introduction to the un system: orientation for serving on ... · un field mission. foreword x...

Peace Operations Training Institute®

Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

Course Author

Mr. Julian Harston, Assistant Secretary-General to the United Nations (Retired)

Series Editor

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Introduction to the UN System: Orientation for Serving on a UN Field Mission

Peace Operations Training Institute®

Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

Course Author

Mr. Julian Harston, Assistant Secretary-General to the United Nations (Retired)

Series Editor

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.


Cover Photo: UN Photo #553835 by Devra

Berkowitz. Wide view of the Security Council

meeting on “women and peace and security”.

24 June 2013.

© 2015 Peace Operations Training Institute. All rights reserved.

Peace Operations Training Institute 1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202 Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA www.peaceopstraining.org

First edition: 2001 by LCOL Christian Hårleman Second edition: 2003 Third edition: 2011 Fourth edition: 2015 by Mr. Julian Harston

The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute (POTI), the Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. The Peace Operations Training Institute is an international not-for-profit NGO registered as a 501(c)(3) with the Internal Revenue Service of the United States of America. The Peace Operations Training Institute is a separate legal entity from the United Nations. Although every effort has been made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s) disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely from open media and other independent sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy and doctrine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.

Versions of this course offered in other languages may differ slightly from the primary English master copy. Translators make every effort to retain the integrity of the material.

v

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

Table of Contents


Foreword x

Method of Study xi

Lesson 1 Framework for a Global Organization, Past and Present 12

Section 1.1 The Founding of the United Nations and its Charter 14

Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations 16

Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority 19

Section 1.4 Financial Principles and Budget of the United Nations 22

Section 1.5 The United Nations System 23

Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact 29

Lesson 2 The Principal Organs of the United Nations 32

Section 2.1 General Assembly 34

Section 2.2 Security Council 37

Section 2.3 Economic and Social Council 41

Section 2.4 Secretariat and the Secretary-General 43

Section 2.5 International Court of Justice 47

Section 2.6 Trusteeship Council 50

INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SySTEM: ORIENTATION FOR SERvING ON A UN FIELD MISSION


vI

Lesson 3 The Role of the United Nations in Global Peace and Security 54

Section 3.1 The Evolving UN Response to Global Conflict 56

Section 3.2 Mechanisms for Stronger Peace and Security 59

Section 3.3 The Guiding Principles of Peace Operations 61

Section 3.4 Multidimensional Components 65

Section 3.5 Types of Peace Operations 68

Section 3.6 Planning and Preparation 73

Section 3.7 Implementation 75

Section 3.8 Management Responsibilities 77

Section 3.9 The Peacekeeping Partnership 78

Lesson 4 The Role of the United Nations in Global Development and Humanitarian Action 82

Section 4.1 The Development Concept 84

Section 4.2 The Interface Between Disaster Relief and Development 88

Section 4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives 89

Section 4.4 Distinctions and Similarities between Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law 93

Section 4.5 Principles of International Humanitarian Law 94

Section 4.6 Principles of Human Rights 96

Section 4.7 Human Development and Climate Change 106

Lesson 5 The Dynamic Field Environment 110

Section 5.1 Social and Cultural Environment 112

Section 5.2 Mission Environment 116

Section 5.3 Civil-Military Cooperation 119

Section 5.4 Safety and Security Environment 120



vII

Lesson 6 Principles and Responsibilities of UN Field Personnel 126

Section 6.1 Service for Humanity 128

Section 6.2 Obligations and Duties 128

Section 6.3 Cultural and Social Demands 131

Section 6.4 Personal Demands 133

Section 6.5 Privileges and Immunities 135

Annex A: Ten Rules – Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets 136

Lesson 7 Safety and Security for UN Field Personnel 140

Section 7.1 Responding to Threats Facing the UN System 142

Section 7.2 Main Principles and Structure of the UN Security Management System 143

Section 7.3 Responsibilities of UN Personnel 147

Section 7.4 Personal Safety and Precautions 149

Section 7.5 Travel Precautions 154

Section 7.6 Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault 157

Section 7.7 Special Security Precautions 158

Section 7.8 First Aid 163

Section 7.9 Coping with Stress 166

Lesson 8 Strategies and Techniques for Effective Fieldwork 172

Section 8.1 Participatory Methods 174

Section 8.2 Projects and Project Control 175

Section 8.3 Monitoring and Verification 177

Section 8.4 Transparent Communication 179

Section 8.5 Negotiation 183



vIII

Section 8.6 Mediation 185

Section 8.7 Written Communications and Reports 188

Section 8.8 Communication with the Media 188

Lesson 9 Global Partners for Development and Peace 194

Section 9.1 Establishing Organizational Relationships in the Field 196

Section 9.2 UN Programmes and Funds 197

Section 9.3 UN Specialized Agencies 202

Section 9.4 International Organizations with Member States 204

Section 9.5 Non-Governmental International Organizations 206

Section 9.6 International Governmental Organizations 207

Section 9.7 Non-Governmental Organizations 209



Ix

Appendices

Appendix A: List of Acronyms 214

Appendix B: Current Peacekeeping Missions 219

About the Author: Mr. Julian Harston 220

Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination 221



x

Welcome to this course, which will introduce you to the United Nations and its role in international

peace and security. I’ve been in the business of peace and security and diplomacy most of my working

life, and I really don’t remember a moment when the world faced such problems as it does today.

In order to meet the unique obligations placed on it by the world community, the United Nations

needs people, both civilian and military, to work in the field around the world. It needs people, civilian

and military, who understand the United Nations — its history and its activities, both past and present.

Activities which make it a vital part of the process of mitigating and even from time to time solving

some of the world’s greatest challenges.

The United Nations is not easy. It is a complex organization made up of many different parts which

are independent but are expected to work together in the integrated operations which now form the

largest part of what we do. What we must do together as you follow this course is equip you with some

of the knowledge and background information that you will need in order to become a valuable member

of a UN team.

The breadth of activities now carried out by integrated missions in the field require not just military

and police and the more traditional civilian political and administrative components, but now include

civil affairs, humanitarian work, communications, elections, security sector reform, rule of law, gender

affairs, and a wide variety of peacebuilding and development activities. When I was serving in UNTAES,

the mission in Eastern Slavonia in the former yugoslavia, I had colleagues who were running the

railways, who were running the sewage systems, who were running most of the government in that

small place — a multitude of activities. The question of whether UN peace operations can take on more

has to been seen in the fact that there are so few global alternatives. Of all the world’s organizations,

the UN is least able to turn its back on people most in need of safety and security.

In 2000, the Brahimi Report called on the leaders of

the world to “renew their commitment to the ideals of

the United Nations, to commit as well as to strengthen

the capacity of the United Nations to fully accomplish

the mission which is, indeed, its very raison d’être: to

help communities engulfed in strife and to maintain or

restore peace.” Today, as the United Nations celebrates

its 70th anniversary in the year 2015, this call to action

remains relevant and imperative. As observed by Mr.

Brahimi himself: “peacekeeping shall continue to be in

high demand.”

—Mr. Julian Harston, 2015.

Foreword

View a video introduction to this

course at <www.peaceopstraining.org/

videos/366/introduction-to-the-un-

system-course-intro/>.



xI

Method of Study

This self-paced course aims to give students flexibility in their approach to learning. The

following steps are meant to provide motivation and guidance about some possible strategies

and minimum expectations for completing this course successfully:

• Before you begin studying, first browse through the entire course material. Notice the lesson

and section titles to get an overall idea of what will be involved as you proceed.

• The material is meant to be relevant and practical. Instead of memorizing individual details,

strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the United Nations system.

• Set personal guidelines and benchmarks regarding how you want to schedule your time.

• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each lesson,

orient yourself to the main points. If possible, read the material twice to ensure maximum

understanding and retention, and let time elapse between readings.

• At the end of each lesson, take the Practice Quiz. Clarify any missed questions by re-reading

the appropriate sections, and focus on retaining the correct information.

• After you complete all of the lessons, prepare for the End-of-Course Examination by taking

time to review the main points of each lesson. Then, when ready, log into your online student

classroom and take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.

» Access your online classroom at <www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user_login> from virtually anywhere in the world.

• your exam will be scored electronically. If you achieve a passing grade of 75 per cent or higher

on the exam, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75 per cent,

you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-of-Course Examination.

• A note about language: This course uses English spelling according to the standards of the

Oxford English Dictionary (United Kingdom) and the United Nations Editorial Manual.

Key Features of Your Online Classroom »

• Access to all of your courses;

• A secure testing environment in which to complete your training;

• Access to additional training resources, including multimedia course

supplements;

• The ability to download your Certificate of Completion for any completed

course; and

• Forums where you can discuss relevant topics with the POTI community.

