investigating cancer kras activity. what is cancer? all cancers derive from single cells that have...
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Investigating CancerKRAS Activity
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What is cancer?
• All cancers derive from single cells that have acquired the characteristics of continually dividing in an unrestrained manner and invading surrounding tissues.
• Cancer cells behave in this abnormal manner because of changes in the DNA sequence of key genes, which are known as cancer genes. Therefore all cancers are genetic diseases.
Human melanoma cell undergoing cell divisionCredit: Paul Smith & Rachel Errington, Wellcome Images
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Cancer information• One in three people in the Western world develop cancer and
one in five die of the disease
• There are approximately 200 types of cancer, each with different causes, symptoms and treatments
• In 2007, 297,991 people were newly diagnosed with cancer in the UK
• An individual's risk of developing cancer depends on many factors, including age, lifestyle and genetic make-up
Cancer Research UK http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/incidence/?a=5441
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The 20 most common causes of death from cancer, UK, 2008
Cancer Research UK. Accessed July 2010http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/mortality/cancerdeaths /
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Cancer cells have altered genomes
Karyotype illustrating structural abnormalities in cancer
Credit : Mira Grigorova and Paul Edwards, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, unpublishedSource: www.path.cam.ac.uk/~pawefish/BreastCellLineDescriptions/HCC38.html
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What is a mutation?
• Germline mutation– A change in the DNA sequence that can be
inherited from either parent
• Somatic mutation – A change in the DNA sequence in cells other
than sperm or egg– The mutation is present in the cancer cell and its
offspring, but not in the patient’s healthy cells
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Mutations & cancer genes • Cancer genes are causally implicated in oncogenesis• Mutations in cancer genes can occur somatically or can
be inherited.• Mutations in some cancer genes can be inherited from
parents, in which case they are present in every cell of the body. Such people are at a higher risk of developing cancer.
• Somatic mutations can occur in any of the cells of the body except the germ cells (sperm and egg) and therefore are not passed on to children.
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Importance of somatic DNA changes in human cancer
Somatic
Inherited
Both
Only 5 –10% of cancer cases have a clear hereditary component, e.g. BRCA1 and BRCA2 in breast cancer
Even in those cases where susceptibility is clearly inherited, somatic changes are required for cancer to develop
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Cancer genes
• There are two types of cancer genes: – Tumour suppressor genes – Oncogenes
• To date, we know of approximately 400 somatic “cancer genes” * but there are almost certainly more to be found
• COSMIC is a catalogue of somatic mutations found in cancer genes in human tumours and is available at: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CGP/cosmic/
*(COSMIC v47release. July 2010)
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Tumour suppressor gene
TS
Cancer
These genes normally function to PREVENT cell growth/division
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Oncogene
Cancer
Ras
Genes which normally function to PROMOTE cell growth/division in a controlled manner
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Examples of mutations
Sequence 1 Sequence 2 Type
ACTCGTTAGGCA Substitution
ACTCGTTAGGCA ACTCGGCA Deletion
ACTCGTTAGGCA ACTCGTTATCAGGCA Insertion
ACTCGTTAGGCA ACTTTGCAGGCA Inversion
ACTCGTTAGGCA Duplication
ACTCCTTAGGCA
ACTCGTTAGTTAGGCA
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Cancer progression
Benign Tumour
In situ cancer
Invasive cancer
Metastatic cancer
Mutations in multiple cancer genes are required for the development and progression of a single cancer
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www. flickr.com: lastexit
External causes of cancer: ultraviolet radiation
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External causes of cancer: tobacco smoke
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Lifestyle factor: diet
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Biological factor: virus
• HPV is a cause of cervical cancer
• Proteins from the virus activate and deactivate cancer genes
• The role of HPV in cervical cancer has led to the development of vaccines
HPV in cervical epithelium Credit: MRC NIMR, Wellcome Images
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ActivityActivity
• The KRAS gene codes for a signalling molecule
• Mutations in KRAS are present in many cancers, including pancreatic cancer
• You have to look for the mutations by comparing healthy DNA sequence with tumour DNA sequence
• Not all of you will find a mutation
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Your Worksheets
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If you find a mutation
EXAMPLE ONLY
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How to use the codon wheel
Start from the centre and move outwards
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Mark up your sequence
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Heterozygous mutations
DNA change in cancer
Normal DNAsequence
BRAF gene mutation Nature 417, 906-7 (June 2002)
A double peak indicates a mutation on one chromosome and not the other i.e.
a heterozygous mutation
T → A
A
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Results
Amino Acid Number
Healthy DNA Sequence
Tumour DNA Sequence
Healthy Amino Acid
Tumour Amino Acid
12 GGT GTT G (glycine) V (valine)
13 GGC GAC G (glycine) D (aspartic acid)
30 GAC GAT D (aspartic acid) D (Aspartic acid)
61 CAA CGA Q (glutamine) R (arginine)
146 GCA CCA A (alanine) P (proline)
173 GAT GAC D (Aspartic acid) D (Aspartic acid)
Amino Acid Number
Healthy DNA Sequence
Tumour DNASequence
Healthy AminoAcid
Tumour Amino Acid
12 GGT GTT G (glycine) V (valine)
13 GGC GAC G (glycine) D (aspartic acid)
30 GAC GAT D (aspartic acid) D (aspartic acid )
61 CAA CGA Q (glutamine) R (arginine)
146 GCA CCA A (alanine) P (proline)
173 GAT GAC D (aspartic acid ) D (aspartic acid)
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Significant mutations
Amino Acid Number
Healthy DNA Sequence
Tumour DNA Sequence
Healthy Amino Acid
Tumour Amino Acid
12 GGT GTT G (glycine) V (valine)
13 GGC GAC G (glycine) D (asparatic acid)
61 CAA CGA Q (glutamine) R (arginine)
146 GCA CCA A (alanine) P (proline)
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How common?
AA 1213,894
AA 132,111
AA 61212
AA 14633
Source: COSMIC July 2010
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RB1: tumour suppressor gene
Source: COSMIC July 2010
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How does this affect the KRAS protein?
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Amino acid 12
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Amino acid 13
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Amino acid 61
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Amino acid 146
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Amino acid 146
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What’s the impact?• KRAS helps to transmit external growth signals to the cell nucleus,
driving normal cell growth. It is:– Activated when it binds GTP– Inactivated or “switched off” when GTP is hydrolysed to GDP