introduction and l.review

7/27/2019 Introduction and L.review

1/41

WRITING THE INRODUCTION &

LITERATURE REVIEW

Olufunmilayo I. FawoleMSc (Epid and Biostat) (Wits), FWACP, FMCPH.

Dept. Epidemiology and Medical

Statistics, UCH, [email protected]


2/41

Learning objectives

At the end of this session, you should be able

to:

Explain what should be included in the

introduction to a research paper.

Critically analyse and edit an introduction.

Explain what should be included in theliterature review to a research paper.

Critically analyse and edit a literature review


3/41


4/41

Standard Structure of Scientific

Publications

This is based on the IMRAD arrangement:

Introduction - Why did you do the research?

Materials (patients) and Methods - What didyou use and how did you do it?

Results andAnalysis - What did you find?

Discussion - What do these findings mean?

For dissertations literature review is imperative


5/41

The Introduction

Should explain to the reader why you did

the research investigation at all.

Should show where there is a gap incurrent knowledge, and how the study

you have done addresses this problem.

Also points out where there areconflicting results that need to be

resolved.


6/41

Makes clear why this topic is worth studying

or why you did the study these are theobjectives of your study and how your study

adds to the body of knowledge that is

available. Research question must be very clear to

readers of the article, and the question should

be based upon existing knowledge, data, and

reports using appropriate references


7/41


8/41

The Introduction

In summary Should state clearly

(1) the context of the study,

(2) the problem,(3) what is already known,

(4) what remains to be confirmed and/or

tested.


9/41


10/41

For publications in international

journals -

It is not enough to just repeat a study that hasbeen done elsewhere

Unless there is a very good reason why the

results of a study in Nigeria are not likely togive the same results of the same study inTanzania.

In such cases, you would need to make a verystrong argument as to why these differencescould be expected.


11/41

The first paragraph

The opening sentence sets the context for the

remainder of the paper, so it should catch the

attention of the reader

The introductory paragraph should set the

context in which the research you describe

was carried out.

The first paragraph


12/41

Opening sentence

Studies have shown that there are four main

kinds of opening sentence.

Historical,

Minireview,

Gloom & doom

New & exciting.First two most common.


13/41

Historical

The historical opening is one of the most

common, and tells the reader the current

situation in relation to past events.

Because of its low cost, ease of use, safety

and efficacy, chloroquine has been the

mainstay of treatment for malaria in Africa for

many decades.


14/41

Mini review

All of the major characteristics of a particulardisease are summarised -

Schistosomiasis is a water snail-transmittedhelminthic infection of the intestinal or urinarytract that is prevalent in many areas of the

tropics and is responsible for considerablemorbidity especially in children.


15/41

Gloom and Doom

This is a sentence in which the size of the

problem is stated.

Food borne infections are estimated to cause

76 million illnesses, 300,000 hospitalizations

and 5,000 deaths annually in the US.


16/41

The new and interesting

This is a sentence in which the emergence and

spread of new pathogens may be described

Since the mid-1980s, concern has grown

that invasive group A streptococcal infections

have been increasing in number and severity.


17/41

Objectives

Broad ((statement of what is ultimately to beachieved)

Specific

S -pecific

M- easurable

A-chievable

R-ealistic

T-imely


18/41

Objectives

To assess ----------

To determine

To identify

To explore

To evaluate

To document

To predict

To measure

To estimate


19/41

Use past tense except when referring to established facts.After all, the paper will be submitted after all of the work iscompleted.

2-4 paragraphs

Organize your ideas, making one major point with eachparagraph.

Statement of aims should be put as last section ofIntroduction

research objectives; provide signal Examples: Therefore, the objective of this study was

Practical hints:


20/41

Refer to recentpapers that show that a problem

exists. It is not very useful to give details of the

historical context of a disease.

In general, with the pace of scientific progress, a

paper that is more than 10 years old is no longerworth citing as a reference!

Every statement of fact should have a reference to

support it.

The use of review articles as sources of actual

data not encouraged - rather go to the sourceof the information that is given in the review

article


21/41

INTRODUCTION: Key points

1.. KISS keep it short and simple (2-4 paragraphs)

2. The introduction must follow a logical progression from the background, to the current state ofknowledge, to information that is not known and

research question, to how your study design willanswer that question.

3.. The flow should also be from a global perspective,

narrowing down to the specific study being reported

4. Get advice from colleagues about whether yourdescription is clear.


22/41

LITREATURE REVIEW


23/41

Source: Research toolbox guide: http://www.researchtoolbox.com/Manual/6.htm
http://www.researchtoolbox.com/Manual/6.htmhttp://www.researchtoolbox.com/Manual/6.htm


24/41

Identify key

words/

concepts to

be searched

Identify

potential

references

through

electronic

or manual

searches

Retrieving

promising

references

Screen

references

for

relevanceand

appropriate

ness

Discardirrelevant/ in-

appropriate

references

Read

relevant

references

and takenotes

Organize

references

Analyze/

integratematerials

Writereview

Identify new

referencesthrough

citations

Identify key

words/

concepts to

be searched

Identify

potential

references

through

electronicor manual

searches

Retrieving

promising

references

Screen

references

for

relevanceand

appropriate

ness

Discardirrelevant/ in-

appropriate

references

Read

relevant

references

and takenotes

Organize

references

Analyze/

integratematerials

Writereview

Identify new

referencesthrough

citations

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITREATURE REVIEW

ELECTRONIC LITERATURE


25/41

ELECTRONIC LITERATURE

SEARCHES

MEDLINE: Medical Literature On-Line

CINAHL: Cumulative Index to Nursing and

Allied Health Literature

PsycINFO: Psychology Information On-Line AIDSLINE: AIDS Information On-Line

CancerLit: Cancer Literature

HealthSTAR: Health Services, Technology,

Administration, and Research

CHID: Combined Health Information Database


26/41

Reasons for conducting a literature

review Prevents duplication Helps discover what others have learned and

reported on a specific problem Clarify how they studied the problem

Helps you refine the problem Become familiar with research approaches/theories used to explain similar problems

Helps to formulate a convincing argument forconducting research on a problem.

Justify your choice of research question,theoretical or conceptual framework, andmethodology


27/41

What has been done in my field of research

What principles of selection should I be using

What precise contribution is offered by other studies in

the field? How (if at all) do previous studies relate to each other?

What are the limitations identified by previous studies

How does my research fit into what has been done?

(Craswell, 2005. Writing for academic success

'Literature' can include a range of


28/41

Literature can include a range of

sources:

journal articles monographs

computerized databases

conferences proceedings

Theses and dissertations

empirical studies

government reports and reports from other bodies

historical records Statistical handbooks.

Books

Presentations at conferences

Journal articles

Ho do I rite a Literat re Re ie


29/41

How do I write a Literature Review

A written review should provide readers with an

objective, well organized synthesis of the current state of

evidence on a topic.

In essence it helps to critically evaluate the overall

evidence on the topic and provide a summary using

writers own words should not just be a series of quotesor series of abstracts.

Should identify strengths and weaknesses described in

the literature.

The review may be presented in a form ofthemes or

common trends (historical, theoretical, methodological,

substantive, etc) .

The themes should build upon each other.


30/41

Ordering citations

All approaches to ordering citations should

move toward the specific focus the study:

distant to close (geographical)

chronological (time)

different categories of approach

a combination of the above


31/41

Plagiarism

is considered

to be one of the worst

academic sins!

Academic dishonesty or Academic fraud
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_dishonestyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_dishonesty


32/41

Plagiarism

Plagiarism involves taking ideas or words

from other writers without acknowledging them.

May be intentional or accidental.

Writers must be very confident that all sources inthe write up are acknowledged; hence theDeclaration Statement in a Thesis.

Hence it is important to use a method of note takingwhich allows easy distingiustion of personal workfrom that of others.


33/41

How to avoid plagiarism? Give credit whenever you use:

Idea, opinion or theory from somebody else

Facts, statistics, graphs, or any information notcommon knowledge

Quotation of another persons spoken or writtenwords

Prevent it by

Paraphrasing the other persons spoken or written

words.

"...if you did not write it yourself, you must give

credit."


34/41

The I vs. We debate

Traditionally in most academic writing, it is notaccepted to write: "I think..." or "It is my opinion...",because this detracts from the supposed objectivity ofscholarship. It is true that too much insertion of

yourself in your writing swings the focus away from thematerial you are investigating and on to you.

However, under the influence of a number of modern

philosophers and other theorists, this may even

be desirable in some disciplines.

It is a debate that is still ongoing within the academia


35/41

Reporting words

Reporting verbs or expressions are used to reporton what other authors have done.

This include whether they have - made claims,stated that, opined, argued a case, established

findings, drawn conclusions, etc. Your choice of word will reveal to your reader

your attitude toward the status of the author's

theories/research; it will also indicate whether ornot you consider her/his claims to be

substantiated


36/41

Possible e-help

Endnote & Refworks (referencing)

Turnitin.com (plagiarism)

www.mendeley.org (PDF sharing &

organisation


37/41

What are the examiners looking for?A review of the literature should:

set up a theoretical framework for your research; show your reader that you:

have a clear understanding of the keyconcepts/ideas/studies/ models related to your topic;

know about the history of your research area and anyrelated controversies;

can discuss these ideas in a context appropriate for your

own investigation;

can evaluate the work of others;

clarify important definitions/terminology;

develop the research space you will also indicate in theIntroduction and Abstract;

narrow the problem, and make the study feasible


38/41

Lesson 2: Writing effectively

Poor writing results when you

1. Dont know the subject well

2. Dont know your audience

3. Dont use the tools of writing

4. Dont spend the time it requires

5. Write to impress instead of express

ideas

6. Are not honest

7. Dont try hard enough


39/41

HAPPY WRITING

THANK YOU


40/41

Reflection Activity

Look at your literature review:

Does it provide a good background to explain the need for

the project?

Can I account for the studies that I included in my review?

What plan (pattern/themes) was followed when I

presented the topic and the subsequent issues

What gaps did I identify?

How did I make the gaps explicit

How do I plan to address the identified shortcomings


41/41

Reflecting on your literature review

How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure I've found all the

relevant material?

Was it focused enough to exclude irrelevant material?

Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length ofmy paper/project?

Did I critically analyze the literature used?

Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions, comparingitems to each other in the ways they deal with them?

Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I assess them,discussing strengths and weaknesses?

introduction and l.review

Documents