12

In this lesson » Lesson Objectives »


INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM: ORIENTATION FOR SERVING ON A UN FIELD MISSION

LESSON

Section 1.1 The Founding of the United

Nations and its Charter

Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the

United Nations

Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority

Section 1.4 Financial Principles and Budget

of the United Nations

Section 1.5 The United Nations System

Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact

• Explain the reasons for founding the United

Nations.

• Describe the purposes and principles of the

United Nations.

• Recognize the contents of the Charter of the

United Nations, its founding document.

• Be aware of the legal framework for a peace

operation, as well as basic financial guidelines.

• Identify the main bodies of the UN system.

• Consider the extensive reach of the UN’s impact

on global development, both historically and

presently.

In order to understand the United Nations and its field operations, it is necessary to have an awareness of the institutions that comprise the Organization, its general principles, and its structure.

UN Photo #64286 by United Nations.

Framework for a Global Organization, Past and Present1

LESSON 1 | FRAMEWORK FOR A GLOBAL ORGANIzATION, PAST AND PRESENT

13

By the end of this lesson, the student should be

able to conceptualize the overall framework of the UN,

as well as the basic principles that guide its global

effort to maintain international peace and security.

Although some of the legal and financial principles

are complicated, the student should strive to develop

an understanding of the fundamentals.

The lesson will also explore interrelations between

various agencies, programmes, funds, and other

bodies, while also highlighting the UN’s practical work

in the field and its historic impact on global human

development.

To mark United Nations Day, the UN family came together with the Rwandan battalion of the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS)

and the community of Kapuri to volunteer in the construction of a new primary school facility. Other activities included a mobile health

clinic coordinated by the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Health (WHO), the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Joint United

Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS). The refugee agency, UNHCR, coordinated a girls’ football match. The UN Mine Action

Service (UNMAS) and UN Development Programme (UNDP) also hosted events. 25 October 2014. UN Photo #610996 by JC McIlwaine.

View a video introduction of this

lesson at <www.peaceopstraining.

org/videos/367/framework-for-global-

organization-past-and-present/>.


14

Section 1.1 The Founding of the United Nations and its Charter

History

The United Nations was established in the shadow of two global conflicts with the major purpose

of preventing the repeated tragedy. “To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war”1 is

expressly stated in the Organization’s founding document, the UN Charter. This ideal has guided the

United Nations since its founding in 1945 and carries it forward to face the challenges of the twenty-first

century.

In the aftermath of the First World War, a predecessor to the UN, the League of Nations, was

established. Its primary goals included preventing future wars through collective security, disarmament,

and settling disputes diplomatically through negotiation and arbitration. The League was fatally

weakened by the reluctance of the United States to join and was unable to take action in the face of

Italian aggression in Africa. Consequently, the League also failed to avert the Second World War.

Thus, the United Nations was brought into being through successive meetings and conferences

among the Allied states, the victors of the Second World War. Between 1941 and 1944, a series of

conferences were held where the Allies discussed the establishment of an international organization to

maintain international peace and security.

Although many crucial questions were resolved at the yalta Conference in 1944, it was not until the

San Francisco Conference in April 1945, with the participation of 50 states, that the UN Charter was

officially drafted.

As originally envisioned, the majority of the United Nations’ power would rest with these Allied

nations, and they became the five major powers sitting permanently on the Security Council: China,

France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. However, during the United Nations

Conference on International Organization (UNCIO) in San Francisco, the smaller states successfully

argued for stronger roles through the General Assembly, the Secretary-General, and the International

Court of Justice. As a result, the Charter was broadened, and these nations, now more truly “united”,

were empowered to act in economic and social areas as well. At the conclusion of UNCIO on 26 June

1945, the Charter was signed by all participating nations and came into force 24 October 1945. The

Charter was ratified by the present five permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority

of the signatory Member States.

Aims

The United Nations Charter was, and still is, a bold prescription for maintaining international peace

and security and promoting economic and social development. The founders were guided by the trauma

of two world wars, the suffering of mankind, and a deep longing for lasting peace based on equality,

dignity, and social and economic progress. Other themes throughout the document are peace, human

rights, freedom, sovereignty, and respect for treaties and international law, all of which are to be

achieved through tolerance, maintenance of international peace and security, and the promotion of the

economic and social advancement of all people. The Charter presents the purposes and principles of the

United Nations and sets out the structure of the United Nations, as well as the interrelations, principles,

1) Charter of the United Nations. Preamble. <https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/preamble/index.html>.


15

Miguel Angel Carcano, Ambassador of Argentina to the United Kingdom and Vice-Chairman of

the delegation, signs the United Nations Charter at the San Francisco Conference. 26 June 1945.

UN Photo #1288 by I. McLain.

and rules forming its institutional framework. It begins with an inspiring Preamble, which expresses the

aims and ideals of the United Nations and ends with a formal declaration by all the signatory States

agreeing to the Charter and the establishment of an organization “to be known as the United Nations.”

One of the key differences from the Covenant of the League of Nations was the consideration of

collective security. The UN Charter maintains that Member States were to place armed forces at the

disposal of the Security Council toward the task of preventing war and suppressing acts of aggression, as

stated in Article 43.2 The Statute of the International Court of Justice in Chapter xIv is a distinguishing

part of the UN Charter as well, as it established the International Court of Justice, the official judicial

body of the United Nations. This “World Court” as it is sometimes referred is unique because of its

function to hear disputes between states.

Contents of the Charter

The Preamble is followed by 19 chapters, or 111 articles. The Chapters address four major areas:

peace and security; economic and social issues; the trusteeship system; and the judicial organs. The

articles describe the functions, rules, and procedures of the six principal organs, of which the General

Assembly can be considered as the principal legislative organ and the Secretariat as the executive

body. The Charter ends with Provisional Rules (among others, the privileges and immunities of United

Nations officials), Transitional Arrangements (needed at the end of World War II), Amendments, and the

Ratification and Signature.

Knowledge about the Charter is a prerequisite for understanding decision-making in international

affairs, the interrelationship between Member States and the United Nations, as well as the relations

between the Organization’s various entities. The United Nations family of organizations — known as the

UN system — is complex, as it tries to address almost all global areas of political, economic, and social

activity. The “system” consists of six principal organs, their subsidiary bodies, programmes and funds,

research and training institutes, functional and regional commissions, expert and ad hoc bodies, as well

2) UN Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council. Charter of the United Nations. “E. Articles 43-47 – Command and deployment of military forces”. <http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/actions.shtml#rel5>.


16

as 15 specialized agencies, trust funds, secretariats of conventions, and other related organizations.

In addition, there is a large number of other international, governmental, non-governmental, and civil

society organizations which are in some way linked to the UN system. All of those actors, together

with other entities outside the system that are concerned with international issues, constitute what is

generally called the international community.

Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations

Purposes

According to the Charter, the UN has four purposes:

1. To maintain international peace and security;

2. To develop friendly relations among nations;

3. To cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights;

4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations.

Articles 1 and 2 are the most important articles of the Charter because they describe the overall

objectives and principles of the United Nations. Article 1 sets out the primary purposes of the United

Nations by authorizing the Organization to maintain international peace and security by the following

actions:

“To take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of peace, and to bring by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of peace.”

View the UN Charter online »

To read the entire founding document of the United

Nations and to reference the articles mentioned in

this lesson, access the Charter online at

<www.un.org/en/charter-united-nations/index.html>.

UN Photo #84009 by United Nations.


17

The article also mandates the Organization to develop friendly relations among nations and to

achieve international cooperation in addressing economic, social, and cultural matters, and to address

fundamental rights issues concerning groups and individuals. The United Nations is to bring the family

of nations together to achieve these common ends.

Principles

According to the Charter, the UN has seven Principles:

1. Sovereign equality of all Member States;

2. All Member States should fulfil obligations in accordance with the Charter;

3. Peaceful settlement of international disputes;

4. No threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state;

5. All Members shall assist the UN in any action taken in accordance with the Charter;

6. Non-Member States should act in accordance with these Principles related to the maintenance of international peace and security;

7. Non-interference in internal affairs.

Article 2 stipulates the principles behind the United Nations’ and the Member States’ actions in

pursuit of the purposes of Article 1. The Article is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all

Member States that fulfil in good faith their obligations to the Charter. States are to refrain from the

threat or use of force against any other State, and international disputes are to be settled by peaceful

means without endangering peace, security, or justice. Members shall give the United Nations every

assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter and shall not assist States against which

the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action.

However, it should be stressed that traditionally these two articles have been secondary to the

principles of sovereignty and non-interference or non-intervention in domestic affairs. Article 2.7 states,

“nothing in the Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essential

within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.” This principle is, however, not immune to the application of

enforcement measures when authorized by the Security Council. The call for the unambiguous protection

of humanity and human rights has since spurred the international community to act collectively and

not always with the consent of the states concerned. In this way, the principles surrounding Right to

Protect (R2P) are gaining more traction in recent times as an ethical argument for the justification of

interference with a domestic situation, but this is not without controversy and struggle to interpret

effective practice.3 This will be discussed further later in the lesson.

3) Princeton University. “Non-intervention.” <http://pesd.princeton.edu/?q=node/258>.

Henry Odein Ajumogobia, Minister for

Foreign Affairs of Nigeria, speaks with

correspondents after chairing a Security

Council meeting on “Optimizing the use

of preventive diplomacy tools: Prospects

and challenges in Africa”. 16 July 2010.

UN Photo #442048 by Eskinder Debebe.


18

Experiences

The architects of the United Nations envisioned a framework for relations between states, which

would act through cooperation instead of force as a means of achieving foreign policy goals or settling

conflicts. National sovereignty, non-intervention in the internal affairs of a Member State, and the

prohibition of the use of force in international relations are some of the Charter’s fundamental principles.

The United Nations Charter permits a departure from these principles only when action is necessary

to prevent a threat to international peace or to restore peace. The Charter calls on the Organization to

assist in the settlement of international disputes and in maintaining international peace and security.

This is the primary responsibility of the UN Security Council, which may, in fulfilling its duties, adopt a

range of measures as provided for in Chapter VI (Pacific Settlements of Disputes), Chapter VII (Action

with Respect to Peace), and Chapter vIII (Regional Arrangements).

Despite the Charter’s establishment of a framework for relations between states, the purposes

and the principles of the United Nations were constantly challenged during the Cold War era. Those

years witnessed competition between the superpowers, and their exercise of veto power in the Security

Council significantly hampered the effective discharge of responsibilities by the United Nations’ chief

security organ — the Security Council. The circumstances became an everyday political reality, and to a

certain extent, this inertia carried over from the Security Council to the rest of the UN system.

With the end of the Cold War and the easing of superpower rivalries and tensions, the Charter’s

relevance to the contemporary political environment improved. On the other hand, the end of the Cold

War and the years to follow witnessed conflicts of more internal character, where states’ functions

failed, did not exist, or were very limited, and consequently, the fundamental rights of the individuals

became increasingly abused. The tragic events of 11 September 2001 in the United States, the issue of

international terrorism, and the military and non-military aspects of security have further complicated

the general perception of the UN’s role in maintaining international peace and security.

Because the Security Council is still grounded by the hegemonic powers of the World War era, some

have questioned the relevance of the council structure for today’s world. Critics have pointed out that

while the permanent five once spoke for 40 percent of the world’s population, these days they speak

for only about 29 percent.4 This change can be explained by factors such as, at the time of the UN’s

founding in 1945, only three African nations participated. Now there are more than 50 Member States

from the African continent, yet none with veto power.5 Divisions in the Council and its paralysis in times

of danger strengthen the arguments for reforms to its composition to better reflect the reality of the

world in the present day.

Intervention and Use of Force

Following the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, war crimes, and crimes against humanity committed in

other internal conflicts, one of the Charter’s fundamental principles, “not to intervene in matters which

are essential within the domestic jurisdiction of any state,” has come under scrutiny. In 2005, the

UN General Assembly and the Security Council adopted respective resolutions on R2P, which stipulate

4) The Guardian Observer Editorial. “Don’t sideline the UN Security Council. Reinvent it for today”. 7 September 2013. <http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/sep/08/dont-sideline-un-security-council>.

5) Indo-Asian News Service. “India calls for early action to reform anachronistic UN Security Council”. 20 November 2014. <http://www.mid-day.com/articles/india-calls-for-early-action-to-reform-anachronistic-un-security-council/15781151>.


19

that in cases of the worst atrocities against civilian populations, the UN has not only the right, but the

obligation to intervene.6 It is important to emphasize, however, that even in such cases, the intervention

must be authorized by the Security Council in order to be legal. The application of R2P in practice has

been highly controversial following the military intervention in Libya in 2011. This was the first case

that the UN Security Council authorized military intervention citing R2P. Controversy ensued over the

conduct and objectives of North Atlantic Treaty Organizaion (NATO) military intervention in Libya, with

the consequences of a high number of civilian casualties and regime change. India’s UN Ambassador

Hardeep Singh Puri has been quoted as saying that: “Libya has given R2P a bad name.”7 Consequently,

the Security Council has been divided over the application of R2P in the case of the Syrian Civil War.8

The development of an intervention norm, in favour of protecting civilians from the worst abuses, has

no doubt challenged the expectations of the international community.

Article 2.4 of the UN Charter defines that the use of force is legal only in two instances: in self-

defence or when authorized by the Security Council.9 Practical application and interpretation of this

principle has been controversial. Some say that this Charter principle was challenged during the NATO

military intervention against Serbia and Montenegro in 1999 and also during the US-led coalition military

invasion of Iraq in 2003.

The invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003 was strongly opposed by a large

number of Member States who argued that invading the country was not justified in the context of

the UN report of 12 February 2003 by the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection

Commission (UNMOvIC) and that it was not in accordance with the aims and principles of the UN

Charter.10 Consequently, the Security Council did not agree to authorize military action taken by the

United States and the United Kingdom. However, some have argued that specific interpretations of UN

Security Council Resolution 1441 (2002) did provide the legal justification for military action.11 This

uneven disagreement continues to fuel tension among the members of the Council.

Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority

The ratification of the Charter by the five major allies — China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom,

and the United States — and by a majority of the other signatory states provides the basis for its

constituent authority.

The United Nations is an international body subject to international laws, treaties, and conventions.

It is capable of possessing international rights and duties and it has the capacity to maintain its rights

by bringing international claims. The development of conventions, treaties, and standards within the

area of international law, which play a crucial role in economic and social development, human rights,

international peacekeeping, and security, represents some of the UN’s most impressive achievements.

6) UN General Assembly Resolution A/Res/60/1. 2005 World Summit Outcome, par. 138-140. 24 October 2005. <https://undocs.org/a/res/60/1>.7) Bolopion, Philippe. Los Angeles Times. “After Libya, the question: to protect or dispose?” 25 August 2011. <http://articles.latimes.com/2011/aug/25/

opinion/la-oe-bolopion-libya-responsibility-t20110825>.8) International Coalition for Responsibility to Protect. “The Crisis in Syria.” Accessed 05 June 2015. <http://www.responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/

crises/crisis-in-syria>.9) United Nations. Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. “Article 2 (4) - Prohibition of threat or use of force in international relations”. <http://

www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/principles.shtml#rel2>.10) Richelson, Jeffrey. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 80. “Iraq and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” paragraphs 5-6. <http://

nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/>. Updated 11 February 2004. Accessed 05 June 2015.11) ProCon.org. “Did the UN Security Council Resolution 1441 provide sufficient legal basis for military action against Iraq?”. <http://usiraq.procon.org/

view.answers.php?questionID=000875>. Accessed 05 June 2015.


20

Courts and Tribunals

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. All members

of the United Nations are automatically parties to the Statute of the Court. Consequently, they and a

few others can be parties to cases. The General Assembly and the Security Council can ask the Court for

advisory opinions on legal matters, while other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies

can do so by authorization from the General Assembly.

The jurisdiction of the Court covers all questions that Member States may refer to and all matters as

provided in the Charter or in treaties and conventions in force. This will be explained further in Lesson 2.

The serious violations of international human rights and humanitarian law in the former yugoslavia

and in Rwanda led the Security Council to establish two international tribunals with the power to

prosecute those individuals responsible for such violations. Thus, the International Criminal Tribunal

for the Former yugoslavia was established in 1993 and the International Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994.

Special courts were also set up for Sierra Leone, Lebanon, Cambodia, and East Timor.12

The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an independent judicial body with jurisdiction over persons

charged with genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The Court was established by the

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on 17 July 1998, when 120 States participating in the

“United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International

Criminal Court” adopted the Statute.13 The United States has not ratified the Rome Statute. However,

the statute did not enter into force until 1 July 2002. In accordance with Article 2 of the Rome Statute,

the relationship with the United Nations system is governed by an agreement between the two

organizations.

» Learn more about the International Criminal Court (ICC) at <www.icc-cpi.int>.

12) United Nations, “International Law, Courts and Tribunals”. <https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/thematic-areas/international-law-courts-tribunals/>.13) Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. <http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm>.

Eugène-Richard Gasana (left),

Permanent Representative

of the Republic of Rwanda to

the UN, addresses a meeting

of the Security Council on

the International Criminal

Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and

International Criminal Tribunal

for the former Yugoslavia

(ICTY). At right is Khalida

Rachid Khan, President of the

ICTR. 06 June 2011. UN Photo

#474947 by JC McIlwaine.


21

Principal Legal Bodies within the UN

The Sixth Committee of the General Assembly, one of the six

Main Committees of the General Assembly, deals with legal items

on the Assembly’s agenda. The decisions and resolutions of the

Assembly are based on the recommendations from this Committee.

Among the principal legal bodies is the International Law

Commission, with its main objective of promoting the progressive

development of international law and its codification. The United

Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)

develops conventions, model laws, rules, and legal guides in order

to facilitate and harmonize world trade. Under the Law of the Sea

Convention, there are three bodies: International Seabed Authority,

the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, and the Commission

on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.

Within the Secretariat, the Office of Legal Affairs provides legal advice to the Secretary-General

and acts on his or her behalf on legal matters. It also advises the Secretariat and other organs of the

United Nations on matters related to international, public, private and administrative laws. The Office is

also responsible for the registration and publication of treaties and conventions and, thus, publishes the

United Nations Treaty Series.

» Learn more about the Office of Legal Affairs: <legal.un.org/ola/>.

Legal Framework for Peacekeeping and Other Similar Operations

Peacekeeping was not foreseen by the founders of the United Nations and, therefore, was neither

mentioned nor provided for in the Charter. However, Article 29 of the UN Charter authorizes that the

Security Council “may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of

its functions.”14 Therefore, it has been concluded and generally accepted that the Security Council and

the General Assembly are legally justified in creating and mandating peacekeeping forces — and other

similar entities — as additional mechanisms toward fulfilling the UN’s task of maintaining international

peace and security.

As peacekeeping increasingly becomes a normative mechanism in maintaining peace and security,

it should be remembered that the Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and International

Humanitarian Law (IHL) are the guiding principles of all peacekeeping operations. While performing

peacekeeping duties, the United Nations must adhere to the Charter and the recognition of human

rights as a fundamental means of promoting peace and security. International Humanitarian Law, or the

law of armed conflict as it is also known, provides additional protection to those who do not participate

in hostilities, known as “non-combatants”. This will be discussed further in Lesson 4.

Some additional legal relationships must be established in order to facilitate relations between

the United Nations and the host country (the country where the operation is taking place), and also

14) UN Security Council. “Subsidiary Organs Overview”. <http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/subsidiary_organs/overview.shtml>.

Treaties, not war »Over the years, the United

Nations has facilitated

the important work of

bringing nations together in

diplomatic agreements.

A list of such treaties can

be found at <https://

treaties.un.org>.


22

between the United Nations and the troop-contributing countries (those countries offering military

forces to an operation, known as TCCs). These Status of Forces Agreements (SOFA) and Status of

Mission Agreements (SOMA) concern the way the mission or operation conducts itself legally and

bureaucratically. The SOFA/SOMA regulates jurisdiction, taxation, status of UN personnel, freedom of

movement, use of facilities, etc. The UN Police must follow the rules and regulations stipulated by the

United Nations Criminal Law and Justice Branch in their assigned duties.

The Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) is a similar agreement between the UN and the TCC.

It addresses the TCC’s responsibilities to United Nations, such as the size, type, and duration of the

contingents to be used, equipment, liability, claim, and compensation, administrative and budgetary

matters, etc.

The Charter and the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations both define

and provide the privileges and immunities deemed necessary for personnel working in connection with

the Organization. The 1994 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel serves

as the legal instrument for protection and outlines duties to ensure safety and security, release and

return of detained personnel, crimes, and exercise of jurisdiction.

Section 1.4 Financial Principles and Budget of the United Nations

Regular Budget

The regular budget of the United Nations covers two years’ cost for the staff, infrastructure, and

activities of the principal organs, offices and regional commissions. The budget is submitted by the

Secretary-General and approved by the General Assembly after review by the Advisory Committee

on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ), one of the most powerful committees in the UN

Rwandan troops with the African Union-UN Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) inspect an armoured personnel

carrier at their base’s mechanical workshop, in Zam Zam, North Darfur. 07 February 2012. UN Photo #503847 by

Albert González Farran.


23

system. The main source of funds is the mandatory contributions from Member States, based on an

assessment scale approved by the General Assembly. The maximum contribution is 22 per cent, which

is paid by the United States. The minimum contribution is fixed at 0.001 per cent.15 As approved for

2014/15, the regular budget totalled approximately $5.53 billion.16

Extra Ordinary Budget

The extra ordinary budget makes up a large part of the funding acquired through voluntary

contributions from Member States. The budget covers the cost for the operational programmes and

funds: the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Food Programme (WFP), the

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and others. UN specialized agencies have

separate budgets, which are voluntarily supplemented by states, but not all funding comes from the

Member States. The United Nations sometimes receives grants from private institutions or foundations

such as the Turner Foundation and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Peacekeeping Budget

The costs of the United Nations peacekeeping operations are covered by the Member States in

accordance with the Special Scale of Assessments. Since 2001, the Member States’ regular assessment

levels are adjusted according to their placement in one of ten levels, ranging from a premium payable

by permanent Members of the Security Council (Level A) to a 90 per cent discount for Last Developed

Countries (Level J). The total budget for the operations has increased from USD 2.5 billion in 2003 to USD

7 billion in 2015.17 The General Assembly approves this peacekeeping budget with the recommendations

of its Fifth Committee and after review by the ACABQ.

Section 1.5 The United Nations System

The six principal organs of the United Nations, including the General Assembly and Security Council,

are relatively well known. Though these entities have general oversight of the United Nations’ array of

global activities, the UN system goes well beyond them. The work of the Organization is controlled and

divided among many specialized entities known as funds, programmes, commissions, and agencies.

This section describes the main actors, including the principal organs, who make up what is called the

UN system, focusing on four main categories. Because of the complexity and comprehensiveness of the

system, a number of entities are not listed in this section.

The coordinating body of these entities is the UN System Chief Executives Board for Coordination

(CEB). It is chaired by the Secretary-General and meets twice a year.

The Principal Organs

The principal organs of the United Nations as provided for in the Charter of the United Nations are:

the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship

Council, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the Secretariat. These six organs, described in

Lesson 2, form the core of the United Nations system. The principal organs are mainly located at UN

15) For more on the financing of UN peacekeeping operations, visit <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/how-we-are-funded>.16) UN General Assembly, Administrative and Budgetary Committee. <http://www.un.org/en/ga/fifth/68/pbis68.shtml>.17) UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). “How much does peacekeeping cost?”

LES

SO

N 1

| F

RA

MEW

OR

K F

OR

A G

LOB

AL

OR

GA

NIz

ATIO

N,

PAS

T A

ND

PR

ESEN

T

24

No

tes:

1 M

em

be

rs o

f th

e U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s S

yst

em

Ch

ief

Exe

cu

tive

s B

oa

rd f

or

Co

ord

inati

on

(C

EB

).

2

UN

Off

ice f

or

Pa

rtn

ers

hip

s (U

NO

P)

is t

he U

N’s

fo

ca

l p

oin

t v

is-a

-vis

th

e U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s F

ou

nd

ati

on

, In

c.

3

IAE

A a

nd

OP

CW

re

po

rt t

o t

he S

ecu

rity

Co

un

cil a

nd

th

e G

en

era

l A

sse

mb

ly (

GA

).

4

WT

O h

as

no

re

po

rtin

g o

blig

ati

on

to

th

e G

A, b

ut

co

ntr

ibu

tes

on

an

ad

ho

c b

asi

s to

GA

an

d E

co

no

mic

an

d

So

cia

l C

ou

ncil (

EC

OS

OC

) w

ork

on

, in

ter

alia

, fi

na

nce a

nd

deve

lop

me

nt

issu

es.

5

Sp

ecia

lize

d a

ge

ncie

s a

re a

uto

no

mo

us

org

an

izati

on

s w

ho

se w

ork

is

co

ord

inate

d t

hro

ug

h E

CO

SO

C (

inte

r-

go

ve

rnm

en

tal le

ve

l) a

nd

CE

B (

inte

r-se

cre

tari

at

leve

l).

6

Th

e T

rust

ee

ship

Co

un

cil s

usp

en

de

d o

pe

rati

on

on

1 N

ove

mb

er

199

4,

as

on

1 O

cto

be

r 19

94

Pa

lau

, th

e l

ast

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s Tru

st T

err

ito

ry, b

ec

am

e in

de

pe

nd

en

t.

7

Inte

rnati

on

al C

en

tre f

or

Se

ttle

me

nt

of

Inve

stm

en

t D

isp

ute

s (I

CS

ID)

an

d M

ult

ilate

ral In

ve

stm

en

t G

ua

ran

tee

Ag

en

cy (

MIG

A)

are

no

t sp

ecia

lize

d a

ge

ncie

s in

acco

rda

nce w

ith

Art

icle

s 5

7 a

nd

63

of

the C

ha

rte

r, b

ut

are

pa

rt o

f th

e W

orl

d B

an

k G

rou

p.

8

Th

e s

ecre

tari

ats

of

the

se o

rga

ns

are

pa

rt o

f th

e U

N S

ecre

tari

at.

9

Th

e S

ecre

tari

at

als

o i

nclu

de

s th

e f

ollo

win

g o

ffic

es:

Th

e E

thic

s O

ffic

e,

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s O

mb

ud

sma

n a

nd

Me

dia

tio

n S

erv

ice

s, a

nd

th

e O

ffic

e o

f A

dm

inis

trati

on

of

Ju

stic

e.

Th

is C

ha

rt i

s a r

efl

ec

tio

n o

f th

e f

un

cti

on

al

org

an

iza

tio

n o

f th

e U

nit

ed

Na

tio

ns

Sy

ste

m a

nd

fo

r in

form

ati

on

al

pu

rpo

ses

on

ly. It

do

es

no

t in

clu

de

all o

ffic

es

or

en

titi

es

of

the

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s S

yst

em

.

Re

gio

na

l C

om

mis

sio

ns8

EC

A E

co

no

mic

Co

mm

issi

on

fo

r A

fric

a

EC

E E

co

no

mic

Co

mm

issi

on

fo

r E

uro

pe

EC

LA

C E

co

no

mic

Co

mm

issi

on

fo

r L

ati

n

Am

eri

ca a

nd

th

e C

ari

bb

ea

n

ES

CA

P E

co

no

mic

an

d S

ocia

l C

om

mis

sio

n

for

Asi

a a

nd

th

e P

acif

ic

ES

CW

A E

co

no

mic

an

d S

ocia

l C

om

mis

sio

n

or

We

ste

rn A

sia

Re

sea

rch

an

d T

rain

ing

UN

IDIR

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s In

stit

ute

fo

r D

isa

rma

me

nt

Re

sea

rch

UN

ITA

R U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s In

stit

ute

fo

r Tra

inin

g a

nd

Re

sea

rch

UN

SS

C U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s S

yst

em

Sta

ff

Co

lle

ge

UN

U U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s U

niv

ers

ity

Oth

er

En

titi

es

ITC

In

tern

ati

on

al Tra

de C

en

tre (

UN

/W

TO

)

UN

CT

AD

1,8 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s C

on

fere

nce o

n T

rad

e

an

d D

eve

lop

me

nt

UN

HC

R1 O

ffic

e o

f th

e U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s

Hig

h C

om

mis

sio

ne

r fo

r R

efu

ge

es

UN

OP

S1 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s O

ffic

e f

or

P

roje

ct

Se

rvic

es

UN

RW

A1 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s R

elie

f a

nd

Wo

rks

Ag

en

cy f

or

Pale

stin

e R

efu

ge

es

in t

he

Ne

ar

East

UN

-WO

ME

N1 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s E

nti

ty f

or

Ge

nd

er

Eq

uality

an

d t

he E

mp

ow

erm

en

t o

f W

om

en

Fu

nd

s a

nd

Pro

gra

mm

es1

UN

DP

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s D

eve

lop

me

nt

Pro

gra

mm

e

• U

NC

DF

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s C

ap

ital D

eve

lop

me

nt

Fu

nd

• U

NV

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s V

olu

nte

ers

UN

EP

8 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s E

nvir

on

me

nt

Pro

gra

mm

e

UN

FP

A U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s P

op

ula

tio

n F

un

d

UN

-HA

BIT

AT

8 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s H

um

an

S

ett

lem

en

ts P

rog

ram

me

UN

ICE

F U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s C

hild

ren

’s F

un

d

WF

P W

orl

d F

oo

d P

rog

ram

me (

UN

/FA

O)

Su

bsi

dia

ry O

rga

ns

• M

ain

Co

mm

itte

es

• D

isa

rma

me

nt

Co

mm

issi

on

• H

um

an

Rig

hts

Co

un

cil

• In

tern

ati

on

al L

aw

Co

mm

issi

on

• Jo

int

Insp

ec

tio

n U

nit

(JIU

)

• S

tan

din

g c

om

mit

tee

s a

nd

a

d h

oc b

od

ies

• In

tern

ati

on

al R

esi

du

al M

ech

an

ism

fo

r C

rim

inal Tri

bu

nals

• M

ilit

ary

Sta

ff C

om

mit

tee

• P

ea

ce

ke

ep

ing

op

era

tio

ns

an

d p

oliti

cal m

issi

on

s

• S

an

cti

on

s co

mm

itte

es

(ad

ho

c)

• S

tan

din

g c

om

mit

tee

s a

nd

ad

ho

c b

od

ies

UN

ISD

R U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s O

ffic

e f

or

Dis

ast

er

R

isk R

ed

uc

tio

n

UN

OD

C1 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s O

ffic

e o

n D

rug

s

an

d C

rim

e

UN

OG

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s O

ffic

e a

t G

en

eva

UN

-OH

RL

LS

Off

ice o

f th

e H

igh

Re

pre

sen

tati

ve

for

the L

east

Deve

lop

ed

Co

un

trie

s, L

an

dlo

cke

d

Deve

lop

ing

Co

un

trie

s a

nd

Sm

all I

sla

nd

D

eve

lop

ing

Sta

tes

UN

ON

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s O

ffic

e a

t N

air

ob

i

UN

OP

2 U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s O

ffic

e f

or

Pa

rtn

ers

hip

s

UN

OV

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s O

ffic

e a

t V

ien

na

D

ep

art

me

nts

an

d O

ffic

es9

EO

SG

Exe

cu

tive O

ffic

e o

f th

e

Se

cre

tary

-Ge

ne

ral

DE

SA

De

pa

rtm

en

t o

f E

co

no

mic

an

d

So

cia

l A

ffair

s

DG

AC

M D

ep

art

me

nt

for

Ge

ne

ral A

sse

mb

ly

an

d C

on

fere

nce M

an

ag

em

en

t

DG

C D

ep

art

me

nt

of

Glo

bal

Co

mm

un

icati

on

s

DM

SP

C D

ep

art

me

nt

of

Ma

nag

em

en

t S

trate

gy, P

olicy a

nd

Co

mp

lia

nce

DO

S D

ep

art

me

nt

of

Op

era

tio

nal S

up

po

rt

DP

O D

ep

art

me

nt

of

Pe

ace O

pe

rati

on

s

DP

PA

De

pa

rtm

en

t o

f P

oliti

cal a

nd

P

ea

ce

bu

ild

ing

Aff

air

s

DS

S D

ep

art

me

nt

of

Safe

ty a

nd

Se

cu

rity

OC

HA

Off

ice f

or

the C

oo

rdin

ati

on

of

H

um

an

ita

ria

n A

ffair

s

OD

A O

ffic

e f

or

Dis

arm

am

en

t A

ffair

s

OH

CH

R O

ffic

e o

f th

e U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s

Hig

h C

om

mis

sio

ne

r fo

r H

um

an

Rig

hts

OIO

S O

ffic

e o

f In

tern

al O

ve

rsig

ht

Se

rvic

es

OL

A O

ffic

e o

f L

eg

al A

ffair

s

OS

AA

Off

ice o

f th

e S

pecia

l Ad

vis

er

on A

fric

a

SR

SG

/CA

AC

Off

ice o

f th

e S

pe

cia

l R

ep

rese

nta

tive o

f th

e S

ecre

tary

-Ge

ne

ral

for

Ch

ild

ren

an

d A

rme

d C

on

flic

t

SR

SG

/SV

C O

ffic

e o

f th

e S

pe

cia

l R

ep

rese

nta

tive o

f th

e S

ecre

tary

-Ge

ne

ral

on

Sexu

al V

iole

nce in

Co

nfl

ict

SR

SG

/V

AC

Off

ice o

f th

e S

pe

cia

l R

ep

rese

nta

tive o

f th

e S

ecre

tary

-Ge

ne

ral

on

Vio

len

ce A

gain

st C

hild

ren

Fu

ncti

on

al

Co

mm

issi

on

s

• C

rim

e P

reve

nti

on

an

d C

rim

inal Ju

stic

e

• N

arc

oti

c D

rug

s

• P

op

ula

tio

n a

nd

Deve

lop

me

nt

• S

cie

nce a

nd

Tech

no

log

y f

or

Develo

pm

en

t

• S

ocia

l D

eve

lop

me

nt

• S

tati

stic

s

• S

tatu

s o

f W

om

en

• U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s F

oru

m o

n F

ore

sts

Oth

er

Bo

die

s

• C

om

mit

tee f

or

Deve

lop

me

nt

Po

licy

• C

om

mit

tee o

f E

xp

ert

s o

n P

ub

lic A

dm

inis

trati

on

• C

om

mit

tee o

n N

on

-Go

ve

rnm

en

tal O

rgan

izati

on

s

• P

erm

an

en

t F

oru

m o

n I

nd

ige

no

us

Issu

es

UN

AID

S J

oin

t U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s P

rog

ram

me o

n

HIV

/AID

S

UN

GE

GN

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s G

rou

p o

f E

xp

ert

s o

n

Ge

og

rap

hic

al N

am

es

Re

sea

rch

an

d T

rain

ing

UN

ICR

I U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s In

terr

eg

ion

al C

rim

e a

nd

Ju

stic

e R

ese

arc

h I

nst

itu

te

UN

RIS

D U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s R

ese

arc

h I

nst

itu

te f

or

So

cia

l D

eve

lop

me

nt

Sp

ecia

lize

d A

ge

ncie

s 1, 5

FA

O F

oo

d a

nd

Ag

ricu

ltu

re O

rga

niz

ati

on

of

the U

nit

ed

Nati

on

s

ICA

O I

nte

rnati

on

al C

ivil A

via

tio

n

Org

an

izati

on

IFA

D I

nte

rnati

on

al F

un

d f

or

A

gri

cu

ltu

ral D

eve

lop

me

nt

ILO

In

tern

ati

on

al L

ab

ou

r O

rga

niz

ati

on

IMF

In

tern

ati

on

al M

on

eta

ry F

un

d

IMO

In

tern

ati

on

al M

ari

tim

e O

rga

niz

ati

on

ITU

In

tern

ati

on

al Te

leco

mm

un

icati

on

Un

ion

UN

ES

CO

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s E

du

cati

on

al,

Scie

nti

fic a

nd

Cu

ltu

ral O

rga

niz

ati

on

UN

IDO

Un

ite

d N

ati

on

s In

du

stri

al

Deve

lop

me

nt

Org

an

izati

on

UN

WT

O W

orl

d T

ou

rism

Org

an

izati

on

UP

U U

niv

ers

al P

ost

al U

nio

n

WH

O W

orl

d H

ealt

h O

rga

niz

ati

on

WIP

O W

orl

d I

nte

lle

ctu

al P

rop

ert

y

Org

an

izati

on

WM

O W

orl

d M

ete

oro

log

ical O

rga

niz

ati

on

WO

RL

D B

AN

K G

RO

UP

7

• IB

RD

In

tern

ati

on

al B

an

k f

or

Re

co

nst

ruc

tio

n a

nd

Deve

lop

me

nt

• ID

A I

nte

rnati

on

al D

eve

lop

me

nt

Ass

ocia

tio

n

• IF

C I

nte

rnati

on

al F

ina

nce C

orp

ora

tio

n

Re

late

d O

rga

niz

ati

on

s

CT

BT

O P

RE

PA

RA

TO

RY

CO

MM

ISS

ION

P

rep

ara

tory

Co

mm

issi

on

fo

r th

e C

om

pre

he

n-

sive N

ucle

ar-

Te

st-B

an

Tre

aty

Org

an

izati

on

IAE

A1,

3 I

nte

rnati

on

al A

tom

ic E

ne

rgy A

ge

ncy

ICC

In

tern

ati

on

al C

rim

inal C

ou

rt

IOM

1 In

tern

ati

on

al O

rga

niz

ati

on

fo

r M

igra

tio

n

ISA

In

tern

ati

on

al S

ea

be

d A

uth

ori

ty

ITL

OS

In

tern

ati

on

al Tri

bu

nal fo

r th

e L

aw

o

f th

e S

ea

OP

CW

3 O

rga

niz

ati

on

fo

r th

e P

roh

ibit

ion

of

C

he

mic

al W

ea

po

ns

WT

O1,

4 W

orl

d T

rad

e O

rga

niz

ati

on

Su

bsi

dia

ry O

rga

ns

• C

ou

nte

r-Te

rro

rism

Co

mm

itte

e

Pe

ace

bu

ild

ing

Co

mm

issi

on

HL

PF

Hig

h-l

eve

l p

oliti

cal

foru

m o

n s

ust

ain

ab

le

deve

lop

me

nt

© 2019 United Nations. All rights reserved worldwide Published by the United Nations Department of Global Communications 18-00159—1 January 2019

UN

PR

INC

IPA

L

OR

GA

NS

GE

NE

RA

L

AS

SE

MB

LY

SE

CU

RIT

Y

CO

UN

CIL

TR

US

TE

ES

HIP

C

OU

NC

IL6

INT

ER

NA

TIO

NA

L

CO

UR

T O

F J

US

TIC

E

SE

CR

ET

AR

IAT

EC

ON

OM

IC A

ND

S

OC

IAL

CO

UN

CIL

The U

nit

ed

Nati

ons

Syst

em


25

Headquarters in New york (UNHQ), except for the International Court of Justice, which is located in

The Hague, Netherlands. The United Nations Offices in Nairobi (UNON), Vienna (UNOV), and Geneva

(UNOG) — the latter located in the same building as the former League of Nations — are also all

considered part of the United Nations’ Headquarters.

The Charter also provides for the establishment of subsidiary bodies as the principal organs may find

necessary (e.g., various commissions, committees, temporarily constituted peacekeeping operations,

as well as a variety of observer, verification missions, etc.).

Reporting to the ECOSOC and operating under the authority of the Secretary-General are the five

Economic and Social Regional Commissions (Article 68). The basic mandate of these commissions is

to facilitate the promotion of the regional economic and social development of each region and to

strengthen the economic relations of the countries in that region both among themselves and with

other countries of the world. The five Commissions, with their own structures and secretariats, are

grouped as follows: The UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; the

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) in Bangkok, Thailand; UN Economic

Commission for Europe (UNECE) in Geneva, Switzerland; the Economic Commission for Latin America

and the Caribbean (ECLAC) in Santiago, Chile; and the UN Economic and Social Commission for Western

Asia (UN-ESCWA) in Beirut, Lebanon. These organs, offices, and commissions are financed through the

United Nations Regular Budget.

Programmes, Funds, and Bodies of the United Nations

The core of the United Nations includes various programmes and funds, which are generally

responsible for the operational development in programme countries. Today, there are 14 programmes

and funds including: the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UNDP, United Nations Population

Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UNHCR, World Food Programme (WFP),

and United Nations volunteers (UNv).

Although these programmes and offices are effectively autonomous, they all report through ECOSOC

to the General Assembly. They have their own governing bodies and set their own standards and

guidance. Their budgets are in large part funded through voluntary contributions from governments and

the private sector through the Extra Budgetary Resources.

In addition, there are a number of related programmes, such as the UN Institute for Training and

Research (UNITAR) and UN Institute for Disarmament Research. Other entities include the UN Office for

Project Services (UNOPS), United Nations University (UNU), and the Joint UN Programme on HIv/AIDS

(UNAIDS), among others.

Specialized Agencies

These agencies provide support and assistance to the development programmes. They are all

autonomous and work at the inter-governmental level through ECOSOC and at the inter-secretarial

level through the Chief Executives Board.


26

» Major Specialized Agencies

The major specialized agencies and the Bretton Woods Institutions (the International Monetary Fund

[IMF] and World Bank founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944) are separately established by

governments and have their own constitutions, budgets, and governing boards and secretariats.

One group consists of five agencies: the International Labour Organization (ILO); the Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO); the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the

UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); and the World Health Organization (WHO). These

organizations have all been brought into agreement with the United Nations and, thus, are formally

recognized under the Charter. Their budgets are raised by assessment from their Member States but not

as part of the United Nations’ regular budget.

The Bretton Woods Institutions consist of the IMF and the World Bank Group. The World Bank

is the lender of commercially raised capital for development projects, while the IMF, among other

things, promotes monetary cooperation and expansion of international trade. The World Bank Group

encompasses the main commercial-rate International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),

the soft-loan International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC),

the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for Settlements of

Investment Disputes (ICSID). Their budgets are raised through the usual capital market procedures.

These two major organizations − IMF and the World Bank − have adopted a voting system where voting

is weighted in accordance to the members’ shares.

The third group includes the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD), the World Trade

Organization (WTO), and the Conference on Disarmament (CD). The IFAD has a separate legal status

within the system. In 1995, the WTO, replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as

the mechanism to help trade flow as freely as possible. The WTO does not fall under the Charter as a

The History of Bretton Woods »

Prior to the formation of the United Nations in

June 1945, a number of meetings and events

helped set the stage for the creation of the

new international organization.

Forty-four United Nations and associated

nations met in Bretton Woods, New

Hampshire, to discuss monetary stabilization

as an aid to post-war trade. The United

Nations Monetary and Financial Conference

was held in July 1944. One subsequent result

was the establishment of the IMF. Bretton Woods Conference, 01 July 1944. UN Photo #97323 by

United Nations.


27

Secretary-General Ban Ki-

moon (at podium) speaks at

the World Trade Organization

(WTO) Public Forum “Why

Trade Matters to Everyone”,

in Geneva. The Forum this

year highlights the connections

between trade and people’s

daily lives, demonstrating

how trade impacts the day-

to-day lives of citizens around

the globe. 01 October 2014.

UN Photo #605682 by Jean-

Marc Ferré.

specialized agency but has cooperative arrangements with the United Nations. The International Trade

Centre UNCTAD/WTO operates as the technical cooperation agency of the WTO. The CD is the single

global negotiating forum and was established under the General Assembly’s Tenth Special Session. The

Conference has a special relationship with the United Nations, since it reports to the GA and is funded

from the regular budget.

» Technical Specialized Agencies

The technical specialized agencies, with the same relations as those above, are some of the most

important technical organizations in the world. All agencies except the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA) had predecessors under the former League of Nations. The Universal Postal Union (UPU),

the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the International Telecommunication Union

(ITU) were established more than a century ago. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) were

present before World War II, but after the war they were restructured into the existing organizations.

Outside Organizations Linked to the System

Non-government organizations (NGOs) have an important role in the United Nations’ activities.

In order to avoid a political dependency, most of the NGOs stand outside the governmental system.

Their experiences and technical knowledge are of great value to the United Nations, and, therefore,

approximately 2,100 NGOs have some sort of consultative status with ECOSOC. They are divided into

three categories: (i) NGOs concerned with most ECOSOC activities; (ii) NGOs with specific knowledge

in specific areas; and (iii) NGOs for ad hoc consultations. The most eminent member of the NGO group

is the International Committee of the Red Cross, which, in recognition of its formal mandate under the

Geneva Convention, is invited to participate in the work of the General Assembly.


28

Additionally, there are a number regional organizations involved in peace, security, and social and

economic development. Some of them have entered into a framework agreement with the United

Nations, some are seeking observer status, and some have neither formal nor informal UN status. Their

links to the United Nations may fall under Article 52 of the Charter, which states that “Nothing in the

present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such

matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional

action provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the Purposes

and Principles of the United Nations.”

Examples of regional organizations include African Union (AU), Organization of American States

(OAS), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), European Union (EU), North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), etc.

Examples of inter-governmental organizations are the IAEA, which facilitates cooperation among

governments on issues of technology and nuclear policy. The IAEA works in cooperation with the

United Nations, submitting its reports to the General Assembly, Security Council, and other UN entities.

However, it exists as a separate and independent organization.18

The Committee of Non-Governmental Organizations (CNGO) is

responsible to examine and report on the consultative relationship that

ECOSOC should accord to NGOs.

Further information about the various organizations linked to the

UN system can be found in Lesson 9.

18) International Atomic Energy Agency. “The Statute of the IAEA,” <https://www.iaea.org/about/statute>. Accessed 05 June 2015.

Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (centre) speaks at a joint press conference with the heads

of major regional organizations, including the African Union (AU), the European Union, the

League of Arab States, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), following their

conference on Libya in Cairo, Egypt. Mr. Ban is flanked by Amre Moussa (left), Secretary General

of the League of Arab States, and Jean Ping, Chair of the A.U. Commission. 14 April 2011.

UN Photo #470224 by Paulo Filgueiras.

Further reading »Renewing the United

Nations System: <www.

daghammarskjold.se/

publication/renewing-

united-nations-system/>.


29

Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact

The United Nations celebrated its 70th anniversary in 2015. While the Organization has faced its

share of criticism throughout that time, the world would be a much different place without the work it

has achieved in the past seven decades. Reviewing the following facts and figures corroborates this in

a very quantifiable way.

Since its beginning, the United Nations

has assisted more than 80 countries in their

transition to independence from colonialism.19

Within the field of International Law, more

than 500 multilateral treaties have been

concluded.20

Now more than ever, the United Nations

is engaged in service to all the world’s nations

and peoples. As of 2014, the Secretariat had

a staff of approximately 40,000 around the

world.21

Furthermore, the UN achieves these

accomplishments at a fraction of the cost of

conflict. Costs of the UN system’s operational

activities for development are estimated at

USD 8 billion a year (excluding the World Bank,

International Monetary Fund, and International

Fund for Agriculture Development). This is

equal to 0.60 per cent of world total military

expenditures of over USD 1.2 trillion.22 Seventy

per cent of the work of the UN system is

devoted to helping developing countries build

the capacity to help themselves. This includes:

promoting and protecting democracy and

human rights; saving children from starvation

and disease; providing relief assistance to

refugees and disaster victims; countering

global crime, drugs, and disease; and assisting

countries devastated by war and the long-term

threat of landmines.23

19) UN Department of Public Information (DPI). Sixty Ways the UN Makes a Difference. October 2005. 20) Ibid.21) UN General Assembly Document A/62/292. Composition of the Secretariat: Staff Demographics. 29 August 2014. 22) Global Issues. “World Military Spending.” <http://www.globalissues.org/article/75/world-military-spending#WorldMilitarySpending>.23) UN Factsheet for the International Day of Peace. 21 September 2006. <http://www.un.org/en/events/peaceday/2006/factsheet.shtml>.

The United Nations

United Nations - Department of Public Information - 2014/2015

Provides food to 90 million people in 80 countries

Vaccinates 58 per cent of the world’s children, saving 3 million lives a year

Assists over 38.7 million refugees and people fleeing war, famine or persecution

Works with 193 countries to combat climate change and make development sustainable

UN Keeps peace with 120,000 peacekeepers in 16 operations on 4 continents

Fights poverty, helping improve the health and well-being of 420 million rural poor

Protects and promotes human rights on site and through some 80 treaties/declarations

Mobilizes USD 22 billion in humanitarian aid to help people affected by emergencies

Uses diplomacy to prevent conflict: assists some 60 countries a year with their elections

Promotes maternal health, saving the lives of 30 million women a year


30

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. Which world event inspired the founding of the United Nations?

A. The Great Depression

B. The Second World War

C. The Cold War

D. The Israel-Palestine Conflict

2. The _____ was in many ways a predecessor to the United Nations.

A. United States

B. World Court

C. League of Nations

D. Organization of American States

3. Which Member State is NOT a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council?

A. China

B. France

C. Nigeria

D. Russia

4. Name the four purposes for the United Nations’ founding.

5. Which of the following is one of the principles of the United Nations?

A. Interference in internal affairs

B. Use of force against the territorial integrity

or political independence of any state

C. Sovereignty removed from all Member States

D. Non-interference in internal affairs

6. Article 2.4 of the UN Charter defines that the use of force is legal in which two instances only?

A. In self-defence or when authorized by the

Security Council

B. As a pre-emptive means or in self-defence

C. When authorized by the General Assembly or

the Security Council

D. When authorized by each nation-state’s

Constitution

7. The principal judicial organ of the United Nations is the:

A. International Court of Justice

B. International Criminal Court

C. Supreme Court

D. Security Council

8. The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction over whom?

A. Nation states and territories, exclusively

B. Persons charged with genocide, crimes

against humanity, and war crimes

C. Former colonies and territories

D. Persons charged with civil suits in

international settings

9. What is the main source of funds for the United Nations?

A. Private donations

B. voluntary contributions from Member States

C. Mandatory contributions from Member

States, at a required flat rate

D. Mandatory contributions from Member

States, with payments based on a scale

10. How many principal organs does the UN system contain?

A. One

B. Four

C. Six

D. 193

Answer Key provided on the next page.


31

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »1. B

2. C

3. C

4. To maintain international peace and

security; To develop friendly relations

among nations; To cooperate in solving

international problems and in promoting

respect for human rights; To be a centre

for harmonizing the actions of nations.

5. D

6. A

7. A

8. B

9. D

10. C

Discussion Questions

1. What are the fundamental principles for relations between Member States stated in the UN Charter and how are they changing or being challenged today?

2. How do regionally focused development organizations relate to the work of the UN system?

3. How would you explain the UN’s impact on the world’s course of development to a friend?

No answers are provided for discussion questions. They are for reflection and consideration only.



214

Appendix A: List of Acronyms

Acronym Meaning

ACABQ Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions

AMR Annual Ministerial Review

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

AU African Union

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CD Conference on Disarmament

CEB Chief Executives Board for Coordination

CIMIC Civil-Military Cooperation

CMCS Civil-Military Coordination Section

CMO Chief Military Observer

CRS Catholic Relief Services

CSA Chief Security Advisor

CSFP Country Security Focal Point

CTC Counter-Terrorism Committee

DDA Department for Disarmament Affairs

DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration

DESA Department of Economic and Social Affairs

DFS Department of Field Support

DGACM Department for General Assembly and Conference Management

DM Department of Management

DO Designated Official

DOS Department of Operational Support

DPA Department of Political Affairs

DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations

DPO Department of Peace Operations

DPPA Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs

DSS Department of Safety and Security

DUF Directives on the Use of Force

EC European Commission



215

ECA Economic Commission for Africa

ECE Economic Commission for Europe

ECHA UN Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs

ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean

ECOSOC Economic and Social Council

ERC Emergency Relief Coordinator

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FO Field Operator

FSCO Field Security Coordinator Officer

GA General Assembly

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

HLCM High Level Committee on Management

HLCP High Level Committee on Programmes

HOM Head of Mission

HQ Headquarters

HR Human Rights

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee

IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICC International Criminal Court

ICJ International Court of Justice

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

ICSID International Centre for Settlements of Investment Disputes

IDA International Development Association

IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

IEFR International Emergency Food Reserve



216

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IFC International Finance Corporation

IFRC International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

IHL International Humanitarian Law

IHRL International Human Rights Law

ILO International Labour Organization

IMF International Monetary Fund

IMPP Integrated Mission Planning Process

INSARAG International Search and Rescue Advisory Group

IOM International Organization for Migration

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ISAF International Security Assistance Force

ITU International Telecommunication Union

JLOC Joint Logistics Operations Centre

LSU Logistics Support Unit

LWF Lutheran World Federation

MCDLS Military, Civil Defence and Logistics Section

MCDU Military and Civil Defence Unit

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency

MILOBS United Nations Military Observers

MLT Mission Leadership Team

MOSS Minimum Operations Security Standards

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

MSF Médecins Sans Frontières

MSO Mission Security Officer

NAM Non-Aligned Movement

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NGO Non-governmental organization



217

OAS Organization of American States

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

OECD Organisation for European Cooperation and Development

OHCHR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

OIC Organization of Islamic Conference

OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services

OLA Office of Legal Affairs

OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

OSG Office of the Secretary-General

PAR Participatory Action Research

PBC Peacebuilding Commission

PFP Partnership for Peace Programme

RC Resident Coordinator

ROE Rules of Engagement

RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal

SC Security Council

SG Secretary-General

SHA Swiss Humanitarian Aid Unit

SMT Security Management Team

SOFA/SOMA Status of Forces/Mission Agreements

SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General

SSFP Senior Security Focal Point

SSM Senior Security Manager

SSR Security Sector Reform

TAM Technical Assessment Mission

TCC/PCC Troop/Police-Contributing Country

UNAIDS Joint UN Programme on HIv/AIDS

UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on International Trade Law

UNCT United Nations Country Team



218

UNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination Team

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNHQ United Nations Headquarters

UNHRC United Nations Human Rights Council

UNHRD UN Humanitarian Response Depot

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNIDO UN Industrial Development Organization

UNITAR UN Institute for Training and Research

UNNy UN Headquarters in New york

UNOG UN Office in Geneva

UNON UN Office in Nairobi

UNOPS UN Office for Project Services

UNOV UN Office in Vienna

UNPOL United Nations Police

UNRWA UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East

UNSSC United Nations System Staff College

UNU UN University

UNv United Nations volunteers

UPU Universal Postal Union

USAID United States Agency for International Development

WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organization

WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WTO World Trade Organization



219

Appendix B: Current Peacekeeping Missions

UNITED NATIONSApril 2018

Department of Field SupportGeospatial Information Section (formerly Cartographic Section)

Map No. 4259 Rev. 25 (E)

MINURSOMINUSCA

MINUSMAMINUJUSTHMONUSCOUNAMIDUNDOFUNFICYPUNIFILUNISFAUNMIKUNMISSUNMOGIPUNTSO United Nations Truce Supervision Orginization

United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western SaharaUnited Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the

United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in MaliUnited Nations Mission for Justice Support in HaitiUnited Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Dem. Republic of the CongoAfrican Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in DarfurUnited Nations Disengagement Observer ForceUnited Nations Peacekeeping Force in CyprusUnited Nations Interim Force in LebanonUnited Nations Interim Security Force for AbyeiUnited Nations Interim Administration Mission in KosovoUnited Nations Mission in South SudanUnited Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan

Central African Republic

established: 1991established: 2014

established: 2013established: 2017established: 2010established: 2007established: 1974established: 1964established: 1978established: 2011established: 1999established: 2011established: 1949established: 1984

UNFICYPCyprus

UNDOFSyria

UNTSOMiddle East

UNIFILLebanon

UNMOGIPIndia and Pakistan

MINURSOWestern Sahara

MINUSCACentral African Republic

UNMIKKosovo

UNAMIDDarfur

UNMISSSouth Sudan

UNISFAAbyei

MONUSCODem. Rep. of the Congo

MINUSMAMali

MINUJUSTHHaiti

UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS

» Looking for statistics or other data about peacekeeping around the world today? Visit the UN Peacekeeping resource page for the most up-to-date information about current peacekeeping operations and other UN missions: <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/resources>.

UN Peacekeeping Map from the UN Cartographic Section, April 2018: <www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/dpko/P_K_O.pdf>.



220

About the Author: Mr. Julian Harston

Currently, Mr. Harston is an independent consultant on matters of international peace and security.

For 25 years, he served as a member of the United Kingdom Diplomatic Service.

Harston was born in Nairobi, Kenya, son of Colonel Clive Harston of the King’s African Rifles. He

attended the King’s School in Canterbury, England and earned a Bachelor of Science in Politics from the

University of London as well as a degree in African Politics from the University of Rhodesia.

Harston has lectured all over the world to military and civilian audiences and has published several

papers on peacekeeping and international diplomacy. He also takes part as a role player and mentor in

NATO exercises. He lectures at the NATO School in Oberammergau, Germany and at the Polish Institute

for Diplomacy in Warsaw.

His career highlights include various professorships, counsellorships and diplomatic postings in

London and overseas in Malawi, Portugal, Switzerland, vietnam, and zimbabwe. In addition to the

positions mentioned, Harston has also held UN directorships and leadership appointments in Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Croatia, Haiti, Serbia, and Timor-Leste.

Harston lives in Belgrade, Serbia. He is married with one son, and two stepdaughters. He is a

member of the East India Club and Special Forces Club in London, the UK’s Goodwood Aero Club, and

the Gremio Literario in Lisbon.

For more information, visit his website: <www.harstonconsulting.rs>.

A retired Assistant Secretary-General to the United Nations, Mr. Julian Harston previously served as the Representative of the Secretary-General in Belgrade, Serbia in 2009, as well as the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for MINURSO, Western Sahara from 2007 to 2009.

Photo by Anton Thorstensson/Swedish Armed Forces,

used with permission of Mr. Harston.



221

Continue your POTI training experience »

• Visit <www.peaceopstraining.org/courses/> for a list of all current courses.

• If a particular category of study interests you, such as Human Rights,

Logistics, or Military Studies, consider the POST Certificate programme

available in six areas of specialization. See the requirements at

<www.peaceopstraining.org/specialized-training-certificates/>.

• Stay connected with POTI by visiting our community page and engaging

with other students through social media and sharing photos from your

mission. Visit <www.peaceopstraining.org/community> for more. Once you

pass your exam, see your name featured on the Honour Roll as well.

Format and Material

The End-of-Course Examination is a multiple-choice exam that is accessed from the Online

Classroom. Most exams have 50 questions. Each question gives the student four choices (A, B, C, and

D), and only one is the correct answer. The exam covers material from all lessons of the course and may

also include information found in the annexes and appendices. Video content will not be tested.

» Access the exam from your Online Classroom by visiting <www.peaceopstraining.org/users/courses/> and clicking the title of this course. Once you arrive at the course page, click the red “Start Exam” button.

Time Limit

There is no time limit for the exam. This allows the student to read and study the questions

carefully and to consult the course text. Furthermore, if the student cannot complete the exam in one

sitting, he or she may save the exam and come back to it without being graded. The “Save” button is

located at the bottom of the exam, next to the “Submit my answers” button. Clicking on the “Submit

my answers” button will end the exam.

Passing Grade

To pass the exam, a score of 75 per cent or better is required. An electronic Certificate of Completion

will be awarded to those who have passed the exam. A score of less than 75 per cent is a failing grade,

and students who have received a failing grade will be provided with a second, alternate version of the

exam, which may also be completed without a time limit. Students who pass the second exam will be

awarded a Certificate of Completion.

Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination

introduction to the un system: orientation for serving on ... · un field mission. foreword x...

Documents