and till today theuse of phytomedicines is widespread in most ofthe world’s population. Medicinal plants / herbsare used for thousands of centuries by manycultures for their medicinal values. Herbaltreatment is very popular because it is easilyavailable, cheap and less toxic. Indian herbsused since millennia in Ayurveda yet needscientific validation and proof for their organicnature and high quality control with correctidentification of the herbs etc. Their therapeuticefficiency has not been established as yet. Theuse of herbals as alternative and complementarymedicine is becoming more and more importantbecause of their safety in comparison to moderndrugs in which people are losing faith due totheir common toxic and adverse reactions. Neem(Azadirachta indica) is the most useful traditionalmedicinal plant in India which is widely distributedin our subcontinent during all seasons. Forthousands of years the beneficial properties ofA. indica have been recognized in the Indiantraditional medicine. The ever green Neem treewith medicinal uses of its all parts - leaves,

flowers, seeds, fruits, roots and bark for thetreatment of various diseases includinginflammation, infections, fever, skin diseases ,dental disorders etc. and having a vast array ofbiologically active compounds with diversecomplex chemical structures andpharmacological activities has attractedworldwide prominence in recent years due to itswide range of therapeutic properties and hasbecome a cynosure of modern medicine.Different medical uses of parts of Neem areshown in Table- 1. This review focuses mainlyon the biological activities of some of the neemcompounds isolated, pharmacological actions ofthe neem extracts, clinical studies and medicinalapplications of neem along with their safetyevaluation. Some of the important compoundsfound in Neem such as Nimbin, Nimbidin,Ninbidol, Gedunin, Sodium nimbinate, Quercetin,Salannin, Azadirachtin have been demonstratedpotential therapeutic properties like anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-histamine, anti-fungal, hypoglycemic, antigastric ulcer, anti-fungal, spermicidal ,antibacterial, diuretic,analgesic, anti-arrhythmic, anti-tubercular, anti-protozoan, vasodilator, anti-malarial, spermicide,anti-arthritic, anti-protozoal, insect repellent, anti-feedant, anti-hormonal which provide great scopefor development of drugs of choice for theprevention and treatment of chronic disorders [28].Based on studies conducted on animal modelsand clinical studies on human subjects, thepharmacological actions of Neem have beenpresented in Figure 1 [70].

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Figure1: Pharmacological actions of Neem

Thus, Neem tree can be considered as aunique source of natural products fordevelopment of medicines against variousdiseases. Extensive scientific investigationsfollowed by clinical studies may prove moreuseful to explore the therapeutic efficacy of neemtree and its biologically active compounds tocombat diseases. Investigations on bioactivity ,standardization and toxicity of these compoundsmay help in understanding the biochemicalmechanism of action.

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26. Lale NES. Bio-activity and Limitation against widespread use of neem products for the managementof insect pests. Nigerian J. Applied Biol. 2002; 3:115–125.

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30. Govindachari T.R., Suresh G., Masilamani S.Antifungal activity of Azadirachta indica leaf hexaneextract, Fitoterapia. 1999; 70(4):417-420.

31. Khan M., Wassilew S.W. Natural pesticides from theneem tree and other tropical plants (edsSchumutterer, H. and Asher K.R.S.), GTZ, Eschborn,Germany. 1987; 645-650.

32. Rege N.N., Dahanukar S.A., Ginde V.K., Thatte U.M.Safety and efficacy of Azadirachta indica in patientswith second degree burns, India Practioner. 1999;52(4): 240-248.

33. Bhargava K.P., Gupta M.B., Gupta G.P., Mitra C.R.Anti-inflammatory activity of saponins and othernatural products, Ind J Med Res. 1970; 58:724-730.

34. Singh N., Mishra A.K., Saxena A., Neeru S. Use ofneem cream as a mosquito repellent in tribal areasof central India, Indian J Malariol. 1996; 33:99-102-179.

35. Sharma S.C., Trivedi V.P., Singh N. A clinicalevaluation of Herbal Antibiotic in cases ofpsoriasis,National Seminar on eco-friendly herbs ofAyurveda in the health –care of mankind, A Strategyfor scientific evaluation and uniform standardization,organized by Central Research Institute (Ayurveda),CCRAS, Dept of AYUSH, Ministry of Health •andFamily Welfare, in collaboration with InternationalSociety for Herbal Medicine, Lucknow, March 15-16, 2004.

36. Upadhyay S., Dhawan S., Garg S., TalwarG.P.:Immunomodulatory effects of neem(azadirachta indica) oil.Int J Immunopharmacol.1992; 14(7):1187-1193.

37. Prasad H.C., Mazumder R., Chakraborty R.:Research on two medicinal plants from Ayurvedicsystem of medicine Azadirachta indica A juss andmelia Azadirach Linn. Their past, present and future,Deerghayu International, July-Sept, 1993.

38. Sadekar R.D., Kolte A.Y., Barmase B.S., Desai V.F.Immunopotentiating effects of Azadirachta indica(neem) fry leaves powder in broilers, naturallyinfected with IBD virus, Indian J Exp Biol. 1998;36(11):1151-1153.

39. Ray A., Banerjee B.D., Sen P.: Modulation ofhumoral and cell-mediated immune response byAzadirachta indica (neem) in mice, Ind J Exp Biol.1996; 34:698-701.

40. Narayan D.S. Effect of neem oil and its constituentson cotton pellet inflammation, Mediscope. 1978;12:273-274.

41. Bhanwra S.J., Singh J., Khosla P. Effect ofAzadirachta indica (neem) leaf aqueous extract onparacetamol-induced liver damage in rats, Indian JPhysiology and Pharmacology, 44(1):64-68, 2000.

42. Jacobson M.: Antifertility effects and populationcontrol agents. In: Schmutterer (Editor), The NeemTree- Azadirachta indica A. Juss and otherMeliaceous plants. Published jointly by: VCHVerlagsgescll Schaft, Weinheim, Federal Republicof Germany, and VCH Publishers Inc., New York.1996; 526-530.

43. Roop J.K., Dhaliwal P.K., Guraya S.S. Extracts ofAzadirachta indica and Melia azedarach seedsinhibit folliculogenesis in albino rats, BrazilianJournal of Medical and Biological research. 2005;38:943-947.

44. Dhaliwal P.K., Roop J.K., Guraya S.S. Effect ofneem-seed oil on the quantitative aspects of folliculardevelopment in cyclic female rats, Indian Journal ofEcology . 1999; 26:162-166.

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47. Chattopadhyay R.R., Sarkar S.K., Ganguly S.,Banerjee R.N. Acute effects of Azadirachta indicaleaves on some biochemical constituents of bloodin rats, Science & Culture, 58(1&2):39-40, 1992.

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52. Patel J.P., Hemavathi K.G., Bhatt Jagat D. Study ofthe antinociceptive effect of neem leaf extract andits interaction with morphine in mice, Indian JPharmacol. 2005; 37:37-38.

53. Bhide N.K., Mehta D.J., Lewis R.A. Diuretic actionof sodium nimbidinate, Indian J Med Sci.1958;12:146-148.

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57. Bandhopadhyay U.K., Biswas R., Chatterjee I.,Chattopadhyay C.K., Ganguly K., BanerjeeR.Gastroprotective effect of Neem (Azadirachtaindica) bark extract: possible involvement ofH+K+ATP-ase inhibition and scavenging of hydroxylradical, Life Sci. 2002; 71:2845-2865.

58. Ali B.H.: The toxicity of Azadirachta indica leaves ingoats and guinea pigs. Vet Hum. Toxicol. 1987;29(1):16-19.

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61. Charles V., Charles S.X. The use and efficacy ofAzadirachta indica ADR (‘Neem’) and Curcumalonga (‘Turmeric’) in scabies. A pilot study, TropGeogr Med. 1992; 44(1-2):178-181.

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67. Gopinathan, MD Thesis, University of Kerala, 1973

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70. Singh N, Gilca M. Herbal Medicine Scienceembraces tradition- a new insight into the ancientAyurveda. Edn 1, Lambert Academic Publishing

(Germany), 2010.pp. 168.


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ORGANIC POLY HERBAL INTERVENTION IN DISEASE

MANAGEMENT: A COMPERATIVE STUDY

* B. R. PANDEY1,2

, RAJU SAW3

, PANKAJ VERMA4

1Sky Institute, Kurshi Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, 2International Institute of Herbal Medicine,

U. P. ,Lucknow , India , 3Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,4Department of Oral &

Maxillofacial Surgery, King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, U. P , India

*Address for Correspondence: Dr. B.R. Pandey , Director (Research), Sky Institute, Shivam Palace ll,

Near Sports College, Opp. Petrol Pump, Mishrpur, Kurshi Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Studies have been conducted to evaluate the therapeutic potential of two organic herbalformulation Liver - kidney Care and Sugar Balance in treatment of liver disorders and diabetesmellitus respectively. Liver- kidney Care is the combination of herbs namely Bhumyamalaki(Phyllanthus niruri), Punarnava (Boerhaavia diffusa), Katuki (Picrorrhiza kurroa ) and SugarBalance is the combination of Bimbi (Coccinia indica), Bougainbelia (Bougainvillea spectabilis)and Sadabahar (Vinca rosea). These organic herbal formulations provided beneficial effect toclinically diagnosed patients of liver disorders and diabetes attending the clinic of InternationalInstitute of Herbal Medicine ( IIHM ) ,Lucknow. These organic herbal formulations can be usedas alternative or complementary therapy in prevention and treatment of these two kinds ofdiseases.

Keywords: Liver-kidney Care, Sugar Balance, liver disorders, diabetes mellitus

INTRODUCTION

“Health for all” is a dream and a goal whichhumanity at large shares and strives for.Unfortunately, it has now been proven withoutdoubt that modern pharmaceuticals are and willremain out of reach for a large proportion of thehuman population for the foreseeable future.Slow chemical poisoning has become aphenomenon of the present day, as a hazard frommedicinal plants, vegetables, fruits, food grains,water and other aquatic and terrestrial sourcesof fish and meat. The hazards to human healthby chemicals like organo- phosphorouscompounds, DDT, Gammaxene etc., havebecome so great that a big question mark hascome up, as known and unknown diseases ofhuman beings are increasing day by day and thelife of man on the Mother Earth has becomestressed and miserable in spite of all modernfacilities. Man cannot escape from the ill effectsof these chemicals whether he takes vegetables,cereals, meat or fish. All contain perceptibleamount of chemical poisons causing diverse

diseases in man and animals like liver, kidneyand haemopoitic systems damage andpremature death, etc. for instance, fish caught incoastal waters are known to be contaminatedwith pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, andheavy metals (Ornish, 1996). Organic farming isthe need of the time. Today, the toxic chemicallevel of pesticides, herbicides, insecticides,heavy metals and inorganic manures haveentered the Mother Earth (soil) to alarmingdegree and there is no food product or anymedicinal herbs which can be labeled as freefrom toxic chemicals. However, at that timenobody bothered for the ill effects of thesechemicals. We can predict our future and assesshow badly we need organic farming for betterhuman health and survival. Now to saveourselves from above hazards of chemicals andxenobiotics, we have to go for organic farming.As the system of ayurveda consists of usingmedicinal herbs for long periods we cannot usechemically grown poisonous herbs as nutrition/medicine and therefore, we need organically

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grown ayurvedic herbs for their nutritional/medicinal use. Considering the significance oforganic farming, the initiative has been taken topractice standard organic method of cultivationfor a long-term benefit and sustained economicdevelopment for the production of standardherbal medicines.

In view of the above facts, few medicinalplants have been generated by organic farmingmethod for the treatment of chronic diseases likeCancer, Hepatitis B & C, Chronic Renal Failure(CRF), Diabetes, Cardiovascular System (CVS)etc. In our study in International Institute of HerbalMedicine (IIHM), Lucknow, studies have beenconducted to evaluate the efficacy/response oforganic herbal medicines single or in formulationsform in many incurable diseases, in whichallopathic medicines were not responding, for thepast four decades provide ample proof of benefitsof these medicines for human health anddiseases. In these disorders, we have analyzedand achieved unequivocal success on humanhealth by two organic herbal formulations- Liver-kidney Care: combination of herbs namelyBhumyamalaki (Phyllanthus niruri), Punarnava(Boerhaavia diffusa), Katuki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)and Sugar Balance : combination of Bimbi(Coccinia indica), Bougainbelia (Bougainvilleaspectabilis) and Sadabahar (Vinca rosea). Theseorganic herbal formulations provided beneficialeffect to clinically diagnosed patients of liverdisorders and diabetes attending the clinic ofInternational Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM),Lucknow.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Organic herbal formulations used in thepresent study were LIVER-KIDNEY CARE andSUGAR BALANCE. These organic herbalformulations have been developed atInternational Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM),Lucknow, R&D wing of Organic India Ltd.,Lucknow. The clinically diagnosed patients ofliver and kidney disorders and metabolic disease:diabetes attending the clinic of InternationalInstitute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM), Lucknowwere taken for therapeutic evaluation of abovementioned organic herbal formulations.

1. Liver-Kidney Care

Liver-Kidney Care (LKC) an organic herbalformulation containing 325mg powder invegetarian capsule consists of Phyllanthus niruri(Bhumyamalaki), Boerhaavia diffusa(Punarnava) and Picrorrhiza kurroa (Katuki).Fourty Six (46) volunteer cases were randomlyselected for the present study. All cases werechronic of 6 months to 4 years duration. 6 casesof Hepatitis B and 40 cases of CRF were treatedwith Liver –kidney Care, 1-2 capsules twice dailyfor three month with meals. The written informedconsent of each patient was taken. Theparameters studied in the cases of Hepatitis Bwere haemoglobin, serum bilirubin, SGPT andSGOT, while in cases of CRF these werehaemoglobin, serum creatinine, blood urea.These biochemical parameters were taken toassess the improvement in disease condition ofthe patients.

2. Sugar Balance

Sugar Balance an organic herbal formulationcontaining 250mg powder consists of the leavesof Coccinia indica (Bimbi), which was the majoringredient along with Bougainbelia (Bougainvilleaspectabilis) and Catharanthus roseus (Vincarosea) . One hundred ninety two (192) volunteercases were randomly selected for the presentstudy. All cases were chronic of more than oneyear. The written informed consent of eachpatient was taken. These patients were treatedwith Sugar Balance ,1-2 capsules twice daily forthree month with meals and evaluation was doneat the end of each one month. Glucose level (fasting and postprandial, pp) of each patient wasestimated as biochemical parameter to assessthe disease condition of the patients.

RESULTS

The treatment with Liver Kidney Care (LKC)resulted in significant increase in hemoglobin,significant decrease in serum bilirubin, SGPT andSGOT in cases of Hepatitis B as shown in Fig. 1,four cases out of six became negative in hepatitisB. In cases of Chronic Renal Failure (CRF) therewas a significant increase in hemoglobin anddecrease in serum creatinine and blood urea asshown in Fig. 2.


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Fig. 1

Fig. 2

The treatment with Sugar Balance formulation,192 cases with mild diabetes mellitus improved(p<0.05) markedly with the formulation alone incomparison with placebo (starch filled capsules)as shown in Fig. 3.

The results clearly indicate the beneficialeffect of organic herbal formulation Liver- KidneyCare in the treatment of patients of liver disordersas reflected in the biochemical parametersattaining to normal levels. Similarly in the case

of patients of Diabetes Mellitus, Sugar Balanceprovided beneficial effect to patients as reflectedby glucose levels of the patients.

DISCUSSION

The results of the present study clearlyindicate the beneficial effect of the organic herbalformulation Sugar Balance in the treatment ofmild cases of diabetes mellitus. The SugarBalance, Organic herbal formulation in the studyhas clearly shown to improve glycemic control indiabetic patients (p<0.05) and can be takensafely alone in mild cases or as a complementarytherapy in complicated cases with low risk ofadverse effects. It has a synergistic effect withanti-diabetic drugs like glibenclamide , metforminand also insulin. Thus, it improves the diabeticcomplication and helps in uncontrolled DM-2.Thus the above clinical studies provided proofto the efficacy of Organic Sugar Balance (OSB)in mild cases as such and also in severe caseswith uncontrolled diabetes. OSB appears toretard the absorption of dietary sugar. Itnormalizes blood sugar levels and is useful innon-insulin dependent diabetes. It can be usedas preventative in pre disposition to diabetesmellitus. Also gives nutritional support to diabeticpatients. Thus it compliments diet, exercise andallopathic therapy of diabetes mellitus.

The studies conducted to evaluate thebeneficial effect of Organic Herbal FormulationLiver- Kidney- Care in patients of liver disordershave provided ample evidence in treatment ofpatients of liver disorders. This formulation hasability to detoxify, purify and rejuvenate liver andkidneys naturally and is a strong antiviral agentfor killer diseases like Hepatitis B, which are morecontagious than AIDS. In cases of CRF its actionwas miraculous. With drug treatment of severalmonths, no adverse effect was observed, thusthese Organic Herbal Medicines are safe anduseful for long term use for human health.Although beneficial effects of above organicherbal formulations have been observed inpatients of liver disorders and metabolicsyndrome: diabetes mellitus, extensive scientificstudies on animal models using pharmacologicaland biotechnological techniques followed byclinical studies on large number of patients wouldbe of immense importance in understandingthe molecular basis of action of these organic

Effect of Liv-Kid Care in Cases* of Hepatitis B

(6 cases after 5 months treatment)

1.764

69.3374

10.02 12.92

34.17 31.67

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hemoglobin Serum

Bilirubin

SGPT SGOT

Parameters

Mea

n V

alu

es

Pretreatment

Poast treatment

Effect of Liv-Kid Care in Cases* of Chronic Renal Failure

(40 cases after 5 months treatment)

10.41

5.43

63.73

1.84

28.99

12.89

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Hemoglobin Serum Creatinin Blood UreaParameters

Mean

Va

lues

Pretreatment

Post treatment

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herbal medicines in prevention and treatment ofabove diseases.

REFERENCES

1. Ornish DM. Dr. dean Ornish’s program for reversingheart disease, Ivy Books, New York, Published byBallantine Books, 1996.

2. Mosihuzzaman M., Choudhary I.M. Protocols onSafety, Efficacy, Standardization, andDocumentation of Herbal Medicine. InternationalUnion of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2008; 80(10):2195–2230.

3. A study of Ayurvedic herbals as possible enhancersof healthy ageing and longevity. In the proceedingof 2nd International Conference on Healthy Ageingand Longevity, Brisbane, Australia, 2005.

4. Role & Benefits of Organic Inputs for better farmproductivity. In the proceeding of conference onOrganic Farming, CII, Chandigarh, 2009.

5. Paull, John. The Uptake of Organic Agriculture: ADecade of Worldwide Development. Journal ofSocial and Development Sciences. 2011; 2 (3):111-120.

6. Singh N., Hoette Y., Miller R. “Tulsi -The MotherMedicine of Nature”. Publisher: International Instituteof Herbal Medicine, Lucknow, 2002.

7. Singh N, Gilca M. Herbal Medicine Scienceembraces tradition- a new insight into the ancientAyurveda. Edn 1, Lambert Academic Publishing(Germany), 2010.

8. Bhargava K.P., Singh N. Anti-stress activity ofOcimum sanctum Linn. (Tulsi). Indian Journal ofMedical Research.1981; 73: 443-451.

9. The Organic farming – Source Book May, 1999, TheOther India Press, Mapusa, Goa, India.

10. Pesticides in India – Environmental and HealthSource Book, Amit Nair Nov.,2000 Toxics Link.

11. Chauhan C.K., Nanivadekar S.A., Billimoria F.R.Effect of a Phyllanthus niruri on drug metabolism inpatients of cirrhosis and hepatic enzyme function inexperimental liver damage. Ind. J. Pharmacol. 1992;24(2): 107-110.

12. Rajeshkumar N.V., Kuttan R. Phyllanthus amarusextract administration increases the life span of ratswith hepatocellular carcinoma. J. Ethnophrmacol.2000; 74: 181-187.

13. Singh, N. Misra, N., Singh, S.P. and Gupta, M.L.An experimental evaluation of Anti- viral potentialof Picrorrhiza kurroa (Katuki) in guinea pigs. Bull.Meth.Eth. Bot..Res. 1981.

14. Singh, N. Effect of Boerhavia diffusa (Punarnava)in experimental acute pyelonephritis in albino rats.Jour. Ind. Drugs. 1988; 26: 10-13.

15. Kamble SM., Jyotishi GS, Kamalakar and VaidhyaSM. Efficacy of coccinia indica – In diabetes mellitus.J. Res. Ayur. Siddha. 1996; 17(1-2): 77-84.

16. Singh N, Singh SP, Vrat S, Misra N, Dixit KS andKohli RP. An evaluation of antidiabetic effect ofCoccinia indica in dogs. Ind. J. Med. Sci. 1985; 39(2):27-30.

17. Shibib BA, Khan LA, Rahman R. Hypoglycemicactivity of coccinia indica and Momordica charantiain diabetic rats: depression of hepatic gluconeogenicenzymes glucose-6 phosphatase and fructose 1,6bisphosphatase and elevation of liver and red cellshunt enzymes glucose-6 phosphate

dehydrogenase. Biochem J. 1993; 292: 2267-70.


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INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF DISEASE VECTORS FOR

RICHER HARVEST OF QUALITY SEED POTATOES

IN THE NORTHERN PLAINS

S. S. MISRA

Division of Entomology & Nematology, Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla (H.P.) , India

Address for correspondence: Dr. S. S. Misra , Principal Scientist & Head (Retd.) Division of Entomology &Nematology, Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla-171001 (H.P.)

222-C, Between 12th & 13th Lane, Sainik Nagar, Main RoadNear Telibagh, Lucknow - 226 029 (U.P.) , India

E- mail:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This deals with the origin of Potato, Solanum tuberosum L. —God’s gift to the mankind ; itsimportance as support to people across diverse cultures during war and peace and also help inreducing the calamities of famine ;important insect and mite pests damaging this ubiquitouscrop ; a brief history of potato research in India ; pre-requisites for locating areas suitable forhealthy seed production and healthy (virus free)seed production technologies for helping thefarming community of Northern plains so that they could grow their own seed potato crop andsuccessfully curtail the cost of production by saving the money up to 50% spent in the purchaseand transportation of seed potatoes from distant places.

Keywords : Potato, Solanum tuberosum L. Vectors, Virus, Aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer),Aphis gossypii Glover ,PLRV ,PVY, Seed Plot Technique, Indo-Gangetic Plains Dormancy ,Indigenous, Degeneration ,Systemic Insecticides , Pesticides , Haulm.

INTRODUCTION

The English word “Potato” comes fromSpanish patata which is a compound word ofTaino batata (sweet potato) and Peruvian papa(potato). Another common name is pomme deterre in French meaning ‘ground fruit’. In Persian,it is called seeb -i- zameen meaning ‘groundapple’. In Hindi, Nepali and other Indianlanguages the potato is called alu or aloo, whilein Marathi and Gujrati, it is called bataka orbatata.

The potato originated in Peru-BolivianRegion (South America) about 8,000 years ago,has come a long way to become the mostfavourite culinary item of the billions of peoplesof the world. It is believed that Spanishconquistadors first encountered the potato whenthey arrived in Peru in 1532 in search of gold.Spanish explorer and conqueror, GonzaloJiminez de Quesda (1495-1579) took the potatoto Spain in lieu of the gold (Source: LindaStradley, History of Potato, 2004). The Spanish

conquerors took the potato from Peru to Europeduring the later half of 16th century. Soon theBritish, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch andBelgian colonialists carried the potato to Asia,Africa and the South Pacific.

As regards its introduction in India, it isbelieved that although the Portuguese tradersfirst took it to India during the late 16th to early17th century but is was the English who took thecrop to the length and breadth of the country.The first written mention of potato in India occursin Edwards Terry’s account of a lavish banquethosted by Abdul Hassan Asaf Khan (elder brotherof Nur Jahan and father of Mumtaz Mahal) whowas the Governor of Punjab under the MughalEmperor Jahangir, in honor of the BritishAmbassador Sir Thomas Roe in 1615 at Ajmer.

Now potato has come up as world’s thirdmost important food crop after wheat and ricewith 314 million tones fresh-weight produced in2006 (FAO Stat.). It is being grown in more than148 countries in a wide variety of soils and

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climates. It produces more nutritious food morequickly on less land and in harsher climates thanmost other crops. Besides, its adoptability to awide variety of farming systems is alsonoteworthy. Its short, flexible cycle and high yieldswithin 100 days means it fits well within rice orwheat in double cropping system and is suitedfor intercropping with crops like sugarcane, maizeor soybeans. It is on the record that potatosupported the people across diverse culturesduring war and peace and also helped inreducing the calamities of famine.

POTATO PRODUCTION AND ITS NUTRITIVEVALUE

Potato crop duration in the plains is 90-100days and a good crop can produce 30 t/ha.

About 20% of a potato tuber is dry matterand rest is water. Even with 20%dry matter, potatoproduces more dry matter per unit area time thanthe staple cereals. The dry matter production inpotato is 47.6kg/ha/day, whereas in wheat andrice, it is 18.1 and 12.4 kg/ha/day, respectively.Similarly, potato produces 3 kg of edible proteinper ha per day as compared to 2.5 and 1.0 kg inwheat and rice, respectively. The approximatecontents of major tuber constituents are shownin following Table-1

Table 1.Major constituents of potato tuber

Constituents Content (%)

Water 75-80

Carbohydrates 16-20

Crude protein 2.5-3.0

Fibre 0.6

Fat 0.6

Minerals 1.0

Potato is so nutritive that a man inScandinavia is reported to have lived healthyfor 300 days on potatoes with a bit ofmargarine. We have our own man Mr.Satyanarayan Aggarwal, who lives in villageChandia of Madhya Pradesh. He is more than90 years of age and has lived a healthy life byeating only potatoes since 1950.

Gone are the days, when India wasstruggling for food in the sixties and now theproblem is of plenty. India produced 25 millionMT potatoes from 1.25 million ha during 2004-2005 that made it the third largest produces inthe world after China (75 million MT) and RussiaFederation (37 million MT). There has been aphenomenal increase in area, production and percapita availability of potato in India in the last 50years. As per projections for the year 2020, thearea under potato is expected to rise up to 2million ha and the production is likely to touch 50million MT. It is, therefore, essential that potatoconsumption is increased to sustain this increasein production and to ensure remunerative priceto the farmers.

INSECT AND MITE PESTS

This ubiquitous crop, being grown under awide range of climatic conditions prevailing fromsea shore to snow level in higher hills and roundthe year in one part of our country or the other issubject to depredation by several pests both inthe field and the storage which in accordancewith their food habit and habitat are grouped into- (i) soil pests (cutworms, white grubs, wireworms,termites, lunate fly, red ant, mole cricket,nematodes and field rats), (ii) Foliage feedersor defoliators(various types of leaf-eatingcaterpillars, epilachna beetles, flea beetles, ashgrey weevil and blister beetles), (iii) sucking pestsor sap feeders (aphids, leaf hoppers, broad mite,green bug, whiteflies, thrips and bulb mite) and(iv) storage pests (potato tubermoth, mealy bugsand tuber mite).

ROLE OF APHIDS AS VECTOR OF VIRALDISEASES IN POTATO CROP

Among the category of sap feeders, theaphids popularly known as plant lice or green flyare of paramount significance, especially oncrops being grown for seed purposes. Over 4,500species of aphids have been reported world over.Of these, about 700 species occur in India.Further, out of 14 aphid species reported onpotato from India, green peach potato aphid,Myzus persicae (Sulzer), native of Europe, ismost dangerous causing not only direct damageto potato by sucking plant sap but also isresponsible for transmitting over 100 viraldiseases on crops, the chief among them on


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potato crop are potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) andpotato virus Y (PVY). In India the losses in potatoyield due to PLRV and PVY are estimated to be20-50% and 40-85%, respectively. These lossesmay go still higher if infested tubers are furtherused as seed for subsequent crop. Continuoususe of virus-infested seed potatoes for manyyears leads to a stage where tuber yield becomesuneconomical and such a seed stock is called“degenerated”. Besides M. persicae, cottonaphid, Aphis gossypii Glover, have also beenreported as a weak vector of viral diseases inpotato crops. As a result of their direct feeding,especially when their population is quite high,the leaves of affected plants curl downward, turnyellow, become wrinkled and ultimately die.However, such situation is quite uncommon.

POTATO VARIETIES, ESTABLISHMENT OFPOTATO RESEARCH IN INDIA AND SEEDPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES FOR NORTHINDIAN PLAINS

In the beginning, India was meeting its seedrequirement partly through import and partly byits multiplication in the higher hills till 1939. Importstopped in 1939 due to World War II. A potatoseed supply system from hills to plains was,therefore, used to address potato seed supply.This plan also proved unsatisfactory because:(i) Non-availability of varieties adopted to bothlong days of hills and short days of plains, (ii)Dormancy of hill seed which was fit for plantingduring spring and degenerated very fast due tohigh pressure of aphid vectors of viral diseasesduring spring and (iii) limitation of land in the hills.

A need, therefore, was felt to haveindigenous varieties and technologies suiting tosub-tropics to have a viable potato industry inIndia. Keeping these points in view, initiation ofIndigenous Variety Development Programmestarted in 1935 with the establishment of PotatoBreeding Station at Shimla (Himachal Pradesh),Seed Cerification Station at Kufri (district Shimla,Himachal Pradesh) and Potato MultiplicationStation at Bhowali (Uttarakhand). Later on, thesestations were merged with Central PotatoResearch Institute. As a result, Central PotatoResearch Institute came in existence in 1949 atPatna and later on Headquarters shifted toShimla in 1956 in order to facilitate hybridizationwork and better management of seed health.

By 2008, CPRI had released 45 indigenousvarieties (7short, 27 mid and remaining 11 lateduration varieties maturing, respectively, in 70-90, 91-110 and 111-120 days). Of these, suitablevarieties for North Indian plains , particularly forUttar Pradesh include Kufri(K) Safed, K.Sindhuri,K.Bahar, K.Lalima, K.Sutlej, K. Ashoka,K.Pukhraj, K. Chipsona 1to 3, K.Anand, K. Arun,

Degeneration of seed stocks when grownduring spring in the plains was established to bedue to viruses mainly spread by aphid, Myzuspersicae (Sulzer). Its reproduction was observedat its peak at temperatures between 200C and250C while lower and higher tempratruresretarded its build-up. This aphid does not survivewhen the temperature in Indian plains exceeds380C from May onwards. Under such conditions,it is believed that M. persicae migrates towardsmid and higher hills where mild temperatures andsuitable host plants are available. A detailedsurvey of a number of locations in the plainsduring 1956-60 for the population dynamics ofM. persicae during the crop of period wasundertaken to identify the locations ideallysuitable for raising seed crop potaoes in theplains (Pushkarnath, 1967). It was found that thevector (M. persicae) population in the NorthIndian Plains (Indo-Gangetic Plains) remainedeither absent or very low during October-December which was sufficiently long a periodto grow healthy seed crops in the plains. Thisinformation formed the basis of seed productionin the plains through the technique called “SeedPlot System of Seed Production”. Initially, itcomprised (i) planting of seed crops duringSeptember end to mid-October, (ii) planting atclose spacing on not too rich a soil to ensurelarge percentage of seed size tubers, (iii) twoinspections of the crop to remove off-types andvirus-infested diseased plants, (iv) restriction ofirrigation from mid-December onwards and (v)Dehaulming the crop in the end of December orbefore reaching M. persicae population to criticallevel of 20 aphids/100 compound leaves.

Areas suitable for seed production arelimited to a few states in the north-west andnorthern Indo-Gangetic plains which meet thefollowing requirements of certified seedproduction:

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· Availability of sufficiently long period of about75-90 days virtually free from aphid vectorsand suitable for crop growth and tuberization,this period is from September end to last weekof January,

· Freedom of soil from soil pests/soil-bornediseases like cyst nematodes, bacterial wilt,powdery scab, wart, ring rot and any otherquarantined pests/diseases, and

· Good productivity of the crop.

STEPS FOR SEED PRODUCTIONTECHNOLOGY

Because of the development of “Seed PlotTechnique”, the major centre of disease-free seedproduction shifted from the hills to plains. Theseed produced in plains not only gave 30-40%higher yields but was also free from many soiland tuber-borne diseases and pests. As such,the farmers could produce healthy seed potatoesin plains and obtained higher yields by adoptingrefined “Seed Plot Technique” developed at CPRI(Garg, 2008). This includes:

· Use of hot weather cultivation and adaptionof 2-3 years crop rotations to avoid build-upof soil-borne pathogens,

· Procurement of good quality healthy (virus-free) seed potatoes of right physiologicalstage of variety recommended for the regionfrom governmental/semi-governmental/cooperative agencies,

· Isolation of minimum 25 meters of seed cropfrom the ware potato crop. Aphids developingon the primary hosts are free of potatoviruses. Infection may be acquired from weedhosts or volunteer potatoes. Home gardensin which non-certified seed potatoes aregrown can be important source of potatoviruses,

· Use of pre-sprouted large sized healthytubers (40-80 g) with multiple sprouts toensure a large proportion of seed-sized tuber.Pre-sprouting ensures quick and uniformemergence of crop, early tuberization andmaturity,

· Planting of seed crops by 15th October inPunjab, by 25th in Haryana, Rajasthan,

Western Uttar Pradesh and 1st week ofNovember in Eastern Uttar Pradesh andBihar.

· Initially use systemic granular insecticideslike Phorate 10 G or Carbofuran 3G @ 1.5-2.0 kg a. i. (active ingredient)/ha at plantingor in two equal split dosages i.e. half atplanting and remaining half at first earthlingagainst sucking pests and white grubs. Whitegrubs problem is quite serious in hilly regionswhere potatoes are grown as rain-fed cropduring long days in summer-rainy season.One-two sprayings with any systemic foliarinsecticides viz. oxydemeton-methyl,dimethoate, thiometon, monocrotophos etc.(0.03% concentration) may be given duringthe later part of the crop if vectors are seenin spite of granular insecticides application.Alternatively, two sprayings with imidacloprid(0.04 kg a i /ha/spray treatment), first after30 days and second after 60 days of plantinghave also been found quite effective againstaphids and other sucking pests/vectors,

· Full earthling at planting and use ofherbicides for controlling weeds andpreventing the spread of contagious viruses,

· Inspection of seed crop three times at 50, 65and 80 days after planting during cropseason to remove the off-types and diseasedplants along with their tubers,

· Protection of crops from late blight to preventseed-borne infection,

· Protection of crop from vectors towards thematurity of crop,

· Withhold irrigations in the third week ofDecember i.e. 7-10 days before haulms(foliage) killing in north-western plains andfirst week of January in north-eastern plains,

· Haulms killing with Grammaxone @ 2.5-3.0litre/ ha or mechanically pulling them to kill.Re-growth in cut plants coming after haulmskilling should also be checked periodicallyand be removed .

· Harvesting of crops 15-20 days after haulmskilling when the fields are in workablecondition and tuber skin is hardened.,


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· Curing of produce by keeping the heaps incool shady place for about 2-3 weeks,

· Treatment of produce with commercial grade3% boric acid to prevent surface-bornediseases, and

· Drying of treated seed potatoes in shade andthen filling in the bags, sealing, labeling andcold-storing.

A flow chart of the seed plot technique ispresented in Fig. 1 (c.f. Garg, 2008)

Fig. 1 : Important components of seed plot

technique

The systemic insecticides applied formanaging the aphids - principal vectors of viraldiseases will simultaneously take care of othervectors as well such as thrips, Thrips palmi(transmitting Tospovirus), white flies belongingto the genus Bemisia - vector of Gaminivirus andthe leaf hoppers, Alebroides nigroscutulatus Dist.& Seriana equata Singh transmitting micoplasmaldiseases viz. purple top roll (PTR) and marginalflavescence (MF), respectively. However, if needarises 1-2 additional spraying with any foliarsystemic insecticide like oxydemeton-methyl(0.03% concentration) be given for managingthese insect vectors.

CONCLUSIONS

The farming community will immensely bebenefitted by adopting the above suggestedeconomically effective, eco-friendly andsustainable potato seed production technologyfor managing the vectors effectively leading tobumper production of healthy (disease-free) seed

potatoes. Once, the farmers start producing theirown crop of seed potatoes in Northern plains,unnecessary dependence on outside seed willbe solved and almost 50% cast of cultivation i.e.the money spent on the purchase andtransportation of seed potatoes from outside anddistant places will automatically be curtailed.

REFERENCES

1. Bishop, G.W. and J.W. Guthrie (1964). Homegardens as source of the green peach aphid andvirus diseases in Idaho. Amer. Potato J., 41: 28-34.

2. Eastop, V.F. (1977). World-wide importance ofaphids as virus vectors. In: Aphids as Virus Vectors(Harris, K.K and K. Maramorosch, eds.). AcademicPress, New York & London. pp. 3-47.

3. Garg,I.D.(2008). Seed Plot Technique to meet thechallenge of seed Production in Indian subtropicalPlains pp 20-23. In : Souvenir Global PotatoConference 2008 (Eds. Kumar, A.et al.) & printed atMalhotra Publishing House, B-6, DSIDC ComplexKirti Nagar, New Delhi-110015

4. Lal, L and S.S.Misra (1979). Evaluation of foliarsystemic insecticides againt Myzus persicae(Sulzer) on potato crop. J. Indian Potato Assoc., 6(3): 167-179.

5. Misra, S.S. and H.O. Agrawal (1987). Potao aphids:a review of the species, their identification,importance, control and pesticide residues in potatoin India. Trop. Pest Mange., 33 (1): 39-43.

6. Misra, S.S and V.K. Chandla (1979). Take care ofpotential vectors for raising disease-free seedpotaoes. IPA Newsletter, 1 (2): 5-6.

7. Nagaich, B.B and H.O. Agrawal (1969). Researcheson potato viruses in India. Indian J. gric. Sci., 39:286-296.

8. Pushkarnath (1959). Producing healthy seedpotatoes in the plains: a new approach. PotatoJ.,1:63-72.

9. Pushkarnath (1967). Seed potato production in thesubtropical plains of India. Potato J., 44: 429-441.

10. Pushkarnath and K.K. Nirula (1970). Aphid-waningfor production of seed potato in subtropical plainsof India. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 40: 1061-1070.

11. Rataul, H.S. and S.S. Misra (1979). Potato pestsand their control. Pesticides, 13 (7): 27-38 & 42.

12. Verma, K.D. and S.S. Misra (1975). Be on the watch

for green peach aphid. Indian Fmg., 25 (2): 7-8.

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SYNTHESIS, SPECTRAL CHARACTERIZATION AND

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS OF

RUTHENIUM(III) WITH SCHIFF BASES DERIVED FROM

SULPHA DRUGS

RACHNA AND V. K. SHARMA*

Department of Chemistry, University of Lucknow, Lucknow

*Address for correspondence : Dr. V. K. Sharma , Professor ,Department of Chemistry,University of Lucknow, Lucknow – 226007, UP, INDIA

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The reactions of ruthenium trichloride with Schiff bases derived from sulpha drugs in 1:2 molarratio leads to the formation of a new series of coordination compounds of type [Ru(L)

2(H

2O)Cl].

The Schiff bases used here are o-Vanillin sulphanilamide (oVSaH), o-Vanillin sulphamerazine(oVSmrzH), salicylaldehyde sulphanilamide (SdSaH), salicylaldehyde sulphamerazine(SdSmrzH), 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde sulphanilamide (2hNSaH), 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde sulphamerazine (2hNSmrzH). The reactions of ruthenium(III) chloride with Schiffbase ligands have been investigated on the basis of elemental analysis, electrical conductance,magnetic susceptibility measurements and spectral (infrared, electronic, 1H NMR) data. Thepossible structures have been suggested for the resulting compounds. The Schiff bases usedin these studies are condensation products of sulpha drugs, viz. sulphanilamide andsulphamerazine with o-vanillin, salicylaldehyde and 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde. Thedisappearance of phenolic proton upon complexation indicates coordination by phenolic oxygen(after deprotonation) and azomethine nitrogen, respectively. The magnetic and spectral studiesindicate octahedral geometry for the resulting complexes. The antifungal activity screeningagainst Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani shows that complexes are more potent incomparison with free ligands.

Keywords: Ruthenium trichloride, synthesis, spectral studies, sulpha drugs, biocidal

INTRODUCTION

Multidentate ligands are extensively used forthe preparation of metal complexes withinteresting properties. Among these ligands,Schiff bases containing nitrogen and phenolicoxygen donor atoms are of considerable interestdue to their potential application in catalysis,medicine and material science.[1-4] Recent yearshave witnessed discernible growth in interest inSchiff bases and their metal complexes due totheir facile synthesis, wide application, [5-14]

diversity and structural variability.[15-21] Schiffbases are an important class of ligands basedon their potential use as ligands at a metal centre,their complexing ability containing different donoratom are widely reported.[22-28] Sulphonamides

were the first drugs found to act selectively andcould be used systematically as preventive andtherapeutic agents against various diseases.[29]

Sulphur ligands are widespread among co-ordination compounds and are importantcomponents of biological transition metalcomplexes.[30,31] Metal components with sulphurcontaining unsaturated ligands are also of a greatinterest in inorganic and organometallicchemistry, especially due to their potential withnovel electrical and magnetic properties. Schiffbases continue to occupy an important positionas ligand in metal coordination chemistry,[32,33]

even almost a century since their discovery. Thestudy of various types of heteroaromaticcontaining Schiff bases linked to metal


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complexes has received a great deal of attentionduring past decades.[34,35] Chelating ligandscontaining N and O donor atoms show broadbiological activity and are of special interestbecause of variety of ways in which they arebonded to metal ions . [36,37] Aromatichydroxyaldehydes form stable complexes andthe presence of a phenolic hydroxyl group at theiro-position impart an additional donor site in themolecule making it bidentate. Such a moleculecoordinates with the metal ion through thecarbonyl oxygen and the deprotonated hydroxylgroup. The chelating properties of Schiff basesderived from hydroxylaldehydes and ketones arewell established.[38-40]

It was, therefore, considered of interest tosynthesize ruthenium(III) derivatives of Schiffbases derived by condensation of o-vanillin,salicylaldehyde and 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde with sulphanilamide orsulphamerazine. The structure of the ligands aredepicted below:

Fig: Structure of the ligands

EXPERIMENTAL

Chemicals and methods

All chemicals used in this work were ofanalytical grade. RuCl

3·3H

2O, sulpha drugs, viz.

Sulphanilamide, sulphamerazine and carbondisulphide were obtained from Merck, Aldrich, SD

Fine chemicals Ltd. (Mumbai, India) and wereused as received. The melting points weredetermined by placing finally powdered samplein a glass capillary and heating by usingAmbassador melting point apparatus. Infraredspectra using KBr pellets were obtained usingPerkin–Elmer PC–16F FTIR spectrometer in therange 4000-350 cm -1. The conductivitymeasurements of 10-3 M solution in DMF at 250Cwere carried out with a Beckman conductivitybridge model RC-18A. Magnetic measurementswere performed by Gouy’s method usingHg[Co(NCS)

4] as a calibrant. The electronic

spectra were recorded on Perkin Elmer Lambdain DMF. Proton NMR spectra of the complexeswere recorded in CDCl

3 on a Bruker DRX 300

spectrometer at a sweep width of 900 Hz. Theelemental analysis (C, H, N and S) was carriedout with a Carlo-Erba 1108 elemental analyzer.Ruthenium was estimated by standardgravimetric procedures,[41] while the chloride wasestimated as silver chloride. The thermalbehavior of Ru(III) complexes have beeninvestigated using a Shimadzu TGA 50Hanalyzer in the temperature range 25-8000C at aheating rate of 100C min-1. Antifungal studies weredone following the method described earlier.[42]

The solutions of metal complexes with differentconcentrations were mixed in DMF which werethen mixed with the medium. The linear growthof the fungus was recorded by measuring thediameter of the colony after 96 h and thepercentage inhibition was calculated as 100(C-T)/ C, where C and T are the diameters of thefungal colony in control and test plates,respectively.

Synthesis of ligands

The ligands were synthesized in accordancewith an earlier reported method.[ 43] An ethanolicsolution of appropriate aldehyde (o-Vanillin/salicylaldehyde/ 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde)(0.02 mol) was added to ethanolic solution ofsulpha drug, viz. Sulphanilamide orSulphamerazine (0.02 mol) and the resultingmixture was then refluxed on a water bath for 4-5 h. The colored solid mass separated out oncooling, which was kept in a refrigerator for bettercrystallization. It was then filtered, washed withethanol, ether and subsequently dried overanhydrous calcium chloride in desiccators.

S N R"

H

NC

R'

H

O

O

R’ R” Abbreviation

OH

OCH3

H oVSaH

OH

OCH3 N

N CH3

oVSmrzH

OH

H SdSaH

OH

N

N CH3

SdSmrzH

OH

H 2hNSaH

OH

N

N CH3

2hNSmrzH

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Synthesis of complexes

(i) Synthesis of ruthenium(III) complex withSchiff base derived from o-Vanillin andsulphanilamide (oVSaH) in 1:2 ratio.

The complex was prepared by reacting 1:2metal to ligand molar ratios. A magneticallystirred, prepared ethanolic solution (30 ml) ofRuCl

3·3H

2O (1.30 g, 0.005 mol) was added to

(3.063 g, 0.01 mol) of hot ethanolic solution of o-Vanillin sulphanilamide (oVSaH). The resultingmixture was then refluxed on a heating mantlewith constant stirring at 80oC for around 6-7 h.The color of the solution changed from black todark brown. On cooling a dark brown solidprecipitated out which was suction filtered,washed with ethanol and finally with diethyl etherand dried over anhydrous calcium chloride

(ii) Synthesis of ruthenium(III) complex withSchiff base derived from o-Vanillin andsulphamerazine (oVSmrzH) in 1:2 ratio.


3·3H


(2.763 g, 0.01 mol) of hot ethanolic solution of o-Vanill in sulphamerazine (oVSmrzH). Theresulting mixture was then refluxed on a heatingmantle with constant stirring at 80oC for around8-9 h. The color of the solution changed fromblack to olive black. On cooling a crystalline dirtybrown solid precipitated out which was suctionfiltered, washed with ethanol and finally withdiethyl ether and dried over anhydrous calciumchloride.

(iii) Synthesis of ruthenium(III) complex withSchiff base derived from Salicylaldehyde andsulphanilamide (SdSaH) in 1:2 ratio.


3·3H


(2.763 g, 0.01 mol) of hot ethanolic solution ofSalicylaldehyde sulphanilamide (SdSaH). Theresulting mixture was then refluxed on a heatingmantle with constant stirring at 80oC for around8-9 h. The color of the solution changed fromblack to olive black. On cooling a crystalline dirtybrown solid precipitated out which was suction

filtered, washed with ethanol and finally withdiethyl ether and dried over anhydrous calciumchloride.

(iv) Synthesis of ruthenium(III) complex withSchiff base derived from Salicylaldehyde andsulphamerazine (SdSmrzH) in 1:2 ratio.

The complex was prepared by reacting 1:2metal to ligand molar ratios. A magneticallystirred, freshly prepared ethanolic solution (30ml) of RuCl

3·3H

2O (1.30 g, 0.005 mol) was added

to (3.684 g, 0.01 mol) of hot ethanolic solution ofSalicylaldehyde sulphamerazine (SdSmrzH).The resulting mixture was then refluxed on aheating mantle with constant stirring at 80oC foraround 8-9 h. The color of the solution changedfrom black to brown. On cooling a crystallineblack solid precipitated out which was suctionfiltered, washed with ethanol and finally withdiethyl ether and dried over anhydrous calciumchloride.

(v) Synthesis of ruthenium(III) complex withSchiff base derived from 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde and sulphanilamide(2hNSaH) in 1:2 ratio.


3·3H


(3.264 g, 0.01 mol) of hot ethanolic solution of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde sulphanilamide(2hNSaH). The resulting mixture was thenrefluxed on a heating mantle with constant stirringat 80oC for around 9-10 h. The color of thesolution changed from mud black color to brown.On cooling a tan brown solid precipitated outwhich was suction filtered, washed with ethanoland finally with diethyl ether and dried overanhydrous calcium chloride.

(vi) Synthesis of ruthenium(III) complex withSchiff base derived from 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde and sulphamerazine(2hNSmrzH) in 1:2 ratio.


3·3H


(3.855 g, 0.01 mol) of hot ethanolic solution of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde sulphamerazine


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(2hNSmrzH), the resulting mixture was thenrefluxed on a heating mantle with constant stirringat 80oC for around 9-10 h. The color of thesolution changed from black to dark brown. Oncooling a blackish brown solid precipitated outwhich was suction filtered, washed with ethanoland finally with diethyl ether and dried overanhydrous calcium chloride. All the reactions aresummarized in their corresponding Table 1 andanalytical data are given in Table 2.

Table: 1 Reactions of ruthenium(III) chloride withSchiff bases derived from sulphadrugs and various

aldehydes.

Table: 2 Analytical data of ruthenium(III) complexeswith Schiff bases derived from sulphadrugs andvarious aldehydes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Systematic study of reactions ofruthenium(III) chloride with Schiff base ligand in1:2 ratio synthesized in combination of hydroxyl

aromatic aldehydes and sulpha drugs(sulphanilamide or sulphamerazine) in 1:1 molarratio in ethanol. The complexes of type[Ru(L)

2(H

2O)Cl] are obtained according to the

following reaction.

RuCl3·3H

2O + 2LH → [Ru(L)

2(H

2O)Cl] + 2HCl

LH = oVSaH, oVSmzH, SdSaH, SdSmrzH, 2hNSaH,

2hNSmrzH

The analytical and physical data of theligands and the complexes are in agreement withtheir molecular formulae. All the complexes arefound to be stable in air and non-hygroscopicmicrocrystalline salts. Complexes exhibit goodsolubility in DMF, DMSO, THF and poor solubilityin diethyl ether, acetone and water. Complexesare sparingly soluble in methanol and ethanol.All complexes were obtained in good yield andare stable in phase. The very low conductancevalues in DMF (10-3M) solution indicate the non-electrolytic nature of the complexes.

MAGNETIC MOMENT

The importance of µeff

to chemist lies in thefact that for many compounds it can becalculated theoretically from knowledge of thestructure and bonding. Magnetic susceptibilitymeasurements of the complexes were performedat room temperature lie in the range 1.82- 1.96B.M., which is expected to be lower than thepredicted value of 2.10 B. M. The spin-onlyvalues were calculated using the equation µ

Ru =

2[SRu

(SRu

+ 1)]1/2 for complexes and are markedlyequal to/ or higher than spin-only value for oneunpaired electron for low spin t

2g5

ruthenium(III) in an octahedral environment.Therefore, these data indicate that ruthenium(III)complexes are in low-spin states.[ 44,45]

ELECTRONIC SPECTRAL STUDIES

The low spin ruthenium(III) is a d5 system withground state 2T

2g and first excited doublet levels

in the order of increasing energy are 2A2g

and2T

1g, which is arises from t4

2ge

g1 configuration. In

most of UV-spectra of ruthenium(III) complexesonly charge transfer bands occur. These bandsare characteristic of an octahedral geometry.Spectra of all ruthenium(III) complexes displayedbands at 13550-14100 cm-1 (v1) and 17340-

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18230 cm-1 (v2) assigned to 2T2g

4T1g

and2T

2g4T

2g. The two lowest energy absorptions

corresponding to 2T2g

4T1g

and 2T2g

4T2g

were

frequently observed as shoulders to charge trans-fer bands. The bands in the region 23660-23860

cm-1 (v3) has been assigned to 2T2g

2A2g

transi-

tion in ruthenium complexes.[46,47] The electronicspectral data are summarized in Table 3.

Table: 3 Magnetic moment and electronic spectraldata of ruthenium(III) complexes with Schiff basesderived from sulphadrugs and variousaldehydes.

INFRARED SPECTRAL STUDIES

The infrared spectra of the complexes arecompared with those of the free ligand in orderto determine the coordination sites that mayinvolve in chelation. In the present investigation, four possible donor sites (i) Phenolic oxygen(ii) Azomethine nitrogen (iii) Sulphonamidenitrogen (iv) Sulphonamide oxygen and (v) Ringnitrogen have been indicated. All the ligandsdisplay a strong and sharp band in the region1615-1635 cm -1 which is due to v(C=N)azomethine band. This band shifts to lowerfrequency by 10-25 cm-1 in the spectra aftercomplexation, indicating the coordination ofazomethine nitrogen to metal ion.[ 48,49] In thespectra, ligands exhibit two broad peaks in theregion 3040-3400 cm-1 due to the hydrogenbonded OH and NH. [ 50] In the spectra ofcomplexes, the band due to OH gets shifted to

the higher wave number region showing thecoordination of the ligand through the phenolicoxygen after deprotonation.[51] However, the vNHband remains approximately at the sameposition, which clearly indicates the noninvolvement of NH in complexation. This is furthersubstantiated by the appearance of v(C-O)phenolic at lower frequencies (compared to 1355-1370 cm-1 in the ligands) in the range 1340-1350cm-1, after complexation. The coordination ofazomethine nitrogen and phenolic oxygen isfurther supported by the appearance of bands at480-500cm-1, 440-460 cm-1 and 355-380 cm-1 dueto v(Ru-N), v(Ru-O) and v(Ru-Cl), respectively inall complexes.[ 52] A broad band in the region3295-3400 cm-1 is arising from overlap ofstretching vibrations of coordinated watermolecule with v(N-H) of ligands observed inalmost all of the complexes.[53] Thus, the infraredspectra reveal that Schiff base ligands areuninegatively bidentate, coordinating throughphenolic O and azomethine N. The infraredspectral bands are summarized in Table 4.

Table: 4 Infrared spectral band (cm-1) of the Schiffbases derived from sulphadrugs and various

aldehydes and their ruthenium(III) complexes.

PROTON MAGNETIC RESONANCESPECTRAL STUDIES

A survey of literature revealed that the 1HNMR spectroscopy has been proved useful inestablishing the nature and structure of Schiffbases in solutions. The 1H NMR spectra of Schiffbases were recorded in CDCl

3 solution using


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tetramethylsilane (TMS) as internal standard. Thesignals due to phenolic-OH protons of the ligandsappear at ca. 12.86-12.94 ppm. The signals atca. 8.09-8.64 ppm appear due to azomethineprotons (-CH=N). The ligands show a complexmultiplet in the region ca. 6.84-7.86 ppm forthe aromatic protons. In addition, signals appearin the ligands due to various groups e.g. at ca.

10.22-10.52 ppm due to NH protons and at ca.3.46 due to protons of methoxy group. The 1H

NMR spectra of the Schiff bases and the chemicalshifts of various types of protons are summarizedin Table 5.

Table: 5 Proton magnetic resonance spectral data

( , ppm) of the Schiff bases derived from

sulphadrugs and various aldehydes.

FAB MASS SPECTRAL STUDIES

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) is anionization technique used in mass spectrometry. [54-56 ]Mass spectroscopy mainly applied inanalyses of biomolecules has been increasinglyused as a powerful structure characterizationtechnique in the coordination chemistry. Themass spectra of the ligands and complexes arecompared. Their fragmentation revealed theexact composition of the compounds formed.Mass spectra of the ligands namely oVSaH,oVSmrzH, SdSaH, SdSmrzH, 2hNSaH and2hNSmrzH show molecular peak at m/z = 306,398, 276, 368, 326 and 418, which correspondto their molecular weights. The molecular ionpeaks for ruthenium(III) complexes are observedat m/z = 768, 952, 708, 892, 808 and 988 , theyare in good agreement with their molecular

weights. Therefore, above fragmentation patterncomplemented the exact composition of thevarious compounds and described thestoichiometry in which complexes have beenformed.

THERMAL STUDIES

The presence of one water molecule andchloride ion in the coordination sphere of thecomplexes suggested from infrared spectra isconfirmed by TG and DTG data. Ruthenium(III)complexes lose their weight and become stablein the temperature range 150-2600Ccorresponding to one water molecule and from280-3300C a mass loss is attributed to the lossof chloride ion. The organic moiety such as liganddecomposed further with the increasingtemperature. Although decomposed fragmentsof the ligand could not be approximated owingto continuous weight loss, the completedecomposition of the ligand occurred at ~6300Cin all the complexes. The final decompositionfavors a mixed residue of Ru

2O

3-RuO

2 at 680-

6950C. Thus, the decomposition pattern obtainedfrom TG curve confirms the proposed formulationof the complexes.

BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION

All the ligands and their correspondingruthenium(III) complexes were screened in vitro

for their antifungal activity against two fungalcultures Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani

by agar plate technique. The results of antifungalscreening are presented in Table 6. The resultsshow that the complexes exhibit antifungalproperties and it is important to note that theiractivity is enhanced in comparison to the freeligands.[57] These results may be rationalized onthe basis that chelation reduces the polarity ofthe metal ion mainly because of the partialsharing of its positive charge with the donor

groups and possibly theπ -electron delocalizationwithin the whole chelate ring system thus formedduring coordination.[58] This process of chelationincreases the lipophilic nature of the complex,which in turn favors its permeation through thelipoid layer of the membrane. This increase inlipophilicity enhances the biological utilizationratio and activity of testing compound. It may besuggested that these complexes deactivatevarious cellular enzymes, which play a vital role

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in various metabolic pathways of thesemicroorganisms.

Table: 6 Antifungal activities of Schiff bases and

their complexes.

Therefore, on the basis of above spectralstudies the following octahedral structures maybe proposed for the complexes.

Where, R” = H;

Fig: Proposed structure of metal complexes

CONCLUSIONS

The monobasic bidentate Schiff baseligands were found to be coordinated withruthenium(III) through phenolic oxygen andazomethine nitrogen and gave complexes of thetype [Ru(L)

2(H

2O)Cl]. The characteristics of the

compounds have been studied by variousphysiochemical data. A tentative octahedralstructure have been proposed for the complexes,where the ruthenium atom surrounded bydifferent atoms showing six coordinationnumbers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Head,Department of Chemistry, University of Lucknow,Lucknow , Uttar Pradesh, India for providinglaboratory facilities and to University GrantsCommission, New Delhi, India for financialassistance.

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CH

O

OCH3

N S

O

O

NHR"

RuH2O

CH

O

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NS

O

O

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Cl

CH

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Ridomil 56.5 68.2 89.5 54.8 72.0 88.9

oVSaH 24.8 36.5 45.2 26.0 36.4 44.8

oVSmrzH 23.9

33.4

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2hNSaH 21.2 21.2 40.8 20.8 32.0 48.8

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[Ru(2hNSa)2(H2O)Cl] 36.4 56.6 71.8 36.4 57.8 72.6

[Ru(2hNSmrz)2(H2O)Cl] 35.8 58.5 74.2 38.0 58.8 73.6


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* Address for Correspondence : Dr. Amod Tiwari, Professor - Ditector ,Bhabha Institute of Technology,Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

E mail ID : [email protected]

NEED OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN INSTITUTION

EDUCATION

* AMOD TIWARI1, SUMAN SHARMA2, O.M. AWASTHI3

1Bhabha Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh , India,2 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,3

Babu Banarasi Das National Institute of Technology & Management , Luknow, Uttar Pradesh , India

ABSTRACT

The high-speed development of ICT together with the appearance and dominance of the Internethas economic, social and cultural implications. Daniel Bell referred to a post-industrial changein 1973 and argued that technological innovations will lead to social transformations [1]. Theimplications are both at the macro- and the micro-level. The aims concerning the contents havechanged, besides the traditional educational schemes and the usage of open educationalenvironments have evolved which make methodological transformations a necessity [2]. Theaim of our research was to investigate the role of ICT within the population of college instructorsand to identify the pedagogical implications that the integration of ICT into teaching and learningprocesses results in.

Keywords: ICT, higher education, the ICT usage of instructors

INTRODUCTION

We conducted a pilot session in private andgovernment colleges in 2002-2010 focusing onthe ICT usage of our students (n=615).Weapplied the method where students themselvesfilled in the questionnaires regarding thecharacteristic features of using computers andthe internet, their attitudes towards the usageof the internet and the role that the internetplays in their studies. Our conclusions basedon the research and relevant to the currentexaminations are as follows:

Among college students computer andinternet usage for personal purposes plays asignif icant role. Routine and ski l l levelknowledge of new equipment are necessaryfor confident and multi-purpose application.Thecultural and the financial background of thegiven institution plays an important role inusage. We have found that the majority ofstudents find the role of ICT in their studies highlyimportant. However, we decided to collect dataabout the user-habits of our instructors andcompare the data gained from the twopopulations.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The research was descriptive based on thedata collected in a survey among the threefaculties of Kecskemét College (n=96). Wefocused on the ICT usage at the faculties, theattitudes towards new technologies, staffs’methodology (whether they have used ICT in theirteaching practice) and their future aims. Havingsurveyed the relevant special literature werealised that teachers had not been examinedin this field. However, in public educationstudies have been made regarding bothteachers and students (Csákó, 2001; Török,2001; Tót, 2001; Pedagógusok a digitális,információs tudásszerzés szükségességérõl ésúj módjáról, 2002; Tót, 2007). Moreover, wefound data of Hungarian relevance ininternational research too (Are Students Readyfor a Technology-Rich World? 2005). Wecompiled a quest ionnaire to be f i l ledindependently and gave them to the full timeacademic staff working at the three faculties.About ¾ of the staff (94 teachers) honouredus by returning the filled questionnaires.

The questionnaire serving for research

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(2 ) 34-38,

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www.ijsir.co.in 35

contained the following topics:

- Computer and internet usage

- Attitudes related to ICT usage at school

- Methods applied in education/teaching

- ICT usage in teaching proceses

- Opinions regarding the future usage ofeducational equipment

- Personal data

Hypotheses

The usage of ICT necessitates pedagogical-methodological changes in higher education.Among academic staff the usage of ICT forprivate purposes is typical.Using ICT forpedagogical purposes is typical of a well-defined(domain-specific) community of instructors. Allthe college instructors use ICT.

Computer and internet usage

In the first group of questions we askedabout teachers’ accessibility to computers andthe internet, the time they spend with them andtheir habits of internet usage. Among thesurveyed staff 95% have their own computer and97% uses the internet regularly. Most of themuse the internet both at college and at home, only35% does not have accessibility to the internetat home. During the week they spend about 13hours at the college and 8 hours at home usingthe computer on the average (Fig. 1). However,it is important to mention, there is a great relativedeviation in both cases (at the college: 77%, athome 89%).

Fig. 1(a,b) : Average computer using during the

week at home and at the college

The diagram in Fig. 2 shows how often andfor what purpose instructors use the internet.Similarly to national data (Magyar InformációsTársadalom Éves Jelentés, 2006), our localresearch results also reflect that e-mailing,searching for information, surfing the net andreading news are the most frequent applications.79.8% of instructors send e-mails, 68.1% looksfor some kind of information and just 1-1 persondoes never use these functions. If we examinewhat the internet is used the least for, we cansee that 76.6% never plays games and 66%never downloads music or video.

Fig. 2 : what and how often do you use the

internet for?

The next question was about the frequencyof searching for entertainment, news, scientificand directly educational information (Fig. 3). It isworth mentioning that 51.1% uses the internetfor reading news on a daily basis regularly. On aweekly basis search for scientific and educationalinformation are the most frequent areas, 55.3%

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and 52.1% respectively.

Fig. 3 : Frequency of searching for entertainment,news, scientif ic and directly educational

information.

ATTITUDES RELATED TO ICT USAGE ATSCHOOL

The second group of questions concernedthe attitudes related to ICT usage. As regardsthe questionnaire we did not intend to getinformation in general about the attitudesconnected to the usage of ICT tools but wewished to investigate the attitudes based onpersonal experience gained in the teachingprocess. Due to restrictions on length, we canonly make a short remark instead of a detailedanalysis: all the questions we asked regardingthe application of IT equipment, the answersreflected positive attitude. Methods applied ineducation/teaching methodological aspect- wedifferentiated 3 groups of teachers: classical-traditional (teacher explanation and presentation,independent student work); interactive (groupwork, pair work, student presentation, debate);methods of the new generation (grouppresentation, cooperative learning, project work).

Fig. 4 : Methods applied in education/teaching

Regarding the methods and equipmentapplied in education we can state that theteacher’s explanation or lectures are the mostfrequent forms, followed by teacher ’spresentation and independent student work (Fig.4). The project method has never been used by55.3% of the asked persons, neither thecooperative learning method by 45.7% or pairwork by 43%. In the sample the classical-traditional methods are more common than theinteractive or the new generational ones.

ICT usage in teaching proceses

In the case of preparing for the class theusage of the more traditional resources is typical.The most frequent resources used for preparationare teachers’ own notes (94.7%). Course booksand notes prepared by others (91.5%), specialmagazines (87.2%), special books or manuals(84%) were also mentioned. Materialsdownloaded from the internet and used forteaching are characteristic for 72.3%, while55.3% never or hardly ever uses digital teachingmaterial available through the internet, DVD orCD. We also inquired about the materialscollected from the internet for teaching purposes.They included different texts, definitions, rules,pictures, figures, diagrams, maps, exercises,tests, video materials, sounding materials;internet based collaborative tools and software.Among them the most typical ones are texts,pictures, figures and diagrams. Simulations, testsvideo materials were not frequently searched onthe internet and in only few cases were internetbased collaborative tools mentioned. During ourresearch we paid special attention to survey howtypical the usage of ICT is in education. We askedstaff about the equipment they use duringpractical lessons and seminars in order to makethem more illustartive. Fig. 5 shows that besidesthe traditional black board, course book/ notes,pictures, figures and diagrams used forillustration, PowerPoint presentations play animportant role similarly to the materials that morethan half of teachers (57.5%) download from theinternet daily or weekly. It is worth observing thatcomputer games, the interactive board,collaborative programs or computerisedsimulation very rarely occur among the tools usedby teachers.

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Fig. 5 : How often do you use these tools during

seminars /practical lessons?

According to our super position the tools thata teachers uses during the lessons can beexemplary for students (Fig. 6). However, it isalso important whether the teacher givesstudents tasks/exercises requiring ICT use forsolving them. Among the tasks given to studentsthe most frequent are very similar to those oftenused by teachers themselves i.e. searching forinformation, emailing and making presentations.The least typical tasks are games, online chattingor using a forum.

Fig. 6 : did you give students tasks/exercisesrequiring the listed ICT use during the previous

term?

OPINIONS REGARDING THE FUTUREUSAGE OF EDUCATIONAL EQUIPMENT

The last group of questions comprised theopinion of teachers about the role ICT will play inthe future. In this respect the majority believesthat ICT will gain growing importance, especiallyin searching for information, computerisedmodelling, educational materials, makingpresentations and computerised testing whiletraditional tools, like printed course books, noteswork books will not lose their importance either.Having analysed the data collected for ourresearch, we can state that there is no significant

difference between the answers given by menand women.

CONCLUSION

After data analysis we have found that it istypical for all instructors to use ICT for privatepurposes, for pre-class preparations but onlyinformatics-instructors integrate ICT in their dailyteaching practice. The majority of instructors relyon traditional methodology and most of them arenot informed about innovative practices. Theresults of the research do not support thehypothesis according to which the usage of ICTtools would induce pedagogical andmethodological changes in higher education. Inthe present sample the so-called “teaching fromthe book” methodology dominates. Themultimedia tools appear, however, they areemployed with traditional methods, and their roleis not more than supporting the repertoire thathas been used so far. We are referring here tothe usage of PowerPoint which is used morefrequently but only as for visualizing notes andhandouts when lecturing. Thus, it is utilized as amodernized version of the overhead projector.On the basis of the survey we can state that newprofessional challenges and educational goalsare evident through the immense impact of ICTand the need for new pedagogical paradigms andopen educational environment is already anexisting demand.

REFERENCES

[1] D. Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, NewYork: Harper Colophon Books, 1974,

[2] G. Siemens, Connectivism: Learning Theory orPastime of the Self-Amused? 2006, http://w w w . e l e a r n s p a c e . o r g / A r t i c l e s /Connectivism_response.doc

[3] Are Students Ready for a Technology-Rich World?What pisa studies tell us. OECD 2005 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/28/4/35995145.pdf

[4] M. Csákó, Informatika – Internet – pedagógusok,Iskolakultúra, 1, 56-74. 2001.

[5] P. Fehér Péter, Milyenek az Internet-korszakpedagógusai? Iskola – Informatika – Innováció.Tanulmánykötet, OKI, Budapest 139-148. 2003.

[6] A. Kárpáti Andrea, A tudásalapú társadalompedagógiája és a számítógéppel segített tanulás.Információs Társadalom, 2, 34-51. 2003.

[7] A. Kárpáti, Az informatika hatása az iskolaszervezetére, kommunikációs és oktatási-nevelési

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kultúrájára. Új Pedagógiai Szemle, 8, 2003.

[8] B. Komenczi, Az információs társadalom iskolájánakjellemzõi. http://www.oki.hu/c i k k . p h p ? k o d = i n f o r m a t i k a - K o m e n c z i -Informacios.html 2001.

[9] Magyar Információs Társadalom Éves Jelentés 2006http://www.ittk.hu/web/kiadvanyok.html

[10] II. országos kutatás intézményvezetõk ésszaktanárok körében. Felvételi InformációsSzolgálat 2004 http://www.fisz.hu/files/2006fisz.hu/oldalso_menuk/kutatas/iszk2005.pdf

[11] Pedagógusok a digitális, információs tudásszerzésszükségességérõl és új módjáról. A Magyar Gallup

Intézet 2002-es, országos reprezentatív vizsgálatahttp://ip.gallup.hu/kutat/isk030201.pdf

[12] Tót Éva (2001): Számítógépek az iskolában. KutatásKözben, 229. 62.

[13] http://www.hier.iif.hu/kutatas_kozben.php

[14] É. Tót, A számítógép mint a tanárok kommunikációseszköze. Új Pedagógiai Szemle, 8-9, 123-136. 2001.http://www.oki.hu/oldal-php?tipus=cikk&kod=egyeb-tot-szamitogep

[15] É. Tót, Informatika az iskolában. Iskolakultúra, 1.31-40. 2007.

[16] B. Török, A diákok számítógép-használati szokásai– Internetezés és elektronikus levelezés. Új

Pedagógiai Szemle, 7, 105-122. 2201.


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IMPACT OF FDI IN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

*MANISH KUMAR AWASTHI 1 , JYOTI AGARWAL 1

, S. C. PANDEY2

1 Research Scholar, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan , India,2Department of Commerce, Kalicharan Post Graduate College, Lucknow, U.P., India

*Address for correspondence: Manish Kumar Awasthi, Research Scholar, Bhagwant University,Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Foreign direct investment in Indian retail business at this stage is a burning issue.Retailing isone of the world’s largest private industries and Indian retail industry is one of the rising sectorswith huge growth potential. According to the Investment Commission of India, the retail sectoris expected to grow almost three times its current levels to $660 billion by 2015. Liberalizationsin FDI have caused a massive restructuring in retail industry. The benefit of FDI in retail industrysuperimposes its cost factors. It enables a country’s product or service to enter into the globalmarket. With around 12 million retail outlets pan India and an estimated size of around $450billion, the retail sector perhaps remains one of the key contributors to India’s GDP. Thus as amatter of fact FDI should not just be allowed but significantly encouraged too. In this context,the study tries to find out the influence of FDI and its need and significance in the retail sectorand tries to focus some possible impact of FDI in agricultural marketing.

Keywords: FDI, Liberalization, Retailing, Agricultural Marketing.

INTRODUCTION

FDI has been shown to play an importantrole in promoting economic growth, raising acountry’s technological level, and creating newemployment in developing countries. It has alsobeen shown that FDI works as a means ofintegrating developing countries into the globalmarket place and increasing the capital availablefor investment, thus leading to increasedeconomic growth needed to reduce poverty andraise living standards. According to the WorldBank Development Report, in 2000 over 1.1billion people were subsisting on less than US$1a day and around 2.1 billion people on less thanUS$2 a day of whom between two thirds to three-quarters live in rural areas. Thus, if the war onpoverty is to be won, developing countries needto place more emphasis on the agricultural sector,where incidence of poverty is highest. Agricultureis the main stay of the Indian economy as it formsthe backbone of rural India which inhabitantsmore than 70% of total Indian population. Indianeconomy has been heavily geared towards theservice sector that contributes 56% of our GDP.

The service sector’s contribution to the increasein GDP over the last 5 years has been 63.9%.Having a high contribution from services is anattribute that is characteristic of developedeconomies. In China, manufacturing accountsfor a significant share of GDP, whereas in India,manufacturing contributes a mere 23.1% of theGDP. India to grow at an 8 to 10% economicgrowth rate our agricultural sector has to expand.For that to happen there is a need for reforms inour agricultural sector in the way which calls foragricultural produce to be procured, stored andmarketed, for huge investments in the supply anddistribution chain and the most importantly, forushering in competition in the supply anddistribution chain where the farmer decides whomto sell and at what price. The government canalways decide the ceiling price. Also, India shouldopenup its retail sector to foreign capital andcompetition. Foreign retailers would bring withthem the best practices and investments in thesupply and distribution chain and at the sametime open up linkages to the global markets forIndian agricultural and dairy products. Modernretailers procure in bulk and sell at low prices.

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They thrive on reducing the inefficiencies in thesupply chain bringing down the cost substantiallyfor the consumers and getting a better deal forthe farmer.

Indian economy has been on a growthtrajectory over the last two decades along withthe fast changing demographics, life style andsurge in domestic consumption andconsumerism. The retail industry in India isgrowing at fast pace and is expected to grow inmanifolds in near future. In the post- globalizationera, FDI in retail business is steadily growing invarious countries, India being not the exception.However organized retailing in the Indianagricultural sector is still in the stages of findingsits feet.The government is opening the idea ofpermitting FDI in the Indian retail sector with thechanges in economic policy. In the denselypopulated country like India it has boosted theinvestment climate and has significantimplications on its economic conditions.Important aspects of the agrarian sector and ruralsector in India that have a positive impact on FDIInflows to Agricultural Machinery are:

1. 100% foreign direct investment (FDI) allowedthrough the automatic route coveringhorticulture, floriculture, development ofseeds,animal husbandry, pisciculture, aquaculture, cultivation of vegetables, mushroomand services related to agriculture andsectors associated with it.

2. The target set for generating Farm credit for2007-08 is Rs. 225,000 crores.

3. A pilot program for delivering subsidy directlyto farmers to be introduced.

4. Loan facilitation through AgriculturalInsurance Institutions and NABARD has alsobeen extended.

5. Corpus of Rural Infrastructure DevelopmentFund to be raised.

6. 66,800 habitations with population over 1000is to be connected with all weather roads.

7. Construction of 1,46,000 Km of new ruralroads have been sanctioned.

8. Investment to the tune of Rs. 1,74,000 croresenvisaged under “Bharat Nirman”.

This paper attempts to find out possibleimpacts of such FDI in agricultural retailmarketing.

OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

The aim of the study is to analyze thestrategic issues concerning the influx of foreigndirect investment in the Indian agricultural sector.This study reviews the emerging opportunitiesfor agribusiness enterprises with ongoing marketdevelopments. Its main objectives are to knowthe agricultural conditions of India and find outits problems and prospects.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Descriptive research methodology is carriedout in this paper. It is mainly based on thesecondary data collected from various sources.We have also used some primary data which iscollected by telephonic talk and interviews of thefarmers, entrepreneurs. Reliance has beenplaced on books, journals, newspapers andonline databases and on the views of writers inthe discipline of Competition law.

PRESENT SCENARIO IN AGRICULTURALSECTOR (MARKETING)

In India, Agricultural sector is highlyunorganized and fragmented. The conditions ofIndian farmers and their profit potentials both aresubstantially declining, because of lack of ruralcredit facility to small and marginal farmers,continuous increase in the cost of inputs and cropprice, and lower quality of seeds etc. If theproduction is good then there is a glut and pricesfall, and if there is crop a failure then farmershardly get any compensation in the form of higherprices. Profitability of farmers here is graduallydecreasing, which even inclined them to moveand settle down in urban area, where lifesustenance is even more difficult. The study isbased on micro level survey covering 5 villagesof BKT area which lies in the outskirts of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India covering 400 farmersin 2010-11.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SETUP

(A) Infrastructure

There has been a lack of investment in thelogistics of the retail chain, leading to an


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inefficient market mechanism in the economy.Though India is the second largest producer offruits and vegetables (about 180 million MT/annum), it has avery limited integrated cold-chaininfrastructure, with only 5386 stand-alone coldstorages having a total capacity of 23.6 millionMT, where around 80% of this is used only forpotatoes The chain is highly fragmented andhence, perishable horticultural commodities findit difficult to link to distant markets, includingoverseas markets, round the year. Storageinfrastructure is necessary for carrying over theagricultural produce from production periods tothe rest of the year to provide uninterruptedsupply and to prevent distress sales. Lack ofadequate storage facility, transport facility,information technology etc. causes heavy lossesto farmers in terms of wastage as well as inlowering the selling prices. Though FDI ispermitted in cold-chain to the extent of 100%,through the automatic route, in the absence ofFDI in retailing, FDI flow to agricultural retailingis almost nonexistent.

(B) Dominance of intermediaries in the valuechain

Intermediaries often flout market norms andtheir pricing even lacks transparency. Wholesaleregulated markets, governed by State APMCActs, have developed a monopolistic and non-transparent character. Indian farmers realize only1/3rd of the total price paid by the final consumer,as against 2/3rd by farmers in nations with ahigher share of organized retail. This clearlyshows how the Indian farmer is been exploitedby this long chain of intermediaries, which alsois one of the main reason of their presentsituation.

( C ) Improper Public Distribution System(PDS)

There is a big question mark on the efficacyof the public procurement and PDS set-up andthe bill on food subsidies which is continuouslyrising. In spite of such heavy subsidies, overallfood based inflation has been a matter of greatconcern and a serious thought. The absence ofa ‘farm-to-fork’ retail supply system is absent,which is one of the main reasons of increase inprices of food items.

EMPERICAL FINDINGS

Agricultural retail market in India is in a verydisadvantageous position suffering from lack ofavenues to reach out to the vast domestic as wellas world market. This has largely been due tothe inability of this sector to access latesttechnology and improve its marketing interface.Development of organized retailing market eitherinduced by indigenous capital or by foreigncapital is very crucial where small and marginalfarmers can supply their product directly to thesebig retailers (Indian or foreign). Due to lack ofadequate infrastructure facilities and lack ofproper storage facility farmers are forced to selltheir products at very low price which sometimescannot even cover their cost of production. Overproduction or glut both becomes the cause offarmer’s distress. The survey data presents that28 % of paddy production is sold at zero profitmargin and for 45% of paddy production profitmargin varies from 5 to 10 percent. Only it is therest 26% of total production where profit marginis above10%. But the maximum profit margin is15%. The main cause is the lack of storagefacility, failure of the Government mechanism toreach the farmers with minimum support priceand virtual non-existence of organized marketinginfrastructure.

TABLE- I : AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

SCENARIO

Profit margin Paddy Wheat Potato oilseeds vegetables

0 -5% 28 14 40 44 82

5- 10% 46 42 52 41 14

10- 15 % 26 08 05 33 06

Data Source: Survey

FDI IN RETAIL SECTOR (MARKETING) ININDIA

Over the last two decades, Indian economyhas witnessed a significant rise of FDI flows aswell as a remarkable increase in the growth ratewith favorable consequences on employment,infrastructure development and business climate.Fast growing Indian economy accompanied bygrowing domestic consumer markets has raisedthe growth of retail sector at a faster rate mostlyin unorganized sector.

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TABLE- 2 : PERCENTAGE OF ORGANIZED

RETAIL

Retail sector US Thailand China India

Organized 85 40 20 03

Unorganized 15 60 80 97

Source: P.Shivakumar and S Senthilkumar, 2011

Organized retail has huge potentiality whichis still at nascent stage, compared to otherdeveloping economies .Though the share of retailsector in total FDI flows is very low (0.02%), ithas enormous growth potential in Indiaparticularly in agricultural sector considering thelimitations of the present setup regardinginfrastructure ,communication network in ruraleconomy, efficient supply chain, moderntechnology etc.

With liberalization in1990s organized retailsector has grown many folds when many Indianplayers like Shoppers Stop, Pantaloon RetailIndia Ltd, Spencer Retail ventured into theorganized retail market. With the opening up offoreign direct investment in single brand retailand cash- and - carry formats Indian retail markethas got a new momentum. With liberalization inforeign trade policy in 1991, the IndianGovernment allowed 100% foreign investmentin wholesale cash-andcarry and single brandedretailing but, it prohibited foreign investment inretail. In 1997 restrictions were again imposedon retail sector but in 2006 these restrictions werelifted and opened in single brand retailing and incash-and carry formats. Indian retail industrybecomes an attractive FDI destination for manyglobal players and cash and carry formatbecomes the entry route for global retailinggiants. Wal-mart has forged an alliance withBharti for a cash-andcarry business and Bhartiis concentrating on front-end- retail. Tesco entersin Indian retail market through an alliance withTrent (Tata Group). Many foreign brands enterIndian retail sector either through Joint ventureswith leading Indian retailers ( like Louis Vuitton,Marks and Spencer PLc, Armani) or throughexclusive franchisees to set up shops in India(like McDonald’s, KFC, Dominos). With the entryof foreign direct investment, the Indian organizedretail market has become more competitive interms of implementing newer business models

on the operational format and pricing andreinventing and improving the supply chain.

The argument often given against FDI inretail is that it will severely affect mom and popshops; they won’t be able to survive thecompetition. But we already have homegrownmodern retailers like Big Bazaar, Nilgiri’s etc. whoare thriving along with the traditional kiranastores. So, in any case, we have modern retailersin the market. The Indian retail market is verydifferent from the Western retail market. In Indiaconsumers like to make purchases frequentlyand in small quantities. Instead of travelling tothe large retail stores far from their own place ofresidence, people still prefer the convenience ofthe traditional neighborhood kirana store. Moreover the kirana stores can buy from the cash andcarry stores and reduce their cost ofprocurement. Agriculture still accounts for 60%of India’s labor force and an improvement in theagriculture sector would directly benefit them.Allowing 100 % FDI in retail would lead to anagricultural and a dairy revolution in the country.

The present policy with regard to FDI inagriculture and plantation is as follows:

i) FDI up to 100% is permitted under theautomatic route in the under mentionedactivities viz., floriculture, horticulture,development of seeds, animal husbandry,pisciculture, aquaculture and cultivation ofvegetables and mushrooms, under controlledconditions and services related to agro andallied sectors.

ii) FDI up to 100% with prior governmentapproval is permitted in tea plantation subjectto the conditions of divestment of 26% equityof the company in favour of an Indian partner/ Indian public within a period of five years;and prior approval of the state governmentconcerned in case of any future land usechange.

iii) Besides the above two, FDI is not allowed inany other agricultural sector / activity.

iv) The government has announced 100 percent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in theagriculture sector including seeds, plantation,horticulture and cultivation of vegetables.According to the circular by the Department


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of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP)animal husbandry, pisciculture, aquacultureunder controlled conditions and servicesrelated to agro and allied sectors have alsobeen provided with 100 per cent FDI alongwith the tea sector.

The new rules have been implemented fromApril 1, 2011. DIPP has imposed certainconditions for companies dealing with growth oftransgenic seeds and vegetables. While dealingwith genetically modified seeds or plantingmaterial the company is expected to comply withsafety requirements in accordance with lawsenacted under the Environment (Protection) Acton the genetically modified organisms; any importof genetically modified materials, if required, shallbe subject to the conditions laid down videnotification issued under Foreign Trade(Development and Regulation)Act,1992.

CONCLUSION

Capital investment either by indigenous orforeign capital seems to be a very powerfulcatalyst to spur the investment climate inagricultural retailing, taking into consideration thecurrent scenario of inefficient supply chain, lackof proper storage facilities and presence of multi-level intermediaries between farmers and directconsumers. Huge investment in marketinginfrastructure is required to protect theagricultural sector which is not forthcoming fromthe Government sector. FDI- driven ‘modernretailing’ being a direct interface between farmersand retailers trigger a series of reactions whichin the long run can improve supply chain andtransport sector of the rural agronomy of all theagricultural states in India.

The policy of allowing 100% FDI in singlebrand retail can benefit both the foreign retailerand the Indian partner – foreign players get localmarket knowledge, while Indian companies canaccess global best management practices,designs and technological knowhow. By partiallyopening this sector, the government can reducethe pressure from its trading partners in bilateraland multilateral negotiations and candemonstrate India’s intentions in liberalizing thissector in a phased manner. Permitting foreigninvestment in agricultural retailing is likely toensure adequate flow of capital into rural

economy in a manner likely to promote thewelfare of all sections of society, particularlyfarmers and consumers. It will bring aboutimprovements in farmer income and agriculturalgrowth and assist in lowering consumer priceinflation.

Apart from this, by allowing FDI in retailtrade, India will significantly flourish in terms ofquality standards and consumer expectations,since the inflow of FDI in retail sector is bound topull up the quality standards and costcompetitiveness of Indian farmers. It, therefore,seems that FDI in agricultural retailing has thepotential of sustaining agricultural growth. It is tobe noted that the Indian Council of Research inInternational Economic Relations (ICRIER), apremier economic think tank of the country, whichwas appointed to look into the impact of BIGcapital in the retail sector, has projected the worthof Indian retail sector to reach $496 billion by2011-12 and ICRIER has also come to conclusionthat investment of ‘big’ money (large corporateand FDI) in the retail sector will not going to harmthe interests of small and traditional retailers,keeping future market into consideration.

In light of the above, it can be safelyconcluded that allowing healthy FDI in the retailsector will not only lead to a substantial surge inthe country’s GDP and overall economicdevelopment, but will also help in integrating theIndian agricultural retail market with that of theglobal retail market in addition to providing higherprofit margin to Indian farmers which theunorganized sector has undoubtedly failed toprovide. Industrial organizations such as CII,FICCI, US-India Business Council (USIBC), theAmerican Chamber of Commerce in India, theRetail Association of India (RAI) and ShoppingCenters Association of India (a 44 memberassociation of Indian multi-brand retailers andshopping malls) favors a phased approachtowards liberalizing FDI in multi-brand retailing,and most of them agree with considering a capof 49-51 per cent to start with.

FDI in agricultural retailing must be dealtcautiously as it has a direct impact on a largechunk of population. Left alone foreign capitalwill seek ways through which it can only multiplyitself, and unthinking application of capital forprofit, given our peculiar socio-economic

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conditions, may spell doom and deepen the gapbetween the rich and the poor. Thus theproliferation of foreign capital into agriculturalretailing needs to be anchored in such a way thatit results in a win-win situation for India. This canbe done by integrating into the rules andregulations for FDI retailing by deliberately puttingcertain inbuilt safety valves. To ensure that theforeign investors make a genuine contribution tothe development of infrastructure and logistics,it can be stipulated that a percentage of FDIshould be spent towards building up of back endinfrastructure, logistics or agro processing units.Reconstituting the poverty stricken andstagnating rural sphere into a forward moving andprosperous rural sphere can be one of thejustifications for introducing FDI in agriculturalretailing but the government should put in placean exclusive regulatory framework. It will ensurethat the retailing giants do not resort to predatorypricing or acquire monopolistic tendencies. Thus,as a matter of fact FDI in the buzzing Indian retailsector should not just be freely allowed but percontra should be significantly encouraged.Allowing FDI in multi brand retail can bring aboutsupply chain improvement, investment in

technology, manpower and skill development,tourism development, greater sourcing fromIndia, up gradation in agriculture, efficient smalland medium scale industries, growth in marketsize and benefits to government through greaterGDP, tax income and employment generation.

REFERENCES

1 EOgeny, Omari,”Organized Retailing in GlobalCompetitive”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 6(1)65,1998

2 K Khatri, “The future prospects of RetailIndustry”,European Journal of Marketing,41(11)2007

3 D. Gupta, “Whither the Indian Village,”Economic andPoliticalWeakly,February2005.

4 S Choudhury, “ Farm fatalities”, The Statesman,February 6,2012

5 Govt of West Bengal, ‘West Bengal HumanDevelopment Report”, 2004

6 P Shivakumar and S Senthilkumar, ‘GrowingProspective of RetailIndustry in and around India”,Advances in Management, Vol 4(2),2011.

7 Economic Reforms, Foreign Direct Investment andits Economic Effects in India byChandanaChakraborty Peter NunnenkampMarch

2006.


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ACHIEVING SERVICE QUALITY

THROUGH ITS VALUABLE DIMENSIONS

TANGIBILITY:

AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE INDIAN AIRLINES

*RENUKA SINGH

CSA University of Agriculture &Technology, Kanpur, U.P., India.

*Address for correspondence: Dr . Renuka Singh, Former Lecturer,CSA University of Agriculture &Technology,

Kanpur, U.P., India.Email ID : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to obtain a better understanding of the extent to which servicequality is delivered within the Indian Airlines services and customer's perceptions of servicequality. This paper investigates how closely customer's expectations and perceptions match.RATER Dimensions and SERVQUAL scale are used to measure service quality in Indian Air-lines. The paper also investigates on a parallel SERVQUAL survey of Indian Airlines employeesto examine how well they understand their customers' expectations and how well its internalprocesses support the delivery of top quality services.It is found that there was a direct relation-ship between service quality and customer's satisfaction in the Indian Airlines. Employees ap-pear to have a good understanding of what these expectations actually are. This research addsto the body of knowledge related to the Indian Airlines management. It will also be of interest tostrategic and operational to the managers of airlines and to academics investigating the reliabil-ity and value of service quality assessment tools. It addresses key relationship between servicedimensions and service quality within the Indian Airlines.

Keywords: Service Quality, Customer's Satisfaction, Service Quality Dimensions, GAP Analy-sis, Customer Relationship Management SERVQUAL etc.

INTRODUCTION

The service industry plays an increasinglyimportant role in the economy of many countries.In today's global competitive environment deliv-ering quality service is considered as an essen-tial strategy for success and survival(Parasuraman et al., 1985; Reichheld and Sasser,1990; Zeithaml et al., 1990). Even the public sec-tor organizations have come under increasingpressure to deliver quality services (Randall andSenior, 1994) and improve efficiencies (Robinson,2003). Customer needs and expectations arechanging when it comes to governmental servicesand their quality requirements. However, servicequality practices in public sector organizations isslow and is further exacerbated by difficulties inmeasuring outcomes, greater scrutiny from thepublic and press, a lack of freedom to act in an

arbitrary fashion and a requirement for decisionsto be based in law (Teicher et al., 2002).

THE SERVQUAL MODEL

The SERVQUAL model proposes that cus-tomers evaluate the quality of a service on fivedistinct dimensions: reliability, responsiveness,assurance, empathy, and tangibles. TheSERVQUAL instrument consists of 22 statementsfor assessing consumer perceptions and expec-tations regarding the quality of a service. Per-ceived service quality results from comparisonsby consumers of expectations with their percep-tions of service delivered by the service provid-ers (Zeithaml et al., 1990). It can be argued thatthe factor underpinning the delivering of good per-ceived service quality is actually meeting the ex-pectations of the customers. Thus, excellent ser-

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vice quality is exceeding the customers' expec-tations. Zeithaml and Bitner (2000) suggested thatcustomer expectations are beliefs about a ser-vice that serve as standards against which ser-vice performance is judged. Parasuraman et al.(1988) suggested that customer expectations arewhat the customers think a service should offerrather than what might be on offer. Zeithaml et al.(1990) identified four factors that influence cus-tomers' expectations: word-of-mouth communi-cations; personal needs; past experience; andexternal communications. A gap is created whenthe perceptions of the delivered service is not asper the expectations of the customer. This gapis addressed by identifying and implementingstrategies that affect perceptions, or expectations,or both (Parasuraman et al., 1985; Zeithaml etal., 1990). Parasuraman et al .(1988) stated thatSERVQUAL had been designed to be "applicableacross a broad spectrum of services" and theformat could be adapted to fit specific needs andthat it would be most valuable when used to trackservice quality trends periodically. They proposedthat the SERVQUAL model could be extended tomeasure gaps in quality and could therefore beused as a diagnostic tool to enable managementto identify service quality shortfalls. The gap scoreis calculated by the perception statements beingdeducted from the expectation statements. If anygap scores turn out to be positive then this im-plies that expectations are actually being ex-ceeded. This allows service managers to reviewwhether they need to re-deploy resources to ar-eas of underperformance (Wisniewski, 2001).The SERVQUAL instrument ascertains the levelof service quality based on the five key dimen-sions and also identifies where gaps in serviceexist and to what extent.

Table - a : Definition of the SERVQUAL Gaps

Table - a: presents the five SERVQUAL gaps as

defined by (Zeithaml et al., 1990).

An essential aspect of managing servicequality is the identification of client expectationsand then designing the service system to focuson these requirements. The airline business mustaim at fulfilling the individual customer needs oreven reaching beyond these. The airline compa-nies have realized that they have to listen to con-sumers to survive in a competitive market ( BoothM ;2000) and airline companies also have be-come aware of the importance of having happycustomers ( Riddleberger EJ ; IBM Global Busi-ness Services;2009 ). The pre-requisite of thecustomer satisfaction is understanding and know-ing what they want.

The aviation sector has become the mostimportant segment in the economic developmentof a nation. It plays a vital role in moving peopleor products from one place to another, especiallywhen the distances involved are far. In a highlycompetitive environment the provision of highquality services to passengers is the core com-petitive advantage for an airline's profitability andsustained growth. In the past decade, as the airtransportation market has become even morechallenging, many airlines have turned to focuson airline service quality to increase service sat-isfaction. Service quality conditions influence anindustry's competitive advantage by retainingcustomer patronage, and with this gain marketshare. Delivering high-quality service to passen-gers is essential for airlines survival, so airlinesneed to understand what passengers expect fromtheir services. Understanding exactly what cus-tomers expect is the most crucial step in definingand delivering high-quality service. Service qualityis one of the best models for evaluatingcustomer's expectations and perceptions. Theperformance of a company leads to passenger'ssatisfaction with a product or service. Accordingto Heskett et al. (1994), profit and growth aresimulated by customer loyalty and loyalty in itsturn is driven by customer satisfaction, and cus-tomer satisfaction depends on the value custom-ers receive from the service.

The purpose of this study is to identify thedimensions of service quality and aims at inves-tigating how these dimensions contribute tocustomer's satisfaction in Indian Airlines. This

Gap 1 (the positioning gap) Managers’ perceptions of consumers’ expectations and the

relative importance consumers attach to the quality

dimensions

Gap 2 (the specification gap) The difference between what management believes the

consumer wants and what the consumers expect the

business to provide

Gap 3 (the delivery gap) The difference between the service provided by the

employee of the business and the specifications set by

management

Gap 4 (the communication gap) The promises communicated by the business to the

consumer do not match the consumers ’expectations of

those external promises

Gap 5 (the perception gap) The difference between the consumers’ internal perception

and expectation of the services


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research work discusses a process approach toservice quality in the airline Industry, taking acustomer's point of view. The process describessteps from ticket purchase to the completion ofthe journey, analyzing each step from servicequality perspective and assigning attributes thathelp to measure customer's satisfaction in In-dian Airlines. The results from this research maybe useful for airline industry, airline managers toimprove their service quality and customers' sat-isfaction, finally the growth of the airline industry.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Excellent passenger satisfaction is one of thegreatest assets for airline industry in today's com-petitive environment. The research related toservice quality and customer satisfaction in theairline industry has been growing in interest be-cause the delivery of high service quality is es-sential for airlines survival and competitiveness.A number of studies have conducted in servicequality related theories and methods in the air-line industry. Although examining the effect of in-dividual dimensions of service attributes has po-tentially great utility for airline managers, the ef-fects of individual dimensions of airline servicequality has not been fully investigated in previ-ous airline service studies. Keeping in view allthese aspects this study is conducted. The mainaim of the study is to analyze service quality andcustomer satisfaction of domestic airlines withspecial reference to Indian Airlines. In addition,the findings would enhance the airliners to im-prove their service quality, customer relationshipmanagement ( CRM ) and finally customer sat-isfaction.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Customers consider five dimensions in theirassessment of service quality - Reliability, Re-sponsiveness, Assurance , Empathy , Tangibles.Of the five dimensions, Reliability is consideredto be the most important one. It refers to the com-pany delivering on its promises. The other fourdimensions relate to the process of service de-livery or how the service was delivered.

Service is intangible, performed by people ,providing satisfaction to customers. Services areessentially performance. Services have uniquecharacteristics i.e. intangibility, inseparability,heterogeneity, perish ability and ownership. Qual-

ity of a service , as perceived by the customer isthe result of a comparison between the expecta-tions of the consumer and his real - life experi-ences. A service quality can be described as thedelivering of excellent or superior service rela-tive to customer expectations. According toParasuraman , Zeithaml and Berry(PZB), Per-ceived Service Quality = Perceived Service - Ex-pected Service .

Most important factor for the rising impor-tance of service quality is that it is proving to be awinning competitive strategy. The ultimate aim ofan excellent service quality system is to satisfythe customer's need and go beyond to delightthe customers. A good or excellent service qual-ity would result in customer satisfaction or cus-tomer delight. Increased customer satisfaction inturn leads to higher level of customer retentionand also positive word of mouth.

In an era of increased competition, the im-portance of achieving high levels of customer sat-isfaction has gained the attention of researchersand practitioners alike. This is especially the casein the service sector, where many companies arefocusing upon service quality improvement issuesin order to drive high levels of customer satisfac-tion.

Number of common factors have been iden-tified as critical drivers of customer satisfaction.The service profit chain ( Heskett et al. ,1994) isone of the most widely supported theories of cus-tomer satisfaction .In brief, it proposes a positivelinear relationship between staff satisfaction, ser-vice quality and customer satisfaction leading, ul-timately, to profitability. Parasuraman et al. (1985)also recognized the significance of staff satis-faction and service quality as drivers of customersatisfaction in developing their SERVQUAL mea-surement tool .

Airlines need to have valid and reliable mea-sures for a better understanding of the variableslikely to impact the perception of service qualitybeing offered by them. They need to measurenot only customer perceptions but also expecta-tions of airline passengers. If significant variationsare found in the perceptions of airline passen-gers' vis-à-vis service quality on the differentflights, changes in the marketing mix need to beimplemented to improve the perception of qual-

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ity. But, in general, passenger hardships haveincreased after Sept 11 attacks ( Gkritza, Niemeier& Mannering 2006).Much of the research in ser-vices marketing centers on understanding ser-vices and service quality from customer's pointof view (Brown et al. 2006).Maintaining qualityare the main concerns of business today. Provid-ing quality is not a concern of manufacturing com-panies alone. The delivery of high-quality servicebecomes a marketing requirement among aircarriers as a result of competitive pressure(Ostrowski et al., 1993).

Gap Analysis

" The difference between expectations mi-nus perceptions (D=E-P): a negative differenceindicates on the average that perceived realityexceeds expectations that should produce satis-fied customers. On the other hand, a positive dif-ference indicates that on the average. Percep-tion of service delivery failed to meet the expectedlevel of service quality indirectly producing dis-satisfied customers" (Parasuraman et al.) .

The pre-requisite of the customer satisfac-tion is understanding and knowing what theywant. This imperative gave birth to the concept"CRM (Customer Relationship Management)".This concept is about customer satisfaction. Cus-tomer satisfaction, after a step leads to the con-cept of customer loyalty. According to Oliver(1997), a behavioral perspective on the con-sumer loyalty is the highest level of satisfaction.According to Kramer (1999, the more the cus-tomer satisfaction is, the lower the transactioncosts are and the higher the fidelity is.

Understanding importance and sources ofcustomer satisfaction is important for any com-pany in any industry to grow and remain profit-able, but in airline industry customers are carri-ers' only assets (Carlzon, 1987). Hence under-standing and managing satisfaction through ser-vice quality is essential and requires greater at-tention from carriers nowadays, in struggling andchallenging environment. According toParasumaran et al. (1991), continuously provid-ing consistent, reliable and fair services is a keyto achieve customer loyalty. Airlines should alsoknow their competitors and consider the marketcompetition campaign. CRM is an essential com-ponent of the corporate strategy of airline com-

panies to differentiate themselves from competi-tors in the eyes of customers ( Boland et al 2002).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The Indian Airline is suffering from very in-tense competitions on its national market. Theairline is not only enduring from low market shareon most routes, on which other airlines are alsohaving flight operations but also losing the mar-ket share on some others. The pre-requisite ofthe customer satisfaction is understanding andknowing what they want. In such a scenario, ser-vice quality is a significant driver of passengersatisfaction, loyalty and choice of airlines. Thusscientific investigation into service quality andcustomer satisfaction is need of the hour . Themain objective of the study is to analyze servicequality and customer satisfaction of domestic air-lines with special reference to Indian Airlines.Specific objectives of the study are as follows :

(1) To examine in detail the services being of-fered in domestic airlines with special refer-ence to Indian Airlines

(2) How can the passenger's satisfaction withinIndian Airlines be described?

(3) To investigate, how much satisfied IndianAirlines passengers are with its services?

(4) To evaluate how can Indian Airlines man-agers improve and promote satisfaction levelamong the passengers?

In order to evaluate the customer satisfac-tion and service quality in domestic airlines in-dustry with special reference to Indian Airlines ,the following hypotheses have been made .

(1) Service quality leads to customer satisfaction

(2) Service quality creates brand loyalty

(3) Empathy is one of the important dimensionsin service quality

(4) Reliability has a direct positive effect on ser-vice quality

(5) Tangiblity has an importance in service quality

METHODOLOGY

The SERVQUAL instrument was adopted tomeasure the service qualities of the Indian Air-lines as it demonstrated the "gap" between thecustomer's expectations and the perceptions .Thestructured questionnaire used in this study com-


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prised of two parts: Part A contains questionsabout personal profiles of the respondents includ-ing gender, educational level and age. Part B in-cludes expectations (E) and perceptions (P) ofrespondents according to five dimensions andthese were tangibles, reliability, responsiveness,assurance and empathy. The items in the ques-tionnaire were measured on a five-point Likertscale ranging from 'highly satisfied/ highly agree'.The respondents were asked to rate their expec-tations and perceptions of the various items forthe Indian Airline's services.

The questionnaires were self-completed bythe customers, with assistance available if re-quired. Random sample method was used and300 samples were selected for study. Descrip-tive statistical analysis was used to measure re-spondents' expectation and perception scores.Average score analysis was used to evaluatevarious service quality dimensions. . Service qual-ity and customer's satisfaction were analyzedon the basis of Mean Difference, which is pre-sented in Table-1 & 2

SERVICE QUALITY AND CUSTOMER'S SAT-ISFACTION ANALYSIS:

TABLE NO- 1: DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

Demographic Profile of Respondents In demographic profile of respondents , it is

found that there was total 64% male and 36%female respondents who replied the researchquestions regarding service quality and customersatisfaction in Indian Airlines, in which 69% re-spondents were married and 31% respondentswere unmarried. Regarding age group analysisof respondents there were 24% respondentsbelonging to age group of 21- 30 years, 29%respondents were of age group between 31- 40years, 31% respondents were of age group 41-50 years and 16% respondents belonged toage group 51 to 60 years . Regarding backgroundof respondents there were 91% Urban respon-dents who were using Indian Airlines flights , whileremaining 09% respondents belonged to ruralbackground .Regarding education level of re-spondents , it is found that 09% respondentswere having education up to Intermediate, 44%Graduate, 37% Post -Graduate, 03% havingPhD, while 07% were doctor, engineer & otherprofessionals. It is found that the main reason touse airline's flights by the respondents was jobs/service related works(37%), followed by busi-ness related trips (36%), and 14% for educational

GENDER

Total No of

Respondents

N=300

%

MALE 192 64%

FEMALE 108 36%

MARITAL

STATUS

MARRIED 207 69%

UNMARRIED 93 31%

AGE

21-30

31-40

41-50

51-60

72

87

93

48

24%

29%

31%

16%

BACKGROUND

URBAN

RURAL

273

27

91%

09%

EDUCATION

INTERMEDIATE

GRADUATE

POST GRADUATE

PhD.

Dr/ Engg/ Other Professionals

27

132

111

9

21

09%

44%

37%

03%

07%

Reason to Fly-

Business

Jobs

Education

Others

300

108

111

42

39

36%

37%

14%

13%

Frequent Flyer 231 77%

Since How Long Flying-

More than one Years

More than three years.

Less than one year

111

90

69

37%

30%

23%

Common way to purchase ticket

On- Line

Other.

258

42

86%

14%

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purpose. Majority of the respondents (86%) saidthat they perform the selection and purchase ofair tickets by themselves, via online bookings.Out of 300 respondents there were 77% respon-dents were frequent flyers of Indian Airline's. Thestudy shows that 37% respondents were usingairline services more than one year, 30% wereusing airline services more than three years,while 23% respondents were using airlines ser-vices less than one year. Majority of respondents(86%) prefer online booking of tickets.

TABLE NO-2: GAP ANALYSIS FOR TANGIBILITY

WITH MEAN DIFFERENCE

Expected services & Perceived services

It is found that there is positive gap forservice quality dimension of tangibility- visuallyattractive aircraft: D = 0.09, " A positive differenceindicates that on the average, perception of ser-vice delivery failed to meet the expected level ofservice quality indirectly producing dissatisfiedcustomers." So it indicates that customers aredissatisfied with services quality attribute ofvisually attractive and appealing appearance ofaircraft of the Indian Airlines . So there is needto improve this service quality attribute for morecustomer satisfaction, because customer satis-faction depends on service quality and tangibilityplays a key role in marketing strategy. In 4P's ofmarketing Tangibility has very important role toattract customers.

The study reveals that there is negativegap D = - 0.07, convenient flight schedules&enough frequencies. "The difference betweenexpectations minus perceptions (D=E-P)”. Anegative difference indicates on the average thatperceived reality exceeds expectations, meansthat produce satisfied customers.

It is found that there is positive GAP (D=0.08 ), which indicates customers dissatisfac-tion regarding state of the art technology of theIndian Airlines. So improvement is needed for thisservice quality attribute.

The study reveals that there is positive gapD = 0.09 for services quality attribute of ease,accuracy and speed of check-in services , "apositive difference” indicates that on the average,perception of service delivery failed to meet theexpected level of service quality indirectly pro-ducing dissatisfied customers. So it indicatesthat passengers are dissatisfied with servicesquality attribute of ease, accuracy and speed ofcheck-in services of the Indian Airlines. So thereis need to improve this service quality for morecustomer satisfaction.

When considered in totality, the results of thisstudy suggests that majority of passengers aredissatisfied with service quality dimension tan-gibility of the Indian Airlines. To combat the grow-ing competition due to globalization it is sug-gested that there should be no dissatisfactionamong passengers of Indian Airlines regardingtangibility etc. Unsatisfied passengers expect air-line to have state of the art technology, conve-

SERVICE QUALITY

DIMENSIONS:

RESPONSIVENES,

ASSURANCE,

TANGIBILITY ,

EMPATHY,

RELIABILITY i.e.

(RATER MODEL) &

ATTRIBUTES

Total

No

YES f f % Mean Yes f f % Mean Gap(D)=

(Expected

service –

Perceived

service).

D =E-P

(~ Mean)

Gap(D)=

(Expected

service –

Perceived

service).

D = E-P

( ~ f %)

TANGIBILITY:

1. Visually attractive

aircraft

300

270

90%

0.90

219

81%

0.81

D= 0.09

D= 09%

2. Convienient flight

schedules & enough

frequencies.

300 276 92% 0.92 273 99% 0.99 D= -0.07 D= 07%

3. State-of-the-art

technology.

300 273 91% 0.91 229 83% 0.83 D=0.08 D=~ 08%

4. Ease, accuracy and

speed of check-in.

300 252 84% 0.84 191 75% 0.75 D= 0.09 D=~ 09%


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nient flight schedules , visually appealing physi-cal facilities , less waiting time for baggage ar-rival , better baggage handling mechanism , at-tractive aircrafts etc.

Most important factor for the rising impor-tance of service quality and customer satisfac-tion, is that it is proving to be a winning competi-tive strategy. The ultimate aim of an excellentservice quality system is to satisfy the customer'sneed and go beyond to delight the customers. Agood or excellent service quality would result incustomer satisfaction or customer delight. In-creased customer satisfaction in turn leads tohigher level of customer retention and also posi-tive word of mouth.. In India service sector is thelargest contributor to GDP , ahead of agricultureas well as industry sector. So Airline Industry hasa major role in GDP growth of the country .Re-sults of this study imply that airline marketingmanagers should develop various strategies toguarantee providing quality services to theirpassengers because airline services have posi-tive influences on airline image and passengers'satisfaction.. Failure to provide quality servicesto customers may damage the formation of air-line image and cause negative impact oncustomer's satisfaction and the also on growthof airlines services in domestic market.

This study was therefore able to highlighthow important it is for an aviation sector , be it adomestic airlines, to conduct a survey and con-sider the opinions of its customers and its em-ployees in identifying areas for service qualityimprovements. It is therefore very important forthem to know how customers evaluate servicequality and what they can do to measure andimprove service quality. Therefore, to exceedcustomer expectations, it is necessary for avia-tion sector to continually improve the quality ofservice provided to its customers.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

There were limitations in this study that needto be acknowledged. Firstly, the study was lim-ited to domestic aviation sector the Indian Air-lines , therefore the reliability of the results re-stricts the extent to which the findings can begeneralized across the Indian Airlines services.Secondly, this study looked at the perceptions ofcustomers, thereby excluding the views of man-

agement. Given the financial and resource con-straints under which the Indian Airline operates,it can be argued that it is crucial to measure man-agement perceptions of organizational servicequality practices so that they can also understandcustomer expectations. Such information will thenassist management in identifying cost-effectiveways of closing service quality gaps and of pri-oritizing which gaps to focus on, a critical deci-sion given the scarcity of resources. Thirdly,Parasuraman et al. (1991) original argument thatSERVQUAL's five dimensions are transportableto other service sectors remains to be verified inthe other Airlines/ Aviation sectors. This studyprovides researchers with useful guidelines forfuture research.

REFERENCES

1- Boland Declan,Doug Morrison & Sean O'Neill (2002), "The future of Airline CRM''.

2- Booth M (2000) Integrated Marketing Communica-tions. MediaCat Publications, Istanbul , Compiled by:Iron , F. and Kirdar , F., " Customer Relationship Man-agement : CRM , Review of Social , Economic & Busi-ness Studies 7/8 : 293-308. Carlzon ,Jan (1987) ,Moment of Truth, Ballinger Publications Company:Cambridge, Massachusets, USA.

3- Gkritza, K., Niemeier, D. & Mannering, F. (2006). Air-port security screening and changing passenger sat-isfaction: An exploratory assessment. Journal of AirTransport Management 12, 213-219

4- Heskett, J.L., Jones, T.O., Loveman, G.W., Sasser,W.E. Jr and Schlesinger, L.A. (1994), "Putting theservice-profit chain to work", Harvard Business Re-view, March/April, pp. 164-74.

5- IBM Institute for business value, The future of airlineCRM.page 1- 19.

6- Kramer MR (1999) Trust and Distrust in Organiza-tions: Emerging Perspectives, Enduring Questions.Annu Rev Psychol. 50: 569-598.48

7- Oliver RL (1997) Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspec-tive on the Consumer. McGraw-Hill, New York: 33-45.

8- Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L.(1985). A conceptual model of service quality and itsimplications for future research. Journal of Market-ing, 49, 41-50.

9- Parasuraman, A., Berry, L.L., and Zeithaml V.A.(1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for mea-suring consumer perceptions of service quality. Jour-nal of Retailing, 4(1), 12-37.

10- Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., and Berry, L. L.(1991). Refinement and reassessment of the

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SERVQUAL scale. Journal of Retailing, 67(4), 420-50.

11- Riddleberger EJ (2009) Leading a Sustainable En-terprise. IBM Global Business Services 1-16 NewYork. Randall, L. & Senior, M. (1994) "A model forachieving quality in hospital hotel services,"InternationalJournal of Contemporary Hospital Man-agement, vol. 6, p. 68-74

12-.Reichheld, F.F. & Sasser, W.E. (1990) "Zero defec-tions: quality comes to services," HarvardBusiness,Review, Sept.-Oct., p. 105-111

13- Robinson, Leigh (2003) "Committed to quality: theuse of quality schemes in UK public leisureservices,"Managing Service Quality, vol. 13(3), p.247-55

14 Ostrowski, P. L., O?Brien, T. V., and Gordon, G. L.(1993). "Service quality and customer loyalty in thecommercial airline industry", Journal of Travel Re-search, Vol. 32, pp. 16-28.

15 Wisniewski, Mik (2001) "Using SERVQUAL to as-sess customer satisfaction with public sector ser-vices,"

16 www.google.com


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STUDY OF WORKPLACE STRESS, STRESSORS &

IMPORTANCE OF STRESS MANAGEMENT

TECHNIQUES IN AVIATION SECTOR OF INDIA

*RENUKA SINGH

CSA University of Agriculture &Technology, Kanpur, U.P., India.

ABSTRACT

Employees frequently experience enough stress to hurt their job performance and increasetheir risk of mental and physical health problems. Negligence towards the stress of employeesat workplace would lose the organization a lot in term of efficiency, productivity, medical bills,compensation etc. The events produce distress-the degree of physiological, psychological andbehavioural deviation from healthy functioning. Many organizations want to reduce and preventthe employee stress because they observe that it is a major drain on corporate productivity.Nobody is free from stress and it is not harmful always. In small quantities, stress is good; itcan motivate us and help us to become more productive, but too much stress or a strongresponse to stress can be harmful. Stress in the workplace has emerged as a major issue forbusinesses and has reached alarming proportions. Organizations must develop stress preventionas well as stress reduction techniques. This research focuses on practices adopted byorganizations to prevent, minimize and to overcome the stress. The paper also discusses therisk management at workplace, prevention of stress and tips to stress management.

Keywords: Stress, Stressors, Work Place Stress , Reduction and prevention of stress,Stress Management & it’s techniques.

*Address for correspondence : Dr . Renuka Singh, Former Lecturer,CSA University of Agriculture &Technology, Kanpur, U.P., India.

Email ID : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Stress is increasing due to globalization andeconomic crisis, which affects all professions andas well as families and societies, almost allcountries of the world. As a result, it becomesan essential issue in all work places. In 1989formally identified the concept of increasingoccupational stress, when the CommonwealthCommission for the Safety, Rehabilitation andCompensation of Commonwealth Employeesinitiated several research projects. Theseorganizations realized that the percentageincrease in claims for work related psychologicalinjury has been greater than any other injury. Jobstress can be defined as the harmful physicaland emotional responses that occur when therequirements of the job do not match thecapabilities, resources, or needs of the worker,which lead to poor health and even injury .Work-related stress has aroused growing interest

across Europe in recent years due to use of newinformation and communications technologies,growing diversity in the workplace and anincreased mental workload . In Europe,occupational stress is considered as a risk-assessable disease (Clarke and Cooper 2000).

Stress is our body’s physical and emotionalreaction that frightens, irritate, confuse,endanger, or excite us and place demands onthe body. Stress can be caused by events thatare pleasing as well as events that create crisisin our lives. But stress is a normal part of dailylife and the effects of stress are not alwaysnegative. In small quantities, stress is good; itcan motivate us and help us to become moreproductive, but too much stress or a strongresponse to stress can be harmful. Stress canarise from any situation or thought that makesone feel frustrated, angry, or anxious. Everyonesees situations differently and has different

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coping skills, so, no two persons will respondexactly the same way to a particular situation.Situations that are considered stress provokingare known as stressors. Many professionalssuggest that there is a difference between whatwe perceive as positive stress and distress asnegative stress. But we often use the term stressto describe negative situations. (www.google.com).

In the pursuit for organizational excellence,sometimes managers, officers and workers needto work under highly stressful circumstances, asa result they have been found to be experiencinghigh stress in the organizations. (Jestin andGampel 2002). There are many challenges inthe work environments, such as, competition,continuous technological development, lack ofspace, lack of time, more uncontrollable factors,conflicting demands from organizationalstakeholders (Hall and Savery 1986), increaseduse of participatory management andcomputerization (Murray and Forbes 1986),greater uncertainty and others have resulted inhigher occupational stress. Many organizationswant to reduce the employee stress because theyobserve that it is a major drain on corporateproductivity. Employee assistance programs,stress management seminars, exerciseprograms, smoking cessation, nutrition programsand other health-related activities have helpedthousands of hundreds of employees to managetheir stress levels. They should help employeesdevelop coping skills and positive lifestyles andthey should focus on the Occupational Stressand Risk of it among the employees. The effectof excessive stress and strain on brain chemistrydue to occupation is experienced as mood,usually as depression, anxiety or anger. If thesechanges in brain chemistry and mood persist,immune system deficiencies will worsen andfinally more serious illnesses will occur. Stressmanagement programs teach workers about thenature and sources of stress, the effects of stresson health, and personal skills to reduce stress.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Workplace stress risks have beenincreasing for many years, but at the end of thelast decade it increases alarming due to globalfinancial crisis and globalization. By the end ofthe 1990s in many countries there has been acombination of increasing and stabilizing job

demands, together with decreasing jobsovereignty which would have resulted in anincreasingly stressful situation within countries.High and increasing quantitative demands,combined with low or decreasing control overwork pace, increase stress-related outcomes.Some countries showed an increase in stress-related health problems at work, but it was alsoobserved that workers who developed healthproblems had left the labour market on long-term absence, or were receiving disabilitypensions (Houtman 2007). Stresses at work arewell known factors for low motivation and moraledecrease in performance, high turnover and sick-leave, accidents, low job satisfaction, low qualityproducts and services, poor internalcommunication and conflicts etc. (Cooper 2000,Murphy 1995).

MEANING OF STRESS

Stephen P Robbins (2006) defined stressas : stress arises from an opportunity, demand,constraint, threat or challenge, when theoutcomes of the event are important anduncertain. Organisations do not have any formalprocess for handling concerns or grievancesrelating to stress. Employees frequentlyexperience enough stress to hurt their jobperformance and increase their risk of mental andphysical health problems. Job stress can bedefined as the harmful physical and emotionalresponses that occur when the requirements ofthe job do not match the capabilities, resources,or needs of the worker. Job stress can lead topoor health and even injury. Stress can bedefined in general term as people feel pressuresin their own life. The stress due to work load canbe defined as reluctance to come to work and afeeling of constant pressure associated withgeneral physiological, psychological andbehavioural stress symptoms. Hence stress isthe harmful physical and emotional responsesthat occur when the requirements of the job donot match the capabilities, resources, or needsthe worker and he/she expressed that job stresscan lead to poor health and even injury . Stressis increasing due to globalization and economiccrisis, which affects all professions and as wellas families and societies, almost all countries ofthe world .Stress is our body’s physical andemotional reaction that frightens, irritate, confuse,


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endanger, or excite us and place demands onthe body. Stress can be caused by events thatare pleasing as well as events that create crisisin our lives. But stress is a normal part of dailylife and the effects of stress are not alwaysnegative. In small quantities, stress is good; itcan motivate us and help us to become moreproductive, but too much stress or a strongresponse to stress can be harmful.

The positive side of stress is known aseustress, which refers to the healthy, positive,constructive outcome of stressful events and thestress response. Eustress is the stressexperience in moderation, enough to activate andmotivate people so that they can achieve goals,change their environments and succeed in life’schallenges. Employees frequently experienceenough stress to hurt their job performance andincrease their risk of mental and physical healthproblems. So, the main focus is more on distressthan eustress. Stress can arise from any situationor thought that makes one feel frustrated, angry,or anxious. Everyone sees situations differentlyand has different coping skills, so, no two personswill respond exactly the same way to a particularsituation.

STRESSORS

Situations that are considered stressprovoking are known as stressors. Among themany stressors mentioned by employees, theseare the most common:

· The way employees are treated by theirbosses/supervisors or company

· Lack of job security

· Company policies

· Co-workers who don’t do their fair share

· Unclear expectations

· Poor communication

· Not enough control over assignments

· Inadequate pay or benefits

· Urgent deadlines

· Too much work

· Long hours

· Uncomfortable physical conditions

· Relationship conflicts

· Co-workers making careless mistakes

· Dealing with rude customers

· Lack of cooperation

. How the company treats co-workers ( Somaz,Wenk Heidi & Tulgan, Bruce (2003).

WORKPLACE STRESS

Stress is defined as an imbalance betweendemand and resources or as occurring whenpressure exceeds one’s perceived ability to cope.Moreover, it is a person’s physiological responseto an internal or external stimulus that triggersthe fight-or-flight response. It is experienced byan individual if some factors, called stressors,stimulate the feeling of hopelessness, lack ofcoping mechanism and pressure. It causesindividual to become disoriented andimbalanced.

“A man devotes nearly half of his wakinghours to his job. It is said, he both works to liveand lives to work”. In India most of employeesconfirm that most of their working days areconsiderably or extremely stressful . Obviouslylow job satisfaction reduced productivity andincreased occupational stresses. (Clarke andCooper 2004).

Workplace stress is a pattern of reactionsin workplace that occurs when employees arepresented with work demands which are notmatched to their knowledge, skills or abilities andwhich challenge their ability to cope. It may createphysiological problems such as eating disorders,irritability, headaches, hair loss, loss of sex drive,serious physical illness, increased heartbeat andblood pressure, palpitations and chestdiscomfort, breathlessness and hyperventilating,muscle ache, sleeping problems, dryness ofthroat and mouth, sweaty palms, urinatingfrequently, diarrhoea, indigestion, stomachulcers, etc. It may show behavioural problemssuch as impulsive behaviour, eating more or less,easily distracted, speech problems, sleeping toomuch or too little, change in personality, irritableor aggressive, grinding of teeth, increasingsmoking and use of drugs and alcohol, burnout,nervous habits, increased errors, absenteeism,lack of concentration, etc. It also displayspsychological symptoms such as physicaltrauma, moodiness, anxiety, fear and tension,

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memory problems, depression, dissatisfactions,seeing only the negative, panicky, poor judgment,worries and catastrophic thoughts, sense ofloneliness or isolation, overestimation of danger,etc. Causes of work stress have been linked tothe work itself, for example, increasing demands,less freedom to control one’s work andinsufficient capacity to cope with time pressuresetc. (Houtman 2007) .The effect of excessivestress and strain on brain chemistry due tooccupation is experienced as mood, usually asdepression, anxiety or anger. If these changesin brain chemistry and mood persist, immunesystem deficiencies will worsen and finally moreserious illnesses will occur (Barbara et al. n. d.).

Occupational stress risks have beenincreasing for many years, but at the end of thelast decade it increases alarming due to globalfinancial crisis and globalization. By the end ofthe 1990s in many countries there has been acombination of increasing and stabilizing jobdemands, together with decreasing jobsovereignty which would have resulted in anincreasingly stressful situation within countries.High and increasing quantitative demands,combined with low or decreasing control overwork pace, increase stress-related outcomes.Some countries showed an increase in stress-related health problems at work, but it was alsoobserved that workers who developed healthproblems had left the labour market on long-term absence, or were receiving disabilitypensions (Houtman 2007). Stresses at work arewell known factors for low motivation and moraledecrease in performance, high turnover and sick-leave, accidents, low job satisfaction, low qualityproducts and services, poor internalcommunication and conflicts etc. (Cooper 2000,Murphy 1995).

In order to develop an effective stressmanagement programme it is first necessary toidentify the factors that are central to a personcontrolling his/her stress, and to identify theintervention methods which effectively targetthese factors. Lazarus and Folkman’sinterpretation of stress focuses on the transactionbetween people and their external environment(known as the Transactional Model). The modelcontends that stress may not be a stressor if theperson does not perceive the stressor as a threat

but rather as positive or even challenging. Also,if the person possesses or can use adequatecoping skills, then stress may not actually be aresult or develop because of the stressor. Themodel proposes that people can be taught tomanage their stress and cope with their stressors.They may learn to change their perspective ofthe stressor and provide them with the ability andconfidence to improve their lives and handle allof types of stressors.(www.google.com).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the present study isto analyse the various factors responsible forstress in an organization . It aims to suggestcertain stress management techniques tominimize the stress level of employees.

1. To analyse the various factors responsiblefor stress at workplace

2. To find out the stress tendencies amongstthe employees of the organization

3. To create awareness that stress ispreventable

5. To find out preventive measures for improvingwork place stress

6. To suggest certain stress managementtechniques to minimize the stress level ofemployees

METHODOLOGY

The structured questionnaire was used inthis study and comprised of two parts: Part Acontains questions about personal profiles of therespondents including gender, educational leveland age. Part B includes expectations (E) andperceptions (P) of respondents (employees)regarding their job, work place, environment ,etc. The items in the questionnaire weremeasured on a five-point Likert scale rangingfrom ‘highly satisfied/ highly agree’. Therespondents were asked about theirexpectations and perceptions of the various itemsfor their working conditions, job etc. in theorganizations.

The questionnaires were self-completedby the employees, with assistance available ifrequired. Random sample method was used and300 samples were selected from the aviation


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sector with special reference to the IndianAirlines. Various statistical analysis were usedto measure respondents’ views regardingworkplace stress, factors responsible for it.Average score analysis mean, median, etc. wereused to evaluate the various stress, stressorsetc .

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

In demographic profile of respondents , it isfound that there was total 64% male and 36%female respondents who replied the researchquestions concerned with stress, workplacestress, stressors etc, in which 69% respondentswere married and 31% respondents wereunmarried. Regarding age group analysis ofrespondents there were 24% respondentsbelonging to age group of 21- 30 years, 29%respondents were of age group between 31- 40years, 31% respondents were of age group 41-50 years and 16% respondents belonged toage group 51 to 60 years . Regarding educationlevel of respondents , it is found that 09%respondents were having education up toIntermediate, 44% Graduate, 37% Post –Graduate, 03% having PhD, while 07% weredoctor, engineer & other professionals. It isfound that majority of employees in aviationsector feel stress in workplace. 41% employeesaccepted that working environment is not good. 39% employees accepted that sometimesthey sacrifice their important family functions tocontinue their jobs. 57% respondents expressedfear of job insecurity. 24% employees feel stressdue to their family related problems. It meansthat such employees feel greater level of stressas compared to other employees. 43%employees accepted that they suffer from healthproblems due to long working hours and nightduties. Majority of the employees ( 51% ) wantedto find out solutions to reduce their stress .

SUGGESTIONS

It is fond out that majority of employeesfeel stress, face stressors at workplace , in theirlife too. The aviation sector should take positivesteps to make their employees relax from stressso that they can work with optimum efficiencyand effectiveness. Employees of the aviationsectors should feel secured from not only fearof job insecurity but also from other types of

stress, stressors in the workplace. Guidance andcounselling, psychological support should beprovided to employees. To make them moreefficient in their life, either at workplace or theirown life there should be use of stressmanagement techniques to keep away stressors,stress and its side effects.

Stress management & its techniques:

Effective management of job stress canonly be achieved under two conditions. First, theindividual worker must be able to recognizestressors and understand their consequencesand second, organizations must develop stressprevention, as well as stress reductiontechniques. The emotional and physicaldisorders that have been linked to stress includedepression, anxiety, heart attacks, stroke,hypertension, immune system disturbances thatincrease susceptibility to infections, a host of virallinked disorders ranging from the common coldto herpes to certain cancers, as well asautoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritisand multiple sclerosis (Stress and StressManagement 2010). Hence we need to controlthe stresses which are harmful to our mind andbody. Few steps of stress management areas follows:

Many techniques cope with the stresses lifebrings. Some of the following ways induce a lowerthan usual stress level, temporarily, tocompensate the biological issues involved;others face the stressor at a higher level ofabstraction.

· Autogenic training

· Social activity

· Cognitive therapy

· Conflict resolution

· Cranial release technique

· Getting a hobby

· Meditation

· Mindfulness (psychology)

· Deep breathing

· Yoga Nidra

· Nootropics

· Reading novels

· Prayer

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· Relaxation techniques

· Artistic expression

· Fractional relaxation

· Physical exercise

· Progressive relaxation

· Spas

· Somatics training

· Spending time in nature

· Stress balls

· Natural medicine

· Clinically validated alternative treatments

· Time management

· Mobile-based Stress ManagementApplications

· Planning and decision making

· Listening to certain types of relaxing music[8]

· Spending quality time with pets

Techniques of stress management will varyaccording to the philosophical paradigm.(Spence, JD; Barnett, PA; Linden, W; Ramsden,V; Taenzer, P (1999).

Stress prevention and resilience:

Although many techniques havetraditionally been developed to deal with theconsequences of stress. Considerable researchhas also been conducted on the prevention ofstress, a subject closely related to psychologicalresilience-building. A number of self-helpapproaches to stress-prevention and resilience-building have been developed, drawing mainlyon the theory and practice of cognitive-behavioural therapy. (Robertson, D (2012).Buildyour Resilience. London: Hodder ISBN 978-1444168716).

It is observed that nobody is free from stress,everybody under the stress a little bit or more .Eustress is not harmful but over stress i.e.distress is always harmful and creates manyproblems and diseases. Occupational stress hasbecome an essential factor in the worldwide dueto competition among the nations to faceeconomic crisis. Stressors and workplace stresscreate difficulties in any organization, so stressmanagement is useful in all sectors.

Limitations of study :

Due to high costs, time crisis, unwillingnessto answer to questions by respondents etc. , itwas not possible to conduct study at large level.The study was limited to the employees ofselected aviation sectors of the India, thereforethe findings of the study cannot be extended toother areas. During collection of the data manyemployees were unwilling to fill the questionnairedue to fear of confidentiality, lack of time etc.

Scope for further studies :

Area of present study can be increased tonational level, as well as international level;sample size can be increased; otherdemographic details can be added in the futureresearch and various other statistical tests canbe used for comprehensive analysis and findings.

REFERENCES

1. Barbara, J.S.; Psych, C. and Shain, M. (n. d.), WhenWorkplace Stress Stifles Productivity, DrakeBusiness Review, 1(1): 27-29.

2. Cartwright, S. and Cooper, C.L. (2002), ASSET: AnOrganisational Stress Screening Tool, RobertsonCooper Limited and Cubiks, London.

3. Clarke, S.G. and Cooper, C.L. (2000), The RiskManagement of Occupational Stress, Health, Risk& Society, 2(2): 173-187.

4. Clarke, S. G. and Cooper, C. L. (2004), Managingthe Risk of Workplace Stress: Health and SafetyHazards, London/New York: Routledge.

5. Hall, K. and Savery, L.K. (1986), Tight Rein, MoreStress, Harvard Business Review, 23(10): 1162-1164.

6. Houtman, I.L.D. (2007), Work-related Stress,European Foundation for the Improvement of Livingand Working Conditions, Ireland.

7. Jestin, W. and Gampel, A. (2002), The Big Valley,Global Outlook, Toronto, McGraw Hill.

8. Kompier, M. and Cooper, C. (1999), PreventingStress, Improving Productivity: European CaseStudies in the Workplace, London and New York,Routledge

9. Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress,Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer

10. Murray, T.J. and Forbes, D. (1986), Where Have Allthe Middle Managers Gone? Dun’s Business Month,31-34.

11. Robbins, SP., (2006), Organisational Behaviour,Pearson Education Pvt. Ltd. Delhi, 11th Edition,569.


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12. Robertson,D(2012). BuildourResilience. London:Hodder. ISBN9781444168716

13. Somaz, Wenk Heidi & Tulgan, Bruce (2003).Performance Under Pressure: Managing Stress inthe Workplace.Canada. HRD Press Inc.p 7-8. ISBN0-87425-741-7

14. Spence, JD; Barnett, PA; Linden, W; Ramsden, V;Taenzer, P (1999). ”Lifestyle modifications toprevent and control hypertension. 7.Recommendations on stress management.

Canadian Hypertension Society, Canadian Coalitionfor High Blood Pressure Prevention and Control,Laboratory Centre for Disease Control at HealthCanada, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada”.Canadian Medical Association Journal160 (9Suppl):S46–50. PMC 1230339. PMID 10333853.

15. Stress and Stress Management (2010), KlinicCommunity Health Centre, Canada.s

16. www.google.com

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TO CREATE A CUSTOMER OR SERVE THE SHAREHOLDER?

WHAT DRIVES THE CORPORATE BOARD ROOMS TO ACT

UPON?

* RAJESH KUMAR NIGAH

Faculty of Accountancy and Finance, Academy of Commerce, 297, Satyaniketan, Dhoulakuan, New Delhi – 21, India

*Address for correspondence : Rajesh Kumar Nigah, Faculty of Accountancy and Finance,Academy of Commerce, 297, Satyaniketan, Dhoulakuan, New Delhi – 21, India

email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Global corporate board rooms have been witnessing hot debates over the ‘nerve centre’ of anysuccessful business model. An obvious distinction occurred between the ‘customer-centric’vis-à-vis ‘shareholder-centric’ perspectives on the merits of arguments so put-forth. Perhapsthose deliberations led to the existence of ‘profit-centre’ and ‘cost-centre’ philosophies to describethe corporate culture in short. Nevertheless, academicians still try to be skewed on the pursuitof ‘shareholder value’ to that of ‘valuing customer’ for a niggling corporate world, viz., managementand investors are obsessed with faster outcomes; dismally inclined towards long term investmentportfolios; and scant eyed on the accounting mishaps that grab headlines and the like censures.On the contrary, the doctrine of shareholder value has supported the management andshareholders as well as customers in the same spirit with no signs of betrayal. Under thiscorporate fiasco the centre question remains - what companies have to do if they are to beserious about creating value? This paper attempts to shed light on the vital insights of thiscorporate dilemma and draw a set of ‘guidelines to govern’ the concept of ‘value creation’ thatgoes hand-in-hand with company’s sound business model as well as realizing the potential forcreating value and strike a happy balance between shareholders and customers perspective.

Keywords: Modern Capitalism, Value Creation, Professional Management, Real andExpectations Market

FOLKLORE OF MODERN CAPITALISM

Capitalism of the post depression era sawthe first modern capitalistic era in 1932 whereprofessional management steered the corporateworld. The second era labeled as ‘shareholdervalue capitalism’, began in 1976 with afundamental premise of every corporation to“maximize shareholders’ wealth”. If firms pursuethis goal, the thinking goes, both shareholdersand society will benefit. The third era beganduring 1990’s with a new dimension and thoughtto bring arpeggio between all the stakeholders,labeled as ‘customer-driven capitalism’.

As Jack Welch commented that the idea ofmaximizing shareholder value is the dumbest inthis world, where CEOs and his clout that areblessed with huge incentives to focus most onthe market future-casting, and ironically expect

results out of real products and services. The‘expectations market’ is the world in whichcompany’s shares are traded between investors— in other words, the stock market. In this market,investors assess the real market activities of acompany today and, on the basis of thatassessment anticipate the future course ofbusiness performance. While the “real market,”is the world in which industries operate toproduce output as pre-designed and services arerendered, and revenues are earned, expensesare paid, and profits are derived. The consensusview of all investors and potential investors as toexpectations of future performance shapes thestock price of the company.

Jensen and Meckling emphasized onsingular goal of a company as ‘to maximize theshareholders returns’, and Drucker’s ideology


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being ignored grossly. It was being vehementlybarbed that the companies should giveexecutives a compelling reason to placeshareholder value maximization ahead of theirown nest-feathering. Perhaps the big-idea had amirror effect as the proponents of shareholdervalue maximization and stock-based executivecompensation hoped that their theories wouldforce executives improve the real performanceof their companies and increase shareholdervalue over time but proved fatal.

However reminiscent the concept ofshareholder value maximization may be, it’s awalk-the-moon task for the management to makeit. This is so because the value is believed to bea left-over part of the funds received by acompany viz., total revenues less allmanufacturing and admin expenses (salaries,bonus, overheads, taxes and debts etc). It istherefore believed that the value of their sharesbecomes the discounted value of all future cashflows minus those payments. In a way shareprices are subjected to unpredictable future flowsand could result into promising leads or end upwith heart-throbbing news. This means thatshareholder value has almost nothing to do withthe present. Indeed, present earnings tend to bea small fraction of the value of common shares.

Indeed, shareholder primacy rose fromarcane academic theory in the 1970s to dominantbusiness practice today. Shareholder primacy isa managerial choice – not a legal requirement.The business judgment doctrine ensures that,contrary to popular belief, the managers of publiccompanies have no enforceable legal duty tomaximize shareholder value. Certainly they canchoose to maximize profits; but they can alsochoose to pursue any other objective that is notunlawful, including taking care of employees andsuppliers, pleasing customers, benefiting thecommunity and the broader society, andpreserving and protecting the corporate entityitself.

To start with, relatively short vesting periods,combined with a belief that short-term earningsfuel stock prices, encouraged executives tomanage earnings, exercise their options early,and cash out opportunistically. Of course, theseshortcomings were obscured during much of thatdecade, and corporate governance took a

backseat as investors watched stock prices riseat a double-digit clip. The climate changeddramatically in the new millennium, however, asaccounting scandals and a steep stock marketdecline triggered a rash of corporate collapses.The ensuing erosion of public trust prompted aswift regulatory response which requirescompanies to institute elaborate internal controlsand makes corporate executives directlyaccountable for the accuracy of financialstatements.

Ironically, some executives contend that theyhave no choice but to adopt a short-termorientation, given that the average holding periodfor stocks in professionally managed funds hasdropped from about seven years in the 1960s toless than one year today. Why consider theinterests of long-term shareholders when thereare none? This reasoning is deeply flawed. Whatmatters is not investor holding periods but ratherthe market’s valuation horizon—the number ofyears of expected cash flows required to justifythe stock price. While investors may focus undulyon near-term goals and hold shares for arelatively short time, stock prices reflect themarket’s long view. Studies suggest that it takesmore than ten years of value-creating cash flowsto justify the stock prices of most companies.Management’s responsibility, therefore, is todeliver those flows—that is, to pursue long-termvalue maximization regardless of the mix of high-and low-turnover shareholders. And no one couldreasonably argue that an absence of long-termshareholders gives management the license tomaximize short-term performance and riskendangering the company’s future. Thecompetitive landscape, not the shareholder list,should shape business strategies.

‘VALUE CREATION’- FIVE SENTINELS TOSAFEGUARD

1. Do not advise shareholders on the potentialearnings nor dare to manage it.

It would be like “scratching one’s head withfire” if shareholders are constantly advised ontheir potential earnings or take the onus tomanage them. In one of the surveys of 254companies conducted during 2013, around 60%companies were found guiding regularly on theprofit scenarios and another study stunningly

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revealed that companies used to take care ofmanaging the earnings beyond accountingcamouflage. Those who disagree with this logicwould probably fail to go a long way with the rest.Perhaps there is another way of putting it as:

· The accountant’s bottom line approximatesneither a company’s value nor its change invalue over the reporting period.

· Organizations compromise value when theyinvest at rates below the cost of capital orforgo investment in value-creating.

· The practice of reporting rosy earnings viavalue-destroying operating decisions or bystretching permissible accounting to the limiteventually catches up with companies. Thosethat can no longer meet investor expectationsend up destroying a substantial portion, if notall, of their market value.

2. Emphasize strategic decision making thanfocusing onshore-cuts.

Indeed, most companies evaluate andcompare strategic decisions in terms of theestimated impact on reported earnings when theyshould be measuring against the expectedincremental value of future cash flows instead.Expected value is the weighted average valuefor a range of plausible scenarios.

At the corporate level, financial advisorsneed to ensure:

· the operating units will have sufficientpotential to add value that can restrictadditional capital inflows

· those units having limited potential should beonly targeted for restructuring or divestiture

· an appropriate mix of investments will likelyto increase the overall value

3. Focus on mergers and acquisitions thatmean long term gains.

It is a well known fact that most of the value(actual and virtual) gets added through routineoperations and typically a merger or anacquisition could turn into a major turnaroundstrategy. Corporate usually resort to suchcatastrophic decisions only with magnificent cashflows and low debts, to boost up their competitive

situations. M&A announcements worldwideexceeded $2 trillion in 2014, while Indiancompanies signed deals worth $48 billion in theyear 2014. Management and other investmentadvisors usually rely upon earnings per share(EPS) to assess the crux of any deal. Sounddecisions about M&A deals are based on theirprospects for creating value, rather than theirimmediate EPS impact. It would be ideal formanagement to identify the time, place andmethod to accomplish real performance gains byestimating the present value of the resultingincremental cash flows and then subtracting theacquisition premium.

CEO’s and management have to carefullyevaluate the risk-return trade-offs so that effortsprove effective while anticipating a synergisticimpact. The post-merger integration increasesthe challenges of competition and thus forces thecorporate honchos to develop new synergies tocope with. Usually companies will exhibitconfidence through good pay offs to theirshareholder’s and encourages them to retainforecasted gains. In case of any uncertainty onfinancial viability, shareholders will be offeredadditional stocks as incentives. This reducespotential losses for the acquiring company’sshareholders by diluting their ownership interestin the post-merger company.

4. Maintain only assets with maximumappreciation leaving all sentiments.

Top Management have to judiciously assessthe buyers ability and interest to pay a premiumfor its physical infrastructure, both visible as wellas invisible assets like patents, goodwill, plantand machinery, furnishings etc detachable onesbefore they bargain good. This analysis clearlybecomes a minefield for business that fares wellcompared to its projections and or competitorsand could fetch good dividends while bidding.While looking into the optimum shell-out duringcompetitive market conditions, management maystrategically apply twin techniques to increasevalue by decreasing the capital employed thus:

· by focusing on R and D, innovation, exploringnew markets, etc., high-end value enhancingactivities to enjoy a competitive advantage

· by outsourcing manufacturing, packaging,distribution, etc., routine activities that may


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be performed by others at low cost

Fit-in-the best examples are AppleComputers whose iPod got designed atCupertino, California, and manufactured inTaiwan, and hotel companies such as HiltonHospitality and Marriott International, whichmanage hotels without owning them. DellComputers’ well-chronicled customized PCs andLaptop business model, which minimizes salesand distribution costs and inventory maintenancecosts etc., overheads are spared for.

5. Increase dividends while no specialstrategies to gain value.

The top management with credentials ofhandling value-focused strategies usuallydistributes the excess through dividends toshareholders when they are unable to find asuitable investment option to bank on. This willrejuvenate the spirits of shareholders by givinggood returns as well as safeguarding thecompany’s long term investment propositions byslipping away from unexposed investments.Often, companies resort to snoopy technique of‘buy back’ arrangement of shares to lure themarket and enhance the value, while it’s a wellknown fact that it’s a futile boondoggle for anyfinancial wizard to grasp the economic purpose.The top management of a value-focusedcompany would buy-back shares when theestimated investment options elsewhere willindicate lesser returns over stock trading.Company adhering to this guideline serves theinterests of the non-tendering shareholders, whowould gain at the expense of the tendering, ifsuch assessment does not go haywire. When acompany’s shares are expensive and there’s nogood long-term value addition to be had fromsuch investment, distributing dividends is the beststrategic option for the management.

EPILOGUE

However, following these guidelines ensurestreamline long-term prospects for a majority ofthe companies, a few might still reel under theuncertainty if investors remain hooked to short -term earnings, as a dwindling stock price canactually affect operating performance. The riskgoes overboard specially for companies such ashigh-tech start-ups, which depend heavily on a

healthy stock price to finance growth and sendpositive signals to employees, customers, andsuppliers. When share prices are depressed,selling new shares either prohibitively dilutescurrent shareholders’ stakes or, in some cases,makes the company unattractive to prospectiveinvestors. As a consequence, management mayhave to defer or scrap its value-creating growthplans. Then, as investors become aware of thesituation, the stock price continues to slide,possibly leading to a takeover at a fire-sale priceor to bankruptcy.

REFERENCES

1. Jesse Eisinger, “Challenging The Long-Held Beliefin ‘Shareholder Value’”, New York Times (June 27,2012); Joe Nocera, “Down With ShareholderValue,” New York Times (August 10, 2012); AndrewRoss Sorkin, “Shareholder Democracy Can MaskAbuses,” New York Times (February 25, 2013).(

2. Edward A. Rock, “Adapting to the New Shareholder-Centric Reality,”University of Pennsylvania LawReview (forthcoming 2013).(

3. Lynn A. Stout, “Toxic Side Effects of ShareholderPrimacy, ” University Pennsylvania LawReview (forthcoming 2013).(

4. The Economist, “The Endangered Public Company,”(May 19, 2012), available at ww.economist.com/node/21555562.(

5. Steven Denning, “Why Did IBM Survive?,”Forbes.com (July 10, 2011), available at http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2011/07/10/why-did-ibm-survive.(

6. Stout, The Shareholder Value Myth: How PuttingShareholders First Harms Investors, Corporations,and the Public (2012).(

7. Gerald F. Davis, Managed by the Markets: HowFinance Reshaped America 59-101 (2009)(

8. Henry Hansmann and Mariana Pargendler, “TheEvolution of Shareholder Voting Rights: Separationof Ownership and Consumption” (February 15,2013), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2219865.(

9. Milton Friedman, “The Social Responsibility ofBusiness is to Increase Its Profits,” New York TimesMagazine 32 (September 13, 1970).(

10. Michael C. Jensen and William H. Meckling, “Theoryof the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs, andOwnership Structure,” 3 Journal of FinancialEconomics 305 (1976).(

11. Roger Martin, Fixing the Game: Bubbles, Crashes,and What Capitalism Can Learn from the NFL 11(2011).(

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12. Hayak, The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism(1991).(

13. Rock, supra note 2 and Stout, supra note 3.(

14. Stout, supra note 6, at 37-44.(

15. Bebchuk, “The Myth of the Shareholder Franchise,”93 Virginia Law Review 675 (2005).( ClayChristensen and Michael Raynor , ”The Innovator’sSolution: Creating and Sustaining SuccessfulGrowth”, Harvard Business School Press (2003).

16. NIMING


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GREEN MARKETING AND FORMING OF

GREEN STRATEDGIES

MASOOD H. SIDDIQUI1, * JYOTISHREE PANDEY2

1Jaipuria Institute of Management, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India ,2 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University Ranchi,

India

*Address for correspondence: Jyotishree Pandey, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,E mail ID : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Green marketing is a phenomenon which has developed particular important in the modernmarket. This concept has enabled for the re-marketing and packaging of existing productswhich already adhere to such guidelines. Additionally, the development of green marketing hasopened the door of opportunity for companies to co-brand their products into separate line,lauding the green-friendliness of some while ignoring that of others. Such marketing techniqueshave been explained as a direct result of movement in the minds of the consumer market. As aresult of this, businesses have increased their rate of targeting consumers who are concernedabout the environment. These same consumers through their concern are interested in integratingenvironmental issues into their purchasing decisions through their incorporation into the processand content of the marketing strategy for whatever product may be required. This paper discusseshow businesses have increased their rate of targeting green consumers, those who areconcerned about the environment and allow it to affect their purchasing decisions. The paperidentifies the green strategies adopted by the companies.

Keywords: Green marketing ,eco-friendly, sustainable consumption, marketing strategies,green companies

INTRODUCTION

“Everything’s gone green” was a subtitle ofan article in the Marketing Magazine in2012(O’toole, 2012). Green marketing has becomecommon worldwide as environmental issues areglobally noticed. Both consumers and companieshave started to pay more attention in thinkingthe consequences of their actions to theenvironment (Polonsky, 1994, 3). Greenmarketing is the way firms can advertise theirproducts and at the same time inform theconsumers that they are working in anenvironmental friendly way (Chen & Chang,2012, 489). . .Green marketing is quicklybecoming a global trend (Zhang & Zhang, 1999,99) . Many firms have taken it as a part of theirstrategy. This makes it important to define, whichrole green marketing actually has incompany’s strategy? Can green marketing bringadded value to the company and be profitableactivity? The question about the competitive

consequences of green marketing still remainsunclear (Fraj, Martinez, Matute, 2013, 396). Bydetermining green marketing’s strategic role, itis easier to understand its implications to thecompany.

RESEARCH PROBLEMS, OBJECTIVESAND LIMITATIONS

The main goal of this study is to find out,what is the role of green marketing in company’sstrategy, and how important this role is to thecompany. Reasons that make firms start greenmarketing are also discussed. Study also aimsto find out if green marketing brings added valueto the company and specify variety of thesevalues. One goal is to find out, if there aresimilarities in the theories existing and theempirical section of this study. This study is notlimited to any specific industry or country. Itconsiders green marketing as a globalphenomenon. It does not examine or question

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actions done behind marketing. Even if the studyis not limited to one industry or country, it doesemphasize on industry and B2B marketing.Customer-perspective is not ignored, becauseeven if company works in B2B field, its end-usersoften are consumers..

LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to clarify the short history of greenmarketing studies, some relevant findings arelisted below in Table 1.

Table 1: Findings of Green MarketingLiterature

(Based on Sharma et al., 2010; Baker & Sinkula,2005)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The empirical part of the study is done byusing qualitative research. Qualitative researchmeans a group of different interpretative researchmethods .Secondary data and theoreticalfindings are the basis of the findings.

CONCEPT AND OBJECTIVES OF GREENMARKETING

In 1970’s people started to realizeconsequences the fast population growth andhigh level of industrialism would have to theenvironment. Problems like green house effect,destruction of the ozonosphere, acid rain,pollution of air and water, deforestation andoveruse of natural resources and growingshortages of water were increased explosively(Zhang & Zhang, 1999, 99-100; Kotler, 2006, 90).People started to rethink their own behavior andstarted to demand more environmental friendlyproduced commodities. As a respond to that,companies reformed their operations andstrategies and a trend called sustainabledevelopment was born (Zhang & Zhang, 1999,100).In 1990’s, this trend of being green startedto pervade all over the world. This was aconsequence of people’s increased awarenessof the importance to protect the environment.Green consumption increased considerably andnew concepts like green food and green factorieswere born. “Being green” became a global trend(Zhang & Zhang, 1999).After being spread over,consumer’s increased interest towards theenvironmental friendly products forced firms tochange their marketing strategies (Chen & Chang2012, Kotler 2011). Concept of green marketingwas created in 1990 at the Earth Day in theUnited States. After that, there was an explosionin the number of firms, which seek to utilize thisconsumers’ increased sensitivity toenvironmental issues (Kotler, 2011,91).Nowadays companies around the world areturning their attention towards environmentalsustainability. Paco et al. (2008) considered thatmajor drivers to this change have been people’sconcern of the environment and consumers’demands. Being green is also seen as a way todifferentiate from competitors and gaincompetitive advantage. Green marketing is achannel of advertising messages of company’senvironmental considering actions (Chen &

Year

Author

Findings

1987

Brundlant Report: Our Common Future

Brought issue of sustainability into the mainstream

1993

Ottman, J.

More profits and market Share

1995

Porter & van Linde

Encourage to innovations

and higher productivity

1995

Kuhre, L.

Reduction of trade barriers Standardization Fewer health and safety impacts Increased awareness and

interest Improved community and employee relations

1995

Polonsky, M.

Five reasons to GM: achievement goals, moral obligation, pressure from government and competitors, eco- effectiveness in respect of waste disposal/ reductions in material usage

1995

Hart, S.

NRBV (natural-resource- based view of the company:

Three stages of proactive

environmental strategy:

pollution prevention, product

stewardship, sustainable

development

2000

Miles & Covin

Impact to reputation and overall performance

2000

Bansal & Roth

Three major motivations

for ecological initiatives:

competitiveness, legitimating,

environmental responsibility

2000

Mathur & Marthur

Criticism: Not all green or environmental marketing activities motivate investors

2001

Kassaye, W.

Size and scale of business matters in undertaking green marketing initiatives.

2002

Banerjee, S.

Internal and external

environmental orientation

2005

Baker & Sinkula

Motivation to environmental marketing hard to establish

2013

Fraj, Martinez & Matute

Managerial support effects positively the firm’s

development of green

marketing strategy


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Chang, 2012, 489). Green marketing is a specialway of doing marketing. Traditional marketinghas its goal in satisfying the needs of individualsand groups through creating, offering andexchanging products and services with others(Kotler, 2000, 8). Green marketing aims atsatisfying the unlimited needs of individuals andindustries with minimal detrimental impact on thenatural environment and at the same timeachieve organization’s aspirations on selling(Polonsky, 1994, 2). Wong (2007, 224) continuesfrom this that green marketing can be divided intwo business models: one is to produceenvironmental friendly products and services andthe other is to develop activities that are relatedto environmental protection. As Kärnä et.al(2002) expressed it, it is about balancing betweenobjectives of sales and profits and the concernfor society and the environment. In practical,green marketing includes a lot of activitiesincluding inter alia product modification, changingthe production process, modified advertising andchange in packaging (Polonsky, 1994, 1). Theseactions are done in order to reduce thedetrimental impact of products and theirconsumption on the environment (Mishra &Sharma 2012). Chamorro and Banegil (2005, 12)argued that green marketing philosophy meansthat environment should become one of the firm’svalues determining its organizational culture.

GREEN MARKETING STRATEGY

Taking green marketing to be a part ofcompany’s strategy can be seen as a reflectionof organization’s values. It focuses on whetherthe managers consider environmental issueswhen making plans (Baker & Sinkula). Kärnä etal (2003, 853) gave reason that in the core ofthe green marketing in a business strategy is astrategic product and customer decisions, whereenvironmental issues are emphasized andenvironmental strengths are used as acompetitive advantage. Green marketing isclosely related to Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR). CSR is company’s commitment toparticipate to sustainable economic developmentand to work with employees, their families, thelocal community and society in general toimprove their quality of life (WBCSD, 2004). Itmeans that company voluntarily does more thanis required by law or other regulation, regarding

environment, worker’s safety and health andinvestments in the field in which they operate(Hay et al, 2005, 108). Servaes and Tamayo(2013, 1046) argued though, that there is nogeneral consensus of all activities included inCSR. Green marketing can be seen as sociallyresponsible marketing, which relies on properlegal, ethical and social behavior (Kotler, 2006,707).

Kotler (2011, s. 133) argued that in greenmarketing strategy all the main marketingprogram elements; product, price, channels ofdistribution and marketing communication, canbe designed and executed in a moreenvironmental friendly way (Figure 1). In thefigure the new aspects of marketing mix aremarked with green colour. In designing of theproduct, needs to be considered which materialsare used in order to reduce carbon footprint ofthe products and minimize the energy used inproduction. In pricing it is needed to make a pricedifference between the normal and theenvironmental friendly product. Product withenvironmental friendly label can have a higherprice than the ordinary one and that way productis easier to separate from the ordinary ones.Promotion and selling of the product needs tobe done more online in order to reduce waste ofpaper and unnecessary traffic. It is important toinclude communication of the company’ssustainability development into the firm’spromotion. Production should be decentralizedin order to avoid long distance transports, whichlead to increased pollution (Kotler, 2011, 133).

Figure 1: Kotler (2011) Greening marketing mix

(Based on McCarthy’s 4P- model)

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Ginsgberg & Bloom (2004) have listed fourdifferent strategies to integrate green marketingto the current marketing plan. These are leangreen, defensive green, shaded green andextreme green (Figure 2). Firm can select one ofthese depending on its business model andenvironment (Wong, 2007, 223).

Figure2. Ginsgberg & Bloom. (2004) Green

MarketingStrategies.

In this green marketing matrix, there are twoquestions regarding green marketing strategy,which need to be answered. First, howsubstantial is the green consumer segment forthe company? Second question is, can companybe differentiated on the green dimension?Companies, which are not focused on publicizingor marketing their green initiatives, but gain toreduce costs and improve efficiencies throughpro-environmental activities, are categorized as“Lean Greens”. “Defensive Greens” use greenmarketing as a respond to the critics or tocompetitor’s action. They realize that greenmarket segment is an important one and canprovide revenues. “Shaded Greens” see greenmarketing as an opportunity to developinnovative products and technologies, whichlead to competitive advantage. For the“Extreme Greens”, environmental issues are fullyintegrated to company’s business and are amajor driving force in the company (Ginsgberg& Bloom).This Ginsgberg & Bloom’s theory(Figure 2) can be integrated in the primarypresented marketing mix (Figure 2). In tablebelow the differences among these fourstrategies can be seen by considering how thefour elements of the marketing mix are used in

each strategy (Table 2) . In “Extreme green” -strategy, all aspects of marketing mix areincluded, whereas in the “Lean green” -strategycompany only focuses to its products to beenvironmental friendly produced. This matrix canbe used as a tool when integrating greenmarketing into companies’ marketing plans (Chen& Lin, 2011).

Table 2: Marketing Mix tools used in Green

Strategies (Chen & Lin, 2011)

GREEN MARKETING STRATEGY IN B2BCOMPANIES

Business marketers act in the largest marketof all. Compared to business-to- consumermarkets, volume of transactions in the industrialor in the business is significantly exceeded. Asingle customer in B2B field can form aconsiderably part of company’s selling activity(Hutt & Speh, 2013, 4). Sustainability requiresfirms to expand their economic responsibilitiesto social and environmental areas. They alsohave to dedicate resources to interacting withsecondary stakeholders such as non-governmental organizations and environmentalgroups (Fraj, Martinez, Matute, 2013, 398-399).In B2B marketing, building a successfulmarketing strategy is highly dependent on theindustry. Often different industries enquirecompletely different promotional, pricing anddistribution strategies. To penetrate thesemarkets effectively, the marketer mustunderstand the organizational buying process,including complex buying motives. (Hutt & Speh,2013, 28) . Sima (2013, 151) argued that B2Bmarketing is 100% relationship marketing. Indeveloping green marketing strategy in B2B-context, it has become essential to build long-term-relationships. This is because theserelationships can contribute to firm’s operationaland environmental efficiency, instead of therelationships based just on buyer’s demand for

Lean

Defensive

Shaded

Extreme

Product Price Promotion Place


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greener products and services (Fraj, Martinez,Matute 2013, 397). Fraj, Martinez and Matute(2013) have noticed the importance of themanagers’ support towards environmentalprotection in developing green marketing strategyin B2B organizations. Their individual values,ideals, and knowledge of problems may affecttheir decisions at work and determineorganizational orientation towards theenvironment (Fryxell & Lo, 2003, 62). Managersdesire to integrate these values intoorganizational culture (Fraj, Martinez and Matute,2013, 398). Menon and Menon (1997) sawmanager’s concern with sustainability values asthe main motivator to environmental practices.Fraj, Martinez and Matute (2013) came to thehypothesis that managerial support forenvironmental protection positively affects thefirm’s development of green marketing strategyand environmental culture in the B2B context.

OPPORTUNITIES IN GREEN MARKETING

Most discussed opportunities found in greenmarketing literature are introduced. These aregreen marketing as a competitive advantage andgreen marketing’s impact to company’s imageand reputation.

Competitive advantage

Because of the growing importance ofenvironmental and social issues in the marketingenvironment, companies now consider theseissues more in their strategy development (Baker,2008, 569) . It appears that all types ofconsumers, both individual and industrial arebecoming more concerned and aware about thenatural environment. Many firms see this as anopportunity to be explored (Polonsky, 1994, 3).Baker (1999, 601) stated that companies haverealized that environmental responsiveness issomething that customers, investors and otherstakeholders take an interest in, and which canprovide opportunities for innovation andcompetitive advantage. Based on this change,Polonsky (1994, 3) assumed that firms that aremarketing goods with environmentalcharacteristics have a competitive advantageover firms marketing non-environmentallyresponsible alternatives. Zhang & Zhang (1999,100) argued that companies need to implementgreen marketing, or they will lose out in the

intensive market competition. In 1990’s, greeningthe strategy was argued as a source ofcompetitive advantage by Porter & Van der Linde(1995). They argued that making preferableenvironmental solutions develop new, moreeffective technologies (Porter & Van der Linde,1995, 121). Likewise, Hart (1995) argued thatinnovative environmental strategies lead tounique capabilities. Later, Baker and Sinkula(2005) viewed green marketing rather as aresource that enables these unique capabilities.These capabilities can lead to new innovationsthat allow companies to use its range of inputs,for example raw materials, more productively andthat way lower the total cost of the product. Firmscan also use its inputs more carefully in order toreduce its pollution. Pollution can be seen as aform of economic waste: opportunity costs ofpollution are wasted resources and wasted effort.These are often buried throughout product’slifecycle (Porter & Van der Linde, 1995, 120-122).These practices can also be proactive, when theygoal to eliminate environmental inefficienciesbefore they are generated (Fraj, Martinez,Matute, 2013, 399). Reduction of pollution andefficient use of inputs lead to enhancedproductivity. This is both better to theenvironment and makes company morecompetitive (Porter&Van der Linde, 1995,120-122).

Company Image and Reputation

Firm’s reputation consists of the perceptions,which firm’s relevant stakeholders have about thefirm. These relevant stakeholders come bothinside and outside of the company and they allimpact on firm’s reputation (see Figure 3) (Miles& Covin, 200, 300; Carroll, 1996). In the Figure3, NGO’s is meant non- governmentalorganizations with a special interest towards thefirm. Superior reputation is argued to be astrategic advantage in firm’s long-term ability tocreate value (Porter, 2011). Many studies alsoargue that reputation has a positive effect on themarket value of firms (Dierickx & Cool, 1989;Weigelt and Camerer, 1988). Miles and Covin(2000) found out in their study that there is astrong support that being a good environmentalsteward helps to create reputationaladvantage. This leads to preferable marketingand financial performance.

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Figure 3. Reputation Formed by Stakeholders.

(Based on Carroll, 1996)

Miles and Covin (2000) argued that firmsthat produce superior quality products, usetruthful advertising, act in a socially andenvironmentally responsible manner, and havefulfilling their obligations to various stakeholdergroups through firm’s history, are creatingreputational advantage. According to manyresearches, environmental performance issuggested to be but social responsible andrational, also to build firm’s reputationaladvantage (Spicer, 1978; Hamilton, 1995).Menon et al. (1999) stated that firm by satisfyingstakeholder demands for environmental friendlyproducts can avoid problems such as customerswitching and boycotts, which could lead tonegative publicity. This means that by buildinggood reputation to the firm, it simultaneouslyprevents bad reputation (followed by negativepublicity).

PRESSURES TO GREEN MARKETING

Pressures that drive companies to practicegreen marketing can be divided in governmental,competitive and consumer- pressures.

Governmental Pressure

Countries’ governments try to protectcustomers and society by placing restrictions tothe marketing and production. This protection hassignificant green marketing implications.Governments establish regulations designed to

control the amount of hazardous wastesproduced by firms. Production is controlledthrough the issuing of various environmentallicenses, thus modifying organizational behavior.In some cases governments try to encouragefinal consumers to become more responsible. Inother cases governments tax individuals who actenvironmentally irresponsible (Polonsky, 1994,5). In addition to countries’ own restrictions, thereare several international pressures to theenvironmental marketing too. European Unionhas developed directives, which aim to improveenvironmental quality, focusing for example ontoxics, chemicals and recycling. These directiveshave a major impact on electronics industry, butalso have an influence on many other industries.Any company making a product for the EU marketmust comply these directives (Esty & Winston,2008, 72-73) . World’s Trade Organization(WTO) has remarked sustainable developmentand protection and preservation of theenvironment to be fundamental goals of theorganization. While there is no specificagreement dealing with the environment, underWTO rules member countries can adopt trade-related measures aimed at protecting theenvironment (WTO, 2013). These “greenbarriers” are set against import including surtaxesand green technological standards regardingproducts. Governments can demand marks tothe green commodities to certify that they meetthe standards. Import of the sensitive products,like residual pesticides and heavy metals, canhave special regulations. Under thesecircumstances, green marketing can be seen asa way to pass these regulations and gain accessto the international market (Zhang and Zhang,1999, 100-101). One environmental regulationundertaken by governments has been theestablishment of guidelines designed to controlgreen marketing claims and green wash. This isdiscussed more in this study.

Competitive Pressure

McDaniel and Rylander (1993) identifiedcompanies’ competitors as a potential reason forthe change in companies’ environmentalbehavior. Competitor’s activities influence tothe company’s strategy. If in the same industryone company reports its compliance withenvironmental and social standards and others


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do not, this company gains environmentaladvantage. That pushes competitors to do thesame in order to keep its customers (Esty &Winston, 2008, 84). Often when firm reacts tothe competitor’s activities, firm’s goal to dothe same measures as the other company,but nothing more (McDaniel & Rylander, 1993).Competitive pressure pushes firms to take anapproach to green marketing in order to avoidnegative consequences. This will not lead tocompetitive advantage, because firm is alwaysone step behind of its competitors (McDaniel &Rylander, 1993). Rather than formulating andexecuting a consistent, customer-orientedstrategy, company decides its moves basedon its competitor’s moves. Company doesnot move towards its own goals (Kotler, 2006,366). Polonsky (1994) pointed out that there isa risk that reacting to competitive pressures canhave costly consequences, if the leader companyhas made a mistake which followerssubsequently repeat. This makes it importantnot to follow competitors blindly, but keep a closeeye on them (Polonsky, 1994, 6; Esty & Winston,2006, 84).

Consumer Pressure

As mentioned above, human wants areunlimited, but resources of the world are limited.Companies can minimize their share of wasteby utilizing these limited resources as efficientlyas possible and that way protect theenvironment. The arousal of the environmentalprotection consciousness among consumers invarious countries in the world gives rise to aheated trend of green consumption. This upsurgeof green products’ demand has resulted tofollowing new behavior of companies: in additionthat they have to have higher level ofenvironmental protection consciousness, theyalso have a greater task of satisfying consumers’new, higher demands through proper design,production, sales and recycling (Zhang &Zhang, 100).Marketers have before categorizedconsumers’ choosing among brands on the basisof functional (Marketing 1.0) and emotional(Marketing 2.0) criteria. But today consumersare using third criteria too, which is how thecompany meets its social responsibilities(Marketing 3.0.) (Kotler, 2011, 133). Research inthe last decade has shown that consumers are

aware of the environment’s condition, especiallyin the developed countries (Cherian & Jacob,2012, 117). Also B2B companies may nowadaysreceive pressure from their distributors andcustomers to adopt more environmental friendlypractices, even if there may not be immediatesavings (Kotler, 2011, 134). In B2B-industry, onecustomer can have a major purchasing powerand be really important to the company. Theselarge customers are now increasingly demandinginformation on the product’s lifecycle. In manyindustries, proof of environmental responsibilityhas become a requirement for keepingcustomers and getting major contracts. Thisactivity is technically called “Greening the supplychain”. Buyers insist their suppliers to meet theenvironmental standards. Nowadays, alsosuppliers have been pressuring their customers,so this pressure can be mutual (Esty & Winston,2008, 84).

Social Responsibility

Environmental deterioration has becomeglobal problem restricting economicdevelopment. People are searching for betterdevelopment models with regard to therelationship between economic development andenvironmental protection. Sustainabledevelopment strategy is nowadays accepted byvarious countries in the world (Zhang & Zhang,1999, 100). Firms have begun to realize that theyare part of a wider community and thereforethey must behave in an environmentallyresponsible way. This means that firms mustachieve their environmental objectives as wellas their profit related objectives. Firms can eitheruse the fact that they are environmentallyresponsible as a marketing tool, or they canchoose not to promote this fact. Environmentalissues are integrated into the firm’s corporateculture (Mishra & Sharma, 2012).

CHALLENGES AND RISKS IN GREENMARKETING

Green wash means that companies aremisleading the consumers regarding company’senvironmental practices or the product’s orservice’s environmental benefits (Parguel et al.2011, 2). Companies turn in to green washbecause they try to make themselves to lookmore environmental friendly and that way gain

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consumer’s trust by concealing faults andallegations (Laufer 2003, 255). Green wash hasbecome more popular when companies are tryingthat way to get ahead of their competitors (Chang& Chen, 2012, p.490).Green wash is a seriousthreat to the green marketing. Consumers usuallyhave faith in company’s advertising andmessaging and these have a great influence inpurchasing decision. Consumers areoverwhelmed with messages of environmentalfriendly products (Polonsky et al. 2010, 50) andwhen not knowing the company better,consumer’s image of the company is based onthese messages and advertisement. If these arenot reliable, it is very hard for the consumer tomake the crucial decision. When customers donot know who or what to trust and they can losetheir faith towards the matter of green purchasingand think that environmental claims are justmarketing gimmicks (Kotler, 2011, p.91). Thiswould damage the green marketing of thenumerous companies (Chang & Chen, 2012,p.491).Issues regarding environment are oftenscientific complex, e.g. global warming. This iswhy it is challenging to communicate relevantinformation to consumers in understandable form(Polonsky et.al 2010, 50) .This is also the reason,why marketers should be particularly attentiveconcerning their green marketing, becauseconsumers are easy to mislead (Virtanen, 2010,141). There are some regulations made, whichtry to prevent the green wash. In the USA FederalTrade Commission (FTC) first published in 1992the Guidelines for the Use of EnvironmentalMarketing Claims (“Green Guides”), which hasbeen renewed couple of times, the latest in 2012.This Guideline is merely administrativeinterpretations and it does not have the force oflaw (Feinstein, 2013, p.242-243). InternationalChamber of Commerce (ICC) (2011) haspublished a framework for responsibleenvironmental marketing communications. Thereare rules for “green” claims that are determinedto be “any type of claim where explicit or implicitreference is made to the environmental orecological aspects relating to the production,packaging, distribution, use/consumption ordisposal of products” (ICC, 2011, 3). Marketershave normal responsibility to be truthfulaccording environmental marketing. Eco-labelsmake environmental marketing easier for

marketers and producers, and same time provethat products truly are environmental friendly.These eco-labels are granted by registration,based on evaluation of the firm’s environmentalperformance (Virtanen,2010, 141). In addition tothese regulations, there is consumer protectionslaw, which every country has its own. Despite ofthese regulations and laws, there is lack ofstandardization to authenticate these green“claims”. There is a need for a standard qualitycontrol board for labeling and licensing greenproducts (Mishra & Sharma , 2012).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The study explores green marketing as aphenomenon. Main objective of the study was todetermine, which role green marketing has incompany’s strategy. This objective wasattempted to achieve with the help of three sub-questions. Study also aims to find out, if greenmarketing can bring added value to the company.These questions were examined by scientificarticles and literature, issues, which arediscussed in the theoretical part of the study, arealso listed in the table. From this study aconclusion can be drawn that green marketinghas a significant role in case-companies’strategies and it brings added value to thecompanies. Type of the added value is dependedon the industry and company itself. Mostimportant benefits of the green marketingaccording to this study are its positive effect tothe company image and differentiation from thecompetitors. Both of these can bring added valueto the firm. Sales growth is also an importantbenefit, but only for the one case-company.Green marketing’s role is center in case-companies’ strategy and both of them see thatits potential will be growing in the future. In thefurther studies, it would be interesting to limit thestudy in some specific industry. In this study, bothcase-companies work in the industry, but theirfield of business differs a lot. Green marketingvaries from company to company, but there maybe some similarities between equivalentindustries. In order to produce more reliableresults, this study should be expanded byincluding companies into the empiricalresearch. It would also be interesting toinclude customer’s perspective into the study,for example, of some specific green marketing


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campaign. Then could be seen, how the greenmarketing strategy can be built to be as efficientas possible to match the customer’s demands.

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ECONOMY UPGRADATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL

DEGRADATION:

A CASE STUDY ON UTTRAKHAND DISASTER

SHRUTI AGGARWAL1, *NEERAJ JAIN1, 2

1 Department of Management , Shri Guru Ram Rai Institute of Technology & Science, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India, 1,2

Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

*Address for correspondence : Neeraj Jain, Department of Management,Shri Guru Ram Rai Institute of Technology & Science, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India,

Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present study gives the dreadful scenario of casualties occurred on June 13, 2013 inUttara Khand, India due to heavy rain fall leading to uncontrolled devastating floods andlandslides, where a large number of people comprising women, children and elderly lost theirlives. Besides, this dreadful disaster caused severe damage to human population, buildings,roads, plants etc. Even, whole biodiversity and natural ecosystem comprising aquatic floraand fauna have been completely destroyed in the region. This is an eye opener and a bigchallenge before educationists, researchers, environmentalists, decision makers and policymakers to think about sustainable growth of the society without damaging our environment andfuture generations. Sustainable development ensures the well-being of individual by integratingsocial development, economic development, environmental conservation and protection. It isnecessary for the sustainable development that the policies and technologies should be greenso that environmental ability meets present and future generation in equal manner. Efforts havebeen made to suggest measures to prevent such devastating disaster.

Keywords: UttraKhand floods, environment, power projects, landslides, planned development

INTRODUCTION

The landmark report of the WorldCommission on Environment and Developmententitled “Our Common Future” warned that unlesswe change many of our lifestyle patterns, theworld will face unacceptable levels ofenvironmental damage and human suffering. TheCommission, echoing the urgent need fortailoring the pace and the pattern of globaleconomic growth to the planet’s carryingcapacity, said that “Humanity has the ability tomake development sustainable and to ensurethat it meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs.” In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst centered on the north Indian stateof Uttrakhand caused devastating floods andlandslides in the country’s worst natural disastersince the 2004 tsunami. Though some parts of

Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi and UttarPradesh in India, some regions of Western Nepaland some parts of Western Tibet alsoexperienced heavy rain fall , over 95% of thecasualties occurred in Uttrakhand. As of 16 July2013, according to figures provided by theUttarakhand government, more than 5,700people were “presumed dead.” This total included934 local residents. Destruction of bridges androads left about 100,000 pilgrims and touriststrapped in the valleys. Landslides, due to thefloods, damaged several houses and structures,killing those who were trapped.

SOME EXPERT’S VIEW

This is what the head of the Department ofEnvironmental Studies at Delhi University (DU)New Delhi, India had to say about theUttarakhand floods when asked by the New

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Scientist, a magazine that ought to know a thingor two about people who understand nature: “Thecurrent devastation and human misery is largelyman-made.” The DU professor, Maharaj Panditadded that “rampant unauthorized and mindlessbuilding activities on the river flood plains in theHimalayas” are the prime causes of the disaster.”The valleys of the Yamuna, the Ganga and theAlaknanda witness heavy traffic of tourists. Forthis, the government has to construct new roadsand widen the existing ones.

A report of an expert committee, constitutedby the Union Ministry of Water Resources to findout the causes of the June calamity, has saidthat a combination of many factors led to the flashfloods and the subsequent destruction. But thecloud burst is certainly not the reason behind thedeluge, it says in its 64-page report submittedrecently to the Ministry.

The National Institute of DisasterManagement (NIDM), in one of its first reportson the Uttarakhand floods, has blamed “climaticconditions combined with haphazard humanintervention” in the hills for the disaster.

Surya Prakash, Associate Professor ofNIDM, travelled over a 1,000 kilometers in flood-and landslide-hit areas of Uttarakhand betweenJune 22 and 24 to prepare the report. He saysthat the abnormally high amount of rain (morethan 400 per cent) in the hill state was causedby the fusion of Westerly’s with the monsoonalcloud system. Heavy precipitation swelled rivers,both in the upstream as well as downstreamareas. Besides the rain water, a huge quantity ofwater was probably released from melting of iceand glaciers due to high temperatures during themonth of May and June. The water not only filledup the lakes and rivers that overflowed but alsomay have caused breaching of moraine dammedlakes in the upper reaches of the valley,particularly during the late evening on June 16and on June 17, killing about several hundredpersons; thousands went missing and about100,000 pilgrims were trapped. Prakash says thatthe Alaknanda river and the Mandakini, bothtributaries of the Ganga, occupied their floodways and started flowing along the old courseswhere habitations were built over time (when theriver had abandoned this course and shifted itspath to the east side). Thus, the rivers destroyed

the buildings and other infrastructure that camein its way.

The loss of human life in some areas wasdue to less reaction time, it is said. The loss ofproperty was due to heavy encroachment nearriver banks for commercial purposes like hotelsand restaurants on routes leading to religiousplaces like Kedarnath and Badrinath.

In fact, it might serve us well to remember atrue son of the fast-eroding Uttarakhand soil whomartyred himself trying to communicate amessage to the state administration that, ifheeded, would have gone a long way inminimizing (if not preventing) the scale ofdestruction brought by the rains.

On 13 June, 2011, exactly two years beforethis disaster (the spell of heavy rainfall thattriggered the floods began on 14 June, 2013), asadhu known as SWAMI NIGAMANAND passedaway at the Himalayan Institute of MedicalSciences at Dehradun. He had been on anindefinite fast to protest against the rampantstone crushing and strip mining along the banksof the Ganges in Uttarakhand. The first principleof disaster management is prevention—by takingthe necessary precautionary measures. ButUttarakhand, captive to local interest groups, hasbeen doing the exact opposite: actively solicitingdisaster.

ROLE OF PEOPLE

The cabal of bureaucrats, businessmen,technocrats and politicians that call the shots indevelopmental policy and decision-making—when not corrupt—take a perverse pride in amanagerial tunnel vision that believes only in“getting things done”. They see environmentalissues purely as roadblocks on the path ofdevelopment, not as facts of nature that must bedealt with on their own terms. They cannot seethat human beings—even CEOs, bankers andshareholders—are an integral part of nature andderive their sustenance from it.

Their narrow pragmatism that avoidsthinking of the final consequences of their choicesis nothing but a form of magical thinking that isdifferent only in degree from that of the other,more populous, and unscrupulous, bunch thatsimply does not have the time of day for such


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romantic nonsense as “Mother Nature” and“ecological balance”, and thinks nothing ofdeploying all their assets—cerebral andmaterial—to circumvent the law and line theirpockets.

REASONS FOR SUCH HUGE DISASTER

After analyzing the views of various people,committees and the facts, this is for sure that it isnot merely a happening due to natural causesbut the man-made reasons are more behind it.The various reasons are listed as follows:

Roads destabilizing mountains

“A new (mountain) range like the Himalayawill remain steady if not tampered with much. Butthe huge expansion of roads and transport isbringing the mountains in Uttarakhand down,”says Prof. Pandit. Road, he says, is a majordestabilizing factor for a mountain and it is a newphenomenon for the Himalaya.

Data with the Uttarakhand State TransportDepartment confirms this. In 2005-06, 83,000 oddvehicles were registered in the state. The figurerose to nearly 180,000 in 2012-13. Out of this,proportion of cars, jeeps and taxis, which are themost preferred means of transport for touristslanding in the state, increased the most. In 2005-06, 4,000 such vehicles were registered, whichjumped to 40,000 in 2012-13. It is an establishedfact that there is a straight co-relation betweentourism increase and higher incidence oflandslides

Threat from dams

The Ganga in the upper reaches has beenan engineer’s playground. The Central ElectricityAuthority and the Uttarakhand Power Departmenthave estimated the river’s hydroelectric potentialat some 9,000 MW and have planned 70 oddprojects on its tributaries. In building theseprojects the key tributaries would be modifiedthrough diversion to tunnels or reservoirs to suchan extent that 80 per cent of the Bhagirathi and65 per cent of the Alaknanda could be “affected”.As much as 90 per cent of the other smallertributaries could be “affected” the same way.

Landslides more frequent now

“Our mountains were never so fragile. But

these heavy machines plying everyday on thekutcha roads have weakened it, and now wesuffer landslides more often,” says Harish Rawat,a B.Sc. student in Uttarakhand’s Bhatwari regionthat suffered a major landslide in 2010.Rawat losthis home to the landslide when a major part ofthe main market and 28 shops were wiped outby the landslide. About 25 other houses weredestroyed completely.

Another local resident, Ram Prasad Tomar,a driver by profession in Uttarkashi town, says itis road cutting that has made the mountains soweak. He says the way mountains are cut tomake roads has rendered the mountainsunstable. “Road contractors, who come fromoutside, do not understand the mountains. Mostof the expressways that are being constructednow are tangled in legal cases. After cutting ofmountains, landslides continue for up to fouryears, and contractors go bankrupt clearing thedebris,” he says.

Experts say promotion of the state as atourist destination is coming in way of sustainabledevelopment.

Huge traffic of tourist

According to media reports, when the floodsstruck, about 28 million tourists were visiting thestate, while the local population is close to halfthat number. First of all, it is irresponsible to letsuch a huge volume of human traffic into anecologically sensitive area, that too in themonsoon season. But once the decision hadbeen taken to milk tourism to the maximum, youwould naturally need to build infrastructure tocater to such tourist inflows. This requiresplanning. And given the fragile nature of both theclimate and eco-systems of the Himalayanregion, it also requires a strict adherence tobuilding and environmental norms. The firstprinciple of disaster management is preventionby taking the necessary precautionary measures.But Uttarakhand, captive to local interest groups,has been doing the exact opposite: activelysoliciting disaster.

Failure of adherence to building andenvironmental norms

As recently as February 2013, theUttarakhand high court had passed an order

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asking the state government to demolishstructures that had come up within 200 metersof the river banks. But the administration did notact. When the floods came, many of those illegalstructures got demolished anyway.

Absence of radars

Under modernization of IMD, 55 Dopplerradars were approved by the government of Indiaway back in 2007-08. The IMD was to furnish anestimated price which would then go to theMinistry of Earth Sciences, which in turn sends itto Planning Commission for approval. But inthese six years, the file is shuttling between threedepartments, moving at a snail pace and netresult is zero.

Dr. Chandan Ghosh, the head of the GeoHazards, National institute of DisasterManagement said, “ Uttrakhand government hasplaced request for Doppler radar which canforecast cloudburst when attached tosupercomputer to the centre but the samecouldn’t be installed due to bureaucratic hurdles.”

It is a surprise that in the first phase ofinstallation of these radars Uttrakhand got themiss. Seventeen radars were installed in variouslocations but none in Uttrakhand. Isn’t this utterneglect on the part of the centre? Despite beingprone to frequent cloudbursts, flashfloods andlandslides Uttrakhand has virtually no system inplace for early warnings, weather forecasts oreven dissemination of rainfall and landsliderelated data.

What should be done?

Indian mythology is replete with instancesof ‘ Akaash-vani’( heaven speak) to warn bothkings gone astray and common people deviatingfrom the path of dharma. The most famous ofthem is ‘akash-vani’ predicting king Kansa’sdeath at Krishna’s hand. But ‘heaven speak’ doesnot just belong to the realm of mythology. Whathappened in Uttrakhand in June is proof enough.The heaven in form of nature spoke loud andclear on June 15, 16 and 17. The message wasnot just for the kings (state) but also the commonpeople. Mind and mend your ways, else….

If we wish to heed heaven speak, then thestate must:

n Need to introspect without bias or fear. If it

has gone wrong in understandingUttarakhand’s proper developmental needs,then let it not hesitate in admitting so.

n We have to realize that the Himalayan hills

are young, restless and fragile. Andaccordingly set its developmental prioritiesand policies. These should be based as muchon local and traditional knowledge andaspirations, as on the use of ‘state of art’science and technology.

n The state is endowed with expert institutions

and experts. So we should not import ideasand projects incompatible with localconditions and ecology, merely in the nameof development or economic growth.

n Annual yatra or pilgrimage to Char Dham

and many other places of religious andspiritual significance on the banks of theGanga and the Yamuna and its tributaries iscertainly the state’s ‘signature’ activity. Itshould be restored in a non-commercialmanner. It is agreed the world over thatplaces in hills cannot accommodate peoplebeyond their carrying capacity. So the yatrasshall have to be strictly regulated withverifiable standards. Tariffs for lodging andboarding should be set by competent andefficient state agencies. Let a ‘Yatra board’with membership from government as wellas non-government representatives,including experts and the religious leaders,be constituted by an Act of the statelegislature.

n Meteorological monitoring, weather advance

warning systems and post extreme-eventrescue and relief operations shall have to beupgraded to levels befitting the fragility of thestate’s natural environment and ecology, sothat never again is the state machinerycaught likewise napping.

n The policy for water-based energy in the

region needs to be carefully balanced to takethese concerns into account. The policyshould lay down mandatory ecological flowprovisions (at least 50 per cent in leanseason); a distance criterion (5 km) and toughenforcement measures and penalties for


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ensuring that construction of the project doesnot harm the mountain stability or local watersystems. It must be noted that while riverscannot and must not be re-engineered, damscan be re-engineered to optimize on availablewater for energy generation

n Ecosystem-based tourism for

development to be used but withsafeguards and local benefits . Highmountain, adventure, biodiversity and naturetourism are the most obvious routes toeconomic development in the Himalayas. Butthis tourism is greatly dependent on theecology of the region. If the environmentdegrades, tourism will also be impacted. Onthe other hand, tourism has impacts on theenvironment, if not carefully managed. TheUttarakhand flood teaches us that we mustlearn to build sustainable models for pilgrim-based tourism in the fragile hills. There is aproblem of pollution, litter and solid wastedisposal in most high Himalayan tourist sites.

CONCLUSION

June 2013, Uttarakhand is a wakeup callnot just for the rulers and people in the state, butplanners and decision makers all over thecountry. Here are leanings and lessons forvarious ministries in the Government of India, inparticular its expert agencies like IMD (IndiaMetrological Department), CWC (Central WaterCommission), EAC (Expert Appraisal Committee)of Union Environment Ministry and NDMA(National Disaster Management Authority) as wellas governments and authorities in all other hillstates. One lesson from the tragedy: “If we donot do environmentally sound development,there will be no development at all”

REFERENCES

1. www.ndtv.com

2. www.dailybhaskar.com

3. www.businessstandard.com

4. www.downtoearth.org

5. Surya Prakash,Report of NIDM( National Instituteof disaster management) July 15, 2013

6. India Today, June 27 2013

7. A selection of reports and documents on hydropower projects Maharaj Pandit, “ New scientist

magazine” June 2013


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