i

A Study on the Performance of NREGS in Kerala

Sponsored by

MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT GOVT. OF INDIA

NEW DELHI

Funded by

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP) NEW DELHI

DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

GANDHIGRAM RURAL INSTITUTE

(Member, Professional Institutional Network of NREGA)

GANDHIGRAM - 624 302

DINDIGUL DISTIRCT

TAMILNADU

ii

Acknowledgement

We sincerely express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr.Rita Sharma IAS,

Secretary and Ms.Amita Sharma IAS, Joint Secretary in the Ministry of Rural

Development, Government of India for providing us a wonderful opportunity of

associating ourselves in a very significant and an unprecedented scheme in the

annals of rural development in the country. A series of meetings arranged and

addressed by them on the various issues related to NREGS has helped us to have a

firm grip over the subject. We are thankful to Ms. Neelakshi Mann, Consultant,

Department of Rural development for her support in conducting the study.

We express our deep sense of gratitude to UNDP for their funding support in

undertaking the study.

We are thankful to Shri. S.M. Vijayanand IAS, Principal Secretary,

Department of Local Self Governance, Government of Kerala, for extending

necessary inputs and support in carrying out the study. His suggestions, especially at

the initial stage of study, on the methodology and in selecting sample districts and

blocks were of immense help to us. We are also indebted to Shri. T.K.Jose IAS,

Secretary, Department of Local Self Governance, Govt.of Kerala, for extending

necessary support in the initial stages of the study.

We acknowledge our sincere thanks to Shri. V.N. Jithendran IAS, Mission

Director, NREGA, who has been constantly helping us throughout the study. His

critical comments on tools for data collection have helped us in fine-tuning the tools.

We extend our special thanks and appreciation to Shri.B.S.Thirumeni, Joint

Development Commissioner, NREGA, Government of Kerala for his co-operation

and support in undertaking the study.

We thank all the DPAU Coordinators- Shri. Unnikrishnan Nair of Palakakd

district, Shri. C.V.Joy of Wayanad district, Shri. K.Rajendran of Idukki district and

Shri. K.Janardhanan Pillai of Palakkad district for their continuous support in

gathering all the required data regarding NREGS and for facilitating the field work.

iii

There are many officials at various administrative capacities who facilitated

and helped us in organizing and conducting the field work. We wholehearted

acknowledge and appreciate the help rendered by them. The officials are -

Shri.P.Vinod Kumar, Executive Director of Maithri and his staff and volunteers, Smt.

Santhakumari, Chairperson, Chittoor block standing committee, Shri. P.V.

Radhakrishanan, BPO- Attapady Block, Shri D.Dhanapalan- Block Plan Coordinator,

Shri. K.Kesavan, BPO- Chittoor Block, Shri. C.P.Ananthan, Joint BDO- Chittoor

block, Shri. Venugopal, Joint BDO- Veliyanadu Block, Shri. R. Ubendrachenai, BDO-

Chambakkulam Block, Shri. Besi, Joint BDO- Mananthavady Block, Shri. Basheer-

Asst. Project Officer, Alappuzha, Shri. Hari, BDO, Adimali block, Shri. Viswan, Joint

BDO Adimali, Shri. C.J.John, Joint BDO Devikulam block and Shri. P.S.Arun, Assitt.

Engineer, Wayand District.

We record our hearty thanks to Block Panchayat Presidents, Gram

Panchayat Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Ward Members, members of Vigilance

Committee and Social Audit Committee of Palakakd, Wayanad, Idukki and

Alappuzha Districts, whose field support during the study were of great help in the

successful completion of the study

We place it on record our sincere thanks to all the respondents and

participants of the focus group discussion for spending their valuable time with us in

providing required data and information.

We express our heartfelt thanks to our Vice Chancellor, Dr. SM. Ramasamy,

who is a source of energy and inspiration to us.

We are thankful to the authorities of the Gandhigram Rural Institute for their

support and help in processing the project related papers in time.

We thank Dr. R. Ramesh, Research Fellow for going through the draft version

of the manuscript. We thank Shri.B.Baskar Assistant Professor and Ms.Kaveri

Assistant Professor for extending their service in data compilation and tabulation.

We thank Shri.R.Saravanan for his meticulous work in formatting the report.

Members of Study Team

iv

The Team

Dr.N.Narayanasamy : Coordinator

Dr.M.P.Boraian : Coordinator

Dr.S.Manivel : Associate

Shri.M.P.Saji : Associate

Dr.P.Sebastian : Field Team Leader

Shri.R.Dhavamani : Field Team Leader

Ms.Annu Lalan : Field Team Leader

Ms.G.Geethanjali : Field Team Leader

Shri.P.Maruthai Pandian : Computer Operator

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Contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Boxes

Abbreviations

Executive Summary

Chapters Particulars Page

1. National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

An overview

1

2. Design of the Study 17

3. Profile of Kerala and the Districts Chosen for the Study 26

4. Socio-economic Profile of Sample Households 40

5. Performance of NREGS in Kerala 61

6. Summary of Findings and Inferences 124

7. Recommendations 141

Reference 144

Annexure

i) Household Interview Schedule 146

ii) Check list 156

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List of Tables

Chapter 1 Tables Page

1.1 : NREGA - National Overview 5

1.2 : Person days employed per household 12

1.3 : Share of women in NREGS employment 13

1.4 : Share of wages in total expenditure 13

Chapter 3

3.1 : District Profile 27

3.2 : District wise population profile (as per 2001 census) 28

3.3 : Education specific WPR per persons of age 15 years and above

32

3.4 : Employment in Kerala – An overview 33

Chapter 4

4.1 : Age of the Sample Population 41

4.2 : Literacy Status of the Sample Population 43

4.3 : Number of Disabled among sample population 43

4.4 : Housing details of the Sample Households 44

4.5 : Source of Drinking Water for the sample households 46

4.6 : Main Occupation of the Sample Population 47

4.7 Subsidiary Occupation of the Sample Population 48

4.8 : Livestock Owned by Sample Households 49

4.9 : Household Assets of the Sample Respondents 50

4.10 : Annual Expenditure (in percentage) 51

4.11 : Purpose of Borrowing of the sample population 54

4.12 : Extent of Loan Borrowed by the Sample Households 55

4.13 : Amount Repaid 55

4.14 : Interest Rate 56

4.15 : Migration of Sample Household 57

4.16 : Number of Persons Migrated from the Household 57

4.17 : Reasons for migration 57

4.18 : Place of Migration 58

4.19 : Social Participation as a Member in

CBOs and CSIs

59

Chapter 5

5.1 : Performance of NREGS at State level and

selected sample Districts of Kerala

63

5.2 : Awareness about NREGS: Sources 65

5.3 : Awareness on Main Provisions of NREGS 66

5.4 : Year of Registration 68

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5.5 : Time lag between the Application and Issue of Job Card 69

5.6 : Selection of Works 72

5.7 : Items of Works Undertaken 73

5.8 : Receipt of “Dated Receipt” 76

5.9 : Time lag between the Application and Provision of Employment

77

5.10 : Community-wise average number of days employed 80

5.11 : Participation in Works 82

5.12 : Distance between residence and place of work 83

5.13 : Working hours 85

5.14 : Facilities available at the work site 86

5.15 : Adequacy of the worksite facilities 86

5.16 : Facilities required at the worksite 87

5.17 : Who provided tools for the work in the worksite 88

5.18 : Problems faced at the worksite 89

5.19 : Wages earned under the scheme 91

5.20 : Maximum wage earned under the scheme 91

5.21 : Mode of payment of wage 92

5.22 : Time lag between date of completion of work and receipt of wages

93

5.23 : Difference between wages under NREGS and the prevailing wages for other than NREGS work

94

5.24 : Impact of NREGS on the family income 95

5.25 : Impact of NREGS on the expenditure 96

5.26 : Spending pattern of the wages earned under NREGS 97

5.27 : Impact of the NEREGS on the Saving (Per annum) 99

5.28 : Impact of NREGS on livestock 100

5.29 : Impact of the NREGS on women empowerment 101

5.30 : Migration to other areas in search of job

before the introduction of the NREGS

102

5.31 : The level and intensity of migration after the introduction of NREGS

103

5.32 : Benefits of NREGS to HH 104

5.33 : Benefits of the NREGS for the Panchayat 106

5.34 : Changes that the Scheme has brought in the Panchayat 108

5.35 : Change in the relationship among the

Households after the introduction of NREGS

109

5.36 : Participation in Grama Sabha Meeting 114

5.37 : Matters Discussed on NREGS in Grama Sabha 115

5.38 : Performance of NREGS as perceived by the beneficiaries (District wise Scoring)

118

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List of Figures

No. Particulars Page

3.1 : Age-wise Distribution of Population in Kerala 29

3.2 : Sectoral contribution to state economy 30

4.1 : Population and Gender 40

4.2 : Caste Composition of the Sample Households 42

4.3 : Details on Housing Type of Sample households 44

4.4 : Electricity Connection in Sample Households 45

4.5 : Households with Latrine Facilities 46

4.6 : Annual Income of the Sample Households 51

4.7 : SHG Membership of Women from Sample Households 54

4.8 : Sources of borrowing of the sample households 58

5.1. : Employment sought under NREGS 75

5.2 : Average Number of days of employed 79

5.3 : Number of Respondents employed for 100 days per annum 81

5.4 : Mode of Transport 84

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List of Boxes

No. Particulars Page

1.1 : NREGS vis-a-vis. earlier employment Programmes 15

5.1 : Priority of Works 72

5.2 : The multiplier effects of NREGA 95

5.3 : Age Has Not Withered Away the Spirit to Work 98

5.4 : NREGS enabled to come out of the vicious cycle of poverty:

The case of two sisters

98

5.5 : NREGA assures stable income: The case of Subadra 105

5.6 : Regenerating agriculture through NREGA 107

5.7 : A pond in a private land for a common purpose 107

5.8 : Prevention of men – animal conflict 108

5.9 : NREGA vs SGRY 112

6.1 : NREGA enhanced the credibility of the poor 135

6.2 : NREGA Lends a Helping Hand to the Victim of Agrarian Crisis 136

6.3 : “I need not go with empty stomach with the introduction of

NREGA”

136

6.4 : Water-body retained 137

6.5 : NREGS Empowered Socially Marginalized Woman 137

6.6 : NREGA facilitated socialization 138

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List of Abbreviations

AAP : Anthyodaya Anna Poorna

ADS : Area Development Society

APL : Above Poverty Line

BDO : Block Development Officer

BPL : Below Poverty Line

BPO : Block Programme Officer

CBOs : Community Based Organizations

CDS : Community Development Society

CSIs : Civil Society Institutions

DPAU : District Poverty Alleviation Unit

DRDA : District Rural Development Agencies

FGD : Focus Group Discussion

GDP : Gross Domestic Product

GNP : Gross National Product

GP : Gram Panchayat

GS : Gram Sabha

HH : Household

IAY : Indira Awas Yojana

IMR : Infant Mortality Rate

KILA : Kerala Institute of Local Administration

MMR : Maternal Mortality Rate

NGO : Non Governmental Organization

NREGA : National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

NREGS : National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

NREP : National Rural Employment Programme

PRI : Panchayati Raj Institutions

PWP : Public Works Programme

RD : Rural Development

SC : Scheduled Caste

SGRY : Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana

SHGs : Self Help Groups

SIRD : State Institute of Rural Development

ST : Scheduled Tribe

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Executive Summary

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme was launched in

February 2006 in two districts viz., Palakkad and Wayanad, and subsequently

grounded in the remaining 12 districts of Kerala. The scheme has been

steadily and surely taking roots in the soil of rural Kerala. 23.30 lakh

households have registered under the scheme. 43.4 per cent of them sought

and got employment under the scheme. Women participation is very high with

80 percent of the total beneficiaries under the scheme. The present study is

about the performance of NREGS in Kerala.

The broad objective of the study is to analyze the functioning of

NREGS in Kerala encompassing all its essential aspects. More specifically

the study aims at analyzing the extent to which the scheme has generated

employment, assessing the impact of the scheme on selected variables, and

ascertaining the limitations and constrains faced by the functionaries in

implementing the scheme.

The study employed a combination of methods, viz., survey, focus

group discussion, case study, interview with key

informants and review of secondary sources of

data. Four of the 14 districts in Kerala have been

chosen for the study based on geographical

location, period of implementation (Phase I, II and

III) and concentration of agriculture labour and SC/ST population. Using multi

stage sampling process, two blocks from each district, four panchayats from

each block (except one block where three panchayats are chosen) and 20

respondents from each panchayat were chosen for the study.

Socio-economic profile of the sample households indicate that their

family size is small (4.18); majority of them belong

to productive age group (19.59 %); five percent of

the total population are disabled; 30 per cent

belong to SC/ST households. A high rate of

literacy could be found (92 %). The primary

occupation of the households is agriculture labour followed by NREGS. For a

Sample for the study

Districts : 4 Blocks : 8 Panchayats : 31 Households : 620

Work under NREGS has emerged as primary occupation for 17 percent and as secondary occupation for two-third of the rural households.

xii

vast majority of the households (two- third) NREGS has emerged as a

secondary occupation. One-third of the households have an income of less

than Rs.24,000/-. Possession of assets and livestock is low. Major sources

of borrowings are commercial banks, co-operatives and self help groups.

Money lenders are getting marginalized. Borrowings were resorted to mainly

for productive and consumption purposes. Sample households mainly belong

to poor and moderate households, which indicate that the scheme has

reached the right type of households.

Start-up activities designed and carried out under the scheme have

generated a very high level of awareness about the scheme among the

households. Inspite of initial hiccups in registration due to certain

mis-conception about the scheme, it has reached the deserving households

due to special efforts initiated by the functionaries of the scheme. A vast

majority of the registered households were issued job cards free of cost within

15 days. There were instances of delay in issuing job cards due to non-

availability of staff and delayed production of required documents by the

beneficiaries. Job cards are computerized and are in possession of job

seekers.

Works are identified and prioritized by the Gram Sabha meeting

actively facilitated by the functionaries of

the panchayats and Kudumbasree. There

have been problems in identifying the

works as per the provisions of the Act as

the geography of each district distinctly

differs and as the availability of common natural resources is less in many

panchayats. These problems are, to a certain extent, solved through a

process of convergence with other departments like irrigation, public work,

agriculture, forestry, fisheries, etc.

All the households registered under the scheme did not participate. 50

to 60 per cent of the households participated. Dated receipts were given to

the participants who applied for the job. Around 72 per cent of the job seekers

were offered job within 15 days. Wayanad leads with an average time-lag of

12 days. A few respondents were found to have received unemployment

allowance.

“There is a marked improvement in the participation of the people in Gram Sabha meeting and the people demand such schemes and projects that enhance their well-being”.

- A functionary of the panchayat.

xiii

Works are executed in a methodical and systematic manner. Every

panchayat follows a definite

process. The average number of

days employed has recorded a

steady up-ward trend. The average

number of days employed is high

among the SC/ST households

indicating their active participation in the scheme. Yet another sign of active

participation is the percentage of households

employed for 100 days. It has increased from two

per cent to 14 per cent. Wayanad leads with 30

per cent of the households employed for 100 days.

Majority of the respondents are found to have

participated in works like road connectivity

(56.4%), flood control and protection (35.5%), cleaning of irrigation canals and

channels (26.6%), renovation of traditional water bodies (22.6%) and water

conservation and harvesting (19.4%). Inter-district variations could be

observed, which is due to variations in geographical condition among the

districts.

The worksites are within the radius of 5 km. from the place of residence

of households. 95 per cent of the workers are able to reach the work site by

walk. The time schedule adopted (8 am to 5 pm) was reported as not

conducive to women in general and workers in Alapuzha district in particular.

Basic facilities are made available at the work site;

however, majority of the workers felt that they were

inadequate. They demand more facilities. The

workers have come across certain problems at the

worksite which includes: heavy tools, inability to

work continuously in water-logged areas, inability to adhere to the time

schedule, lack to toilet facility, etc.

Muster rolls are maintained at the work site by the mates, who are

mainly women and are drawn from Kudumbasree. They are well trained in

the tasks expected of them. 98.4 per cent of the respondents are aware of

the minimum wages prescribed. Wages under the scheme are distributed

Average no. of days employed

District 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Palakkad 13 36 53

Idukki - 5 29

Wayanad 24 50 60

Alapuzha - - 13

All 9 22 39

“We remained idle without work before NREGS. We are now assured work for 100 days with an assured income of Rs.12,500/- per annum”.

- NREGS women workers

“Everyone now is willing to lend me as my debt servicing capacity has increased due to income through NREGS”.

- NREGS worker

xiv

through banks and post offices. No incident of ‘payment of wages by cash’

was reported. Around two-third of the respondents received the wage within

15 days and rest had to wait due to delay in measurement of work, delay in

providing muster roll and inadequate staff.

Wages for men under NREGA was much lower compared to locally

prevailing wage rates. In Alapuzha district the

local wage rate is double the wage rate under

NREGA. However, NREGA wage rate for

women is high compared to locally prevalent

wage rates. The net difference is Rs.14/-.

The scheme has discernable impacts on income, expenditure pattern,

savings, migration, status of women, social

relationship, livestock population and household

assets. The benefits of the scheme as perceived

by the respondents to the rural households are

guaranteed employment, improved income and

better education to children. Benefits to the

community (population) include better network of

roads, regeneration of water bodies, improved

irrigation facilities and so on.

The social audit system has been grounded and adopted in all the

panchayats. Social audit reports are submitted in Gram panchayat and sent

to authorities concerned for appropriate action. Complaints received are

settled then and there.

Convergence of scheme with various departments such as, irrigation,

agriculture, public works, fisheries and forestry could be observed, which help

in effective identification and execution of various types of works.

The performance of the scheme has been rated as ‘very good’, in

crucial areas like, ‘process of registration’, ‘issue of job cards’, ‘selection of

worksite’, ‘supervision at the worksite’, ‘support of government officials’ and

‘participation of people’. Whereas, certain variables such as, execution of

work, quality of the work executed, facilities at the worksite, mode of

distribution of wages and ‘transparency’ have been rated as ‘good’ which

means that there is need and scope for further improvement in such areas.

Effects of NREGA

• Improved income

• Shift in expenditure pattern

• Improved savings

• Decline in migration

• Better social relationship

• Better education for children

“Going with an empty stomach in order to provide food to my children is a thing of the past. All the members of the family are now assured of food”.

- NREGS woman worker

xv

The overall functioning of the scheme as rated by the respondents and

as reiterated in the focus group discussion is ‘good’. The credit for the

performance goes to Gram Sabha, the Panchayats, Kudumbasree and the

Government functionaries at different levels who played very critical role in

grounding and implementing the scheme.

The suggestions to take the scheme to greater heights and make it

sustainable as recommended by stakeholders at different levels include;

i)100 days of employment per adult member per household instead of per

household; ii) temporary suspension of NREGS works during the peak

agricultural season; iii) permission to take up land improvement in private

lands with the financial participation of land owners; iv) upward revision of

wages taking into account the local situation; iv) flexibility in schedule of

working hours; vi) region based specific plans instead of adapting blue-print

type of guideline; vii) permission to reintervene based on nature of work;

viii) permission to take up work involving material cost; ix) delegation of

responsibilities and power from the block to the panchayat; x) appointment of

skilled personnel wherever required and xi) providing better infrastructure like

improved tools, computers with BSNL internet connectivity, vehicles and

human resources at panchayat level.

* * * * *

Chapter - 1

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

An Overview

Introduction

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), the first

ever programme giving legal guarantee to a minimum of 100 days of work in a

financial year, is a Public Works Programme (PWP). PWPs are defined as “all

activities which entail payment of wage (in cash or in kind) by the state, or by

an agent acting on behalf of the state in return for a provision of labour, in

order to: i) enhance employment; and ii) produce an asset (either physical or

social) with the overall objective of promoting social protection for participants”

(Anna Macord 2009). There are, by and large four distinct, although

sometimes overlapping types of PWPs. They are: i) PWPs offering a single

short-term episode of employment which provide a ‘risk coping’ or protective

forms of social protection; ii) large scale government employment programme

which are response to chronic or sustained levels of elevated employment.

Under this type, State acts as an employer of the last resort aiming to raise

aggregate employment on a sustained basis; iii) programme promoting the

labour intensification of government infrastructure spending with primary

objective of constructing assets while increasing aggregate labour usage; and

iv) programmes which enhances employability by promoting work place

experience and skills formation among the unemployed. NREGS belongs to

the second type of PWP.

NREGA and its Features

India had the experience of operating many types of PWPs. NREGS

has evolved into its present shape by building on the past experiences in

designing and executing schemes providing employment. It is an

improvement over its predecessors. The employment envisaged under the

scheme is defined as a constitutional right so that the state offers a

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guaranteed number of days of employment each year to one unemployed

work-seeker from any rural household seeking employment. It puts the people

with rights to seek employment in a legal framework and approaches

development through the socio and economic empowerment of the poor and

the marginalized.

Described as ‘flagship programme’, ‘first ever scheme that guarantee

wage employment at an unprecedented scale’, ‘mother of all local

development programme’, ‘demand-driven and people-centered programme’,

‘boon to the rural poor’, ‘lifeline to the marginalized and landless’, ‘the largest

employment programme in human history’, the scheme was introduced

through an Act known as ‘National Rural Employment Guarantee Act’ notified

on Sep. 7, 2005.

The Act came into force on Feb. 2006. The salient features of Act are:

i) application by the adult members of the rural households to the local

panchayat seeking registration; ii) issue of job cards by the panchayat within

15 days from the date of application; iii) written application by the job card

holders to the panchayat seeking employment; iv) issue of dated receipt of

written application for employment; v) provision of employment within 15 days

of application for work failing which payment of unemployment allowance; vi)

provision of work within a radius of 5 km from the village (payment of extra

wages of 10 per cent, if the work provided is beyond 5 km); vii) payment of

wages as per the minimum wages act; viii) provision of equal wages for men

and women; ix) disbursement of wages on a weekly basis; x) women should

constitute one-third of the workers; xi) provision of facilities at the work site;

xii) shelf of project as recommended by the Grama panchayat and approved

by zilla parishad; xiii) permissible works are predominantly soil and water

conservation, afforestation and land development; xiv) wage material cost

ratio should be 60 : 40 (no room for machine and contractors); xv) social audit

has to be undertaken by the Grama Sabha; xvi) institution of grievances

redressal mechanism for ensuring responsive implementation process; and

xvii) all accounts are subject to public scrutiny resulting in accountability and

transparency of the scheme.

3

Objectives of NREGS

The primary objective of the Act is augmenting wage employment.

More specifically, the Act aims at: i) providing a right based 100 days

employment in a year to strengthen the subsistence livelihood support,

enhancing the rural households purchasing power and capacity to alleviate

hunger; and ii) directing the colossus amount of wages towards creating

productive and durable assets of irrigation, drought proofing, land and water

conservation, horticulture and connectivity to general prosperous livelihood

support system. The ultimate objective was to benefit the entire community

by providing employment; raising agricultural productivity and increasing

natural resource base, particularly water. The process envisaged to attain the

objectives would result in strengthening the grassroots processes of

democracy and infusing transparency and accountability in governance.

Progress of NREGS

The scheme has been implemented in a phased manner. It was

introduced in 200 most backward districts of the country in Phase I (February

2006). It was implemented in 130 more districts in Phase II during 2007-08.

The scheme was further extended to the remaining 285 rural districts of India

from April 1, 2008 in phase III in order to bring the whole nation under its

safety net. The programme was first launched on 2nd Feb. 2006 from

Anantapuri District of Andhra Pradesh.

The budget outlay on the scheme has steadily gone up over a period of

three years. Started with a budget outlay of Rs.11,300 crores in 2006-07, the

scheme has budget outlay of Rs. 30,000 crores in 2008-09 indicating a three-

fold increase over a period of three years, mainly due to phased extension of

the programme to different districts. Employment opportunities and wage rate

have significantly gone up since the implementation of the scheme. The

employment provided to the rural households has recorded more than two-

fold increase from 2.10 crore households in 2006-07 to 4.51 crore households

in 2008-09. The person days of employment witnessed a sharp increase from

90.5 crore person days in 2006-07 to 216.32 person days in 2008-09. The

4

average wage paid under NREGA has increased from Rs.65 in 2006-07 to

Rs.84 in 2008-09; minimum wages for agricultural labourers have increased

after the implementation of the scheme. For instance, the minimum wages in

Maharastra has increased from Rs.47 to Rs.72; in Uttar Pradesh from Rs.58

to Rs.100; in Bihar from Rs.68 to Rs.81; in West Bengal from Rs.64 to Rs.75;

in Madhya Pradesh from Rs.58 to Rs.85 and in Chattisgarh from Rs.58 to

Rs.72. Further, a major chunk of the expenditure has gone in the form of

wages. The act has mandated that wage material ratio should be 60:40. But

then, the percentage of wages to the total expenditure has been hovering

around two–third of the total expenditure indicating much better flow of funds

in the form of wages to the target beneficiaries than mandated (See Table

1.1).

The works taken up under the scheme are mostly related to water

harvesting and conservation, flood control and protection, micro irrigation

works, provision of irrigation facilities on the land owned by SC / ST

households, renovation of traditional water bodies, land development, drought

proofing and rural connectivity. Total number of works taken up has increased

from 8.35 lakhs in 2006-07 to 27.75 lakhs in 2008-09. Around 50 per cent of

the works are related to water conservation; 20 percent of the works are

related to provision of irrigation facility to individual beneficiaries; and around

15 per cent to land development indicating that a vast chunk of the funds has

been spent on soil and water conservation leading to improved livelihood

security to rural households.

The Act has focused on SC/ST households. Around 55 per cent of total

households are SC/ST households indicating the massive participation of

SC/ST households in the scheme. The Act mandates that a minimum of one-

third of the beneficiaries should be women. The national average shows that

women participation was 41 per cent in 2006-07; it registered steady increase

recording 43 percent in 2007-08; 47.88 percent in 2008-09 and 51.15 percent

in 2009-10 (upto October 2009). The women participation thus has surpassed

the minimum prescribed levels.

5

Table 1.1 NREGA - National Overview

2006-07 200

Districts

2007-08 330

Districts

2008-09 615

Districts

2009-10 (UptoAug.,09) 200 Districts

Employment provided to households

2.10Crore 3.39 Crore 4.49 Crore 3.04 Crore

PERSONDAYS (in Crore)

Total 90.5 143.59 216.01 118.54

SCs 22.95 [25%] 39.36 [27%] 63.39 [29%] 35.50 [30%]

STs 32.98 [36%] 42.07 [29%] 54.78 [25%] 26.21 [22%]

Women 36.79 [41%] 61.15 [43%] 103.41 [48%] 60.62 [51%]

Others 34.56 [38%] 62.16 [43%] 97.84 [45%] 56.73 [48%] Average persondays per household

43 days 42 days 48 days 39 days

FINANCIAL DETAIL

Budget Outlay (in Rs. Core)

11300 12000 30000 39100

Central Release (in Rs. Crore)

8640.85 12610.39 29939.60 15219.14

Total available fund [including OB]: (in Rs. Crore)

12073.55 19305.81 37483.94 26831.21

Expenditure (in Rs. Crore)

8823.35 15856.89 27137.88 14398.64

Average wage per day Rs.65 Rs.75 Rs.84 Rs.88

WORKS DETAIL Total works taken up (in Lakhs)

8.35 17.88 27.2 23.37

Works completed (in Lakhs)

3.87 8.22 12.09 5.28

Water conservation 4.51 [54%] 8.73 [49%] 12.50 [46%] 11.60 [49%]

Provision of irrigation facility to land owned by SC/ST/BPL and IAY beneficiaries

0.81 [10%] 2.63 [15%] 5.56 [20%] 4.34 [19%]

Rural Connectivity 1.80 [21%] 3.08 [17%] 4.91 [18%] 3.98 [17%]

Land Development 0.89 [11%] 2.88 [16%] 3.91 [15%] 3.23 [14%]

Any other activity 0.34 [4%] 0.56 [3%] 0.25 [1%] 0.22 [1%]

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

Merits and Shortcomings of NREGA

NREGA is the first tangible commitment to the poor that they can

expect to earn a living wage without loss of dignity and demand this as a right

(Lalith Mathur, 2007). NREGA has benefited the people especially the

marginalized and the poor on several counts. Evidences from the field and

the analysis of the macro data have brought to light the various merits of the

scheme and its impact on the target beneficiaries. The scheme has certain

drawbacks / shortcomings too. They are not related to the scheme as such

but the way in which it is implemented or executed. We would discuss the

6

benefits of the scheme to the target groups. The benefits listed here are

based on the field reports / studies conducted across the country.

Merits

Minimum wages assured: A very significant benefit of NREGA is that it has

ensured payment of minimum wages irrespective of the sex. The minimum

wage of Rs.100 a day under NREGA had increased the wage level across the

private sector benefiting both the families that could not avail NREGA work

and families that had completed NREGA quota of 100 days work. It provided

the poor with required support in the labour market by not letting them below a

certain level. It has increased the bargaining power of the poor people in the

labour market. The workers of NREGA, earlier, were mostly voiceless and

they could not normally bargain for higher wages. Now, the NREGA wage

has become a bench mark and NREGA workers bargain for wages and are

no longer willing to work for cheaper wages.

Attitudinal change: NREGA has brought a big shift in the attitude of the

people. It has impacted on the social structure of the villages. We have

never seen land owning upper caste groups working in the farms of SC/ST

households. A paradigm shift could be observed with the advent of NREGA.

The land owning class now comes and works in the farms of dalits. People

are reported to have said that they will all work together as a group and not on

a caste basis (P.Sainath 2008). It is a common sight in many of the states

that petty shop owners, stone cutters, people of different caste groups and

land owners of different types (marginal, small and big) participate and work

together under NREGA.

Assured Income: The scheme has improved the lives of the people and has

brought stability and assured income to the families that were until recently

desperately poor (Vidya Subramanian: 2009). A study conducted by the

Institute of Applied Manpower Research covering a sample of 6000

households across 20 states in the country (300 samples per state) has

revealed that the low earning level of a number of beneficiaries declined and

the number of households reporting marginally higher income has increased

7

(K.Balchand: 2009). In certain places especially during the lean season

NREGA had been the only source of income (Sudha Narayan: 2008).

Change in expenditure pattern: The scheme has its impact on the

expenditure pattern of the families also. A shift in the expenditure pattern on

food and non-food items with family spending more on both the counts could

be found; more than half of the households have purchased livestock like

sheep and goat (K.Balachand: 2009).

Migration checked: An important problem in rural areas was “distress

migration” especially when an area was struck by drought, famine, flood or

other natural calamities. Field reports have clearly indicated that the people /

beneficiaries no longer have to move places to places looking for work. The

migration has fallen very sharply (Sudha Narayan: 2008).

Panchayats strengthened: The entire scheme is being implemented by the

panchayat and through the panchayat. Identification of work, implementation

of work, disbursement of wages and social auditing have become the

responsibility of Grama panchayat. This has provided a vast scope for

strengthening Gram sabhas and the panchayats which in turn helps building

participatory democracy.

Women empowered: Participation of women has increased significantly. In

several states participation of women has surpassed men’s participation.

Women perceived that NREGA is giving them a sense of independence and

security. Wages earned under NREGA has helped women in several ways.

It helped them to pay the debt and retrieve the pawned gold; helped them in

taking care of children’s education; enabled them to meet the day-to-day

household expenses and facilitated them to save money (Sudha Narayan

2008).

Entitlements internalized: NREGS facilitates disclosure by means of regular

social audit. Social audit mandated to be done by the Grama Sabha is

intended to identify and plug pilferages and corruption which in turn helps

building awareness and confidence in beneficiaries who learn over the time,

8

to become vigilant and assertive. As a result, the village people had fully

internalized their rights and entitlements (Vidhya Subramanian, 2009).

Social capital created: NREGS has facilitated ‘people coming together’. It is

quite common to see a large number of men and women irrespective of the

caste working together in creating productive assets. This provides a great

deal of opportunities for frequent interaction resulting in mutual trust and

social capital. Nurkse, the economist said that, capital starved over populated

countries could build social capital in a big way by employing the surplus

labour on a variety of projects. The massive effort in building social capital

through NREGA could trigger higher productivity of land and labour,

diversification of agriculture and foster industrial growth. It would mitigate the

sufferings inflicted by chronic drought and flash flood (P.S Appu: 2009).

Corruption checked: The act has a wide range of transparency safeguards

to prevent corruption. For instance, musterrolls are to be kept at the worksite,

displayed at the panchayat office and read out in public at the time of wage

payments. Employment and wage details have to be recorded in the job

cards to enable the workers to check and verify the records for themselves.

Contractors are totally banned. There is evidence of substantial progress

towards a transparent accountable system. Contractors have virtually

disappeared from NREGA. Mass fudging of muster rolls, in certain States, is a

thing of the past (Rajasthan for example). Certain States like Andra Pradesh

have been making rapid strides in this direction through strict record keeping,

institution of social audit and payment of wages through post offices. A

survey conducted in Orissa revealed that 95 per cent of the wages paid

according to the muster roll had actually related the labourers concerned.

This is a major achievement especially in contrast with the situations two

years ago, where a similar study in the same area had uncovered evidences

of massive fraud in National Food for Works Programme (Jean Dreze 2007).

Lacunae and shortcomings

The scheme suffers from certain lacunae and problems. The problems

are inter-related. The problems are not with the scheme but with the way in

9

which it is implemented. Some important problems as reported from the fields

are presented below.

Delay in payment of wages: There has been a prolonged delay in payment

of wages. As per the provisions of the Act, workers must be paid within 15

days. However, wages could not be paid within the stipulated period of time.

The main reason attributed for the delay is the inability of the banks and post

offices to handle mass payment of NREGS wages. There are other reasons

too. They are delay in issuing payment order to the banks and post offices by

the panchayat, delay in work measurement, bottlenecks in flow of funds and

irresponsible record keeping (Jean Dreze 2007). Whatever might be the

reasons, even small delays cause enormous hardships to workers who live on

the margin of subsistence.

Overemphasis on employment: Two major objectives of the programme

are: i) provision of 100 days of unskilled employment in a financial year; and

ii) creation of productive and durable assets that would enhance agricultural

productivity. However, in actual operationalization of the scheme, the first

objective assumes by far the most dominant concern of the law, the second

objective viz, creation of sustainable productive assets, stands in the shadow.

Even during the social audit the prime attention goes to matters related to

registration, issue of job cards, allocation of work, timely wage payment and

worksite facilities rather than the utilization of works completed, increase in

production, multiplier effects of income generation, issue of ownership,

operationalization and maintenance of assets created on the public land. An

alarming fact is that during the last three and half years (till August 2009)

19.49 lakh works have been taken up, out of which, only 2.69 lakh (13.69 per

cent) works are reported to have been completed (Prasad Y.B,:2009).

Shortage of human resources: Yet another critical lacuna in the

implementation of NREGS has been the shortage of dedicated human

resources. Currently, in many of the states, implementation of NREGS has

been assigned to the already overloaded bureaucratic structure. NREGS is

an “additional charge”. As a result, the government officials who are in-

charge of the programme could not totally devote themselves to NREGS.

10

This leads to delays and poor quality output. Attempts to “piggyback” a

radically new people-centered programme on to a moribund bureaucratic

structure of implementation simply do not work (Pramathesh Ambasta: 2009).

Delay in issue of job cards: An important factor of the NREGS is that job

needs to be given to a worker within 15 days of demand for work. The study

by the Institute of Applied Manpower Research indicated that 80 per cent of

the households are yet to get job within 15 days of their demand for work and

worse still they were not given unemployment allowance either.

Failure to convene the meeting of Grama Sabha: Grama Sabha has to

play a very crucial role in implementing NREGS, especially in three important

stages in the process of NREGS viz., i) preparation of shelf of projects;

ii) appraisal of shelf of projects; and iii) conducting of social audit. These

activities are very essential for the effective implementation of NREGS, which

necessarily warrant convening the meeting of the Grama Sabha. There are

instances where Grama Sabha meeting were not convened in certain areas of

the district in certain states (Mahim Pratap Singh: 2009).

Withholding job cards: Possession of job card provides a legal entitlement

and guarantee to seek job from the Panchayat. The job card should be with

the households. All details such as date of application for work, employment

demand, employment provided, description of work, muster roll ID in which

attendance recorded and wages paid, unemployment allowance paid (if any),

etc. are recorded in the job card. Transparency warrants that job cards should

be with the beneficiaries. Evidence from the field shows that the presidents of

the village panchayats withhold the job cards with them. This is likely to result

in non-payment of statutory minimum wages, fudging of muster rolls leading

to large scale corruption in the scheme. This may not be true for all the

panchayats in all the districts. But such a practice even by the presidents of a

few panchayats in few states would set a very bad precedent tarnishing the

very image of the noble scheme.

Failure to hit the 100 guaranteed days: The Act has guaranteed 100 days

of work per year to all the rural households registered under the scheme.

11

However, majority of the households work only for an average of 50 days.

For instance, the average person days employed per household was less

than 50 in 24 out of 34 states (2008-09). This clearly shows that a lot need to

be done to ensure 100 days of work to all the rural households in all the

states.

Consistent concurrent monitoring lacking: Another missing link in the

implementation chain is concurrent monitoring. Information technology has

an indispensable role in providing the necessary information at the right time

in a transparent way. NREGA has developed a good management

information system. But then, it fails to alert on certain vital issues. For

instance, it is not able to raise an alert on delays in wage payments because

data are normally updated post-facto, thus undermining the very basis of

monitoring (Pramathesh Ambasta: 2009).

Inter-state variations: There are inter-state variations in executing the

scheme. Certain states have performed well in terms of certain key

indicators, such as women participation, average days of employment per

person per annum, conduct of social audit; etc. For example, Rajasthan and

Tripura have performed better among all major states in terms of employment

generation per rural household. In both the states employment generation

under NREGA is quite close to upper limit of 100 days per rural household, in

the year 2006-07. This is an unprecedented achievement in the history of

social security in India (Jean Dreze and Christian Oldiges, 2009).

Employment generation per household for the year 2007-08 indicates

that 10 states could generate more than 50 days of employment against the

target of 100 days; 7 states could generate an average 40-50 employment

days per household. Remaining 17 states (50 per cent) could generate only

less than 40 days on an average. The figure for the year 2009-10 shows a

promising trend as 12 out of 34 states have generated more than 40 days

within a period of 7 months (See Table 1.2).

12

Table 1.2: Person days employed per household

Person days

employed States (2008-09)

No. of States

States (2009-10) Till 30

th Oct. 2009

No. of States

<20 Puducherry, Andaman & Nicobar; Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Goa

5

Kerala, Maharashtra, Andaman & Nicobar, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagerhaveli, Goa, Daman & Diu

7

20-30 Gujarat, Punjab, West Bengal, Dara & Nagerhaveli, Bihar, Kerala

6

Assam, Gujarat, Punjab, West Bengal, Uttarkhand, Lakshwadeep, Puducherry, Meghalaya, Bihar

9

30-40

Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, TamilNadu, Uttarkhand, Orissa, Meghalaya,

6

Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur, Sikkim, Orissa

6

40-50

Andra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jharkhand

7

Andra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Chattisgarh

9

>50

Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Lakshwadeep

10

Rajasthan, TamilNadu, Nagaland

3

Total States 34 34

Source: Data Compiled from www.nrega.nic.in

Regarding participation of women, the highest was reported in Tamil

Nadu with 82 per cent followed by Kerala with 73 percent in 2007-08. Women

participation was more than 61 per cent in 5 states in 2008-09 and 2009-10.

It ranged between 30 and 60 per cent in 19 states during 2008-09 and in 21

states during 2009-10. In the remaining states, it was less than mandated 30

per cent (See Table 1.3). It can be concluded that, women participation was

far better than the minimum prescribed norms under the Act in majority of the

states.

13

Table 1.3: Share of women in NREGS employment

Percentage of women

participation States (2008-09)

No. of States

States (2009-10) Upto 30

th Oct. 2010

No. of States

<30

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Lakshwadeep, Daman & Diu, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir

10

Arunachal Pradesh, Assamm, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Lakshwadeep, Daman & Diu. Goa, West Bengal, Chandigarh

9

30-60

Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Sikkim, Tripura, Chattisgarh, Uttarkhand, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshwadeep

19

Andra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Sikkim, Trpura, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttrakhand, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshwadeep, Bihar

19

>60 Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Dadra & Nagerhaveli

5

Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Dadra & Nagerhaveli, Meghalaya

5

Total 34 Total 34

Source: Data Compiled from www.nrega.nic.in

Table 1.4: Share of Wages in Total Expenditure

Percentage States

(2008-09) No. of States

States (2009-10) Upto 30

th Oct. 2010

No. of States

<60

Sikkim, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshwadeep, Daman & Diu, Goa.

7

Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshwadeep, Daman & Diu, Goa.

8

>60 All Other States 27 All Other States 26

Total 34 Total 34

Source: Data Compiled from www.nrega.nic.in

The share of wages in total expenditure was more than 60 per cent in

majority of states in 2008-09 and 2009-10. However, it was less than 60 per

cent in some of the states.

14

It is, thus, clear that the scheme is not performing well in all states.

Perhaps it may be too early to expect better performance in all the states.

The reasons are obvious. First, the scheme has been implemented in three

different phases across the states in the country. Second, states do differ in

terms of development. There are rich states and poorer states. The existing

institutional arrangements especially in poor states like Bihar, Chattisgarh,

Uttar Pradesh and Madya Pradesh are not good enough to implement the

NREGA in an effective manner (Pinaki Chakrabarthy: 2007). Third, the

preparation needed for this revolutionary Act was not in place before it was

launched (Mihir Shah: 2009). Fourth, failure on the part of the state and the

functionaries to generate required awareness about the scheme. Fifth,

entrusting the works related to NREGA to the already overburdened staff at

the block and at the district levels. Sixth, panchayats are the prime movers of

the scheme; but then, they do not have the necessary capacity to manage the

scheme.

NREGS Vis-à-vis Earlier Wage Employment Programmes

The nation has implemented a series of wage employment

programmes for the poor. The earlier programmes cast the state in the role of

a benefactor offering hand-outs to the poor. But NREGA has built notions of

citizenship and entitlements. NREGA represents a paradigm shift from the

earlier, wage employment programmes in several aspects (Vijayanand S.M.

and V.N.Jithendran: 2009). The differences are given in Box 1.1.

15

Box 1.1. NREGS vis-a-vis. earlier employment Programmes

NREGS Earlier Programmes

Concept

o Legal guarantee of right to

employment

o Demand-driven

o Focus on productive sector for

sustainable development through

natural resource management

o Gender sensitive

o Vision based participatory

perspective planning

o Organic central role for PRI’s

o Incidental to scheme; no legal

guarantee

o Supply-driven

o Focus on public works;

predominantly roads

o Male / Machine dominated

o Short-term priority listing

o Marginal agency role for PRI’s

Planning

o Long preparatory phase

o Can be integrated with varied

development works

o Multi-dimensional action plans

covering, time, space, manpower

and resources

o Result-based and outcome

oriented

o Hurried quick-fix plans

o Limited to schematic works

o Two dimensional action plan

covering resources and works.

o Expenditure oriented.

Organization

o Panchayat in central place-

development from within

o People estimates

o Minimum wages

o Equal wages

o Payment through bank or post

offices

o Work without whip - new dynamics

of mutual help and group

discipline.

o Middlemen/ contractors in central

place – outsourcing development

o Engineers estimate

o Market wages

o Differential wages

o Direct cash payments

o Ruthless suppression by

middlemen – contractors

Administration

o Integrated and consistent data

base

a) Unique ID of workers

b) Unique ID of work

c) ID of muster rolls

d) Payment vouchers

e) Bank accounts of individuals

o Close monitoring

o Clear accounting system

a) proactive disclosures

b) vigilance & monitoring

committee

c) social audits

o No such data base

o Routine monitoring

o Ritualized and routine

Source: Vijanand S.M and V.N.Jithendra (2009)

16

Conclusion

NREGA is a path-breaking legislation with the main objective of

providing legal guarantee to all the rural households to have secured access

to employment opportunities. Employment now, is a legal entitlement to rural

households. Started in the year 2006, the scheme has been in operation in all

the states. The outcome of the scheme is quite encouraging as it has started

yielding dividends in terms of improved wages, improved income, and

marginal improvement in living standards and so on. The scheme has come

across certain hurdles or shortcomings which include delayed payment of

wages, instances of fudging of muster rolls, corruption, more emphasis on

employment rather than long-term interest such as ownership and

maintenance of assets, shortage of dedicated human resources at the

Panchayat level, failure to provide employment within 15 days of demand for

work, non-convening of Gram Sabha meetings, uneven performance within

the state and across the states and so on. Despite all these shortcomings, the

scheme, which is described unprecedented in the history of employment

programme throughout the world, has been slowly and steadily picking up.

Steps are being taken to position the safeguard mechanism related to

transparency and accountability at all levels. The success of the scheme

largely depends on the state, local bodies, civil society organizations and

ofcourse the proactive participation of the beneficiaries of the scheme. What

we have presented so far is the macro scenario of the NREGS over a period

of three years based on the review of earlier studies and the review of

secondary sources of data and information. We now present performance of

the scheme in a selected state (Kerala) based on an in-depth study using a

mix of methods such as survey, focus group discussion, case study and

observation. The presentation of macro scenarios, we thought, would provide

a backdrop to this study. The subsequent chapters will deal with the

methodology, the profile of the state and the districts under study and the

performance of NREGS in Selected districts of the State.

* * * * *

17

Chapter - 2

Design of the Study

Introduction

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is the largest ever

public programme conceived and grounded in the human history. It is the

most powerful initiative ever undertaken for the transformation of rural

livelihoods. It goes beyond poverty alleviation and recognizes employment as

a legal right. It creates the right to work. It is demand-driven. It has the

potential to provide a ‘big push’ in Indian regions of distress. The immediate

objective of the Act is to ensure the livelihood security of households in rural

areas of the country by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed

employment in a financial year to every household, whose adult members

volunteer to do unskilled manual work (The Ministry of Rural Development,

Government of India; 2008). The choices of work suggested in the Act

addresses causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil

erosion, so that the process of employment generation is maintained on a

sustainable basis. Thus, the act has both short term and long term objectives.

Implemented in three phases, the Act is operational in 625 rural districts

spread across 34 states in the country.

The expected outcomes from the scheme are many. First, it is not just

a scheme to merely provide relief in times of distress. It is a scheme to

provide long-term drought and flood-proofing to Indian agriculture. Second,

effective implementation of the scheme would take the economy on to a more

sustainable growth path and as a result the economy would be less

vulnerable to the vicissitudes of nature. Third, the growth fuelled by the

scheme would help reduce poverty because it is an established fact that the

impact of growth on poverty is higher in areas where social infrastructure is

more developed. Fourth, it is strongly believed that the expenditure incurred

on the employment guarantee would be non-inflationary for it is likely to cause

18

a spurt in agricultural growth which would provide a strong foundation upon

which a wide spectrum of sustainable livelihoods could be developed. Fifth,

successive rounds of investments in the programme would result in multiplier

of secondary employment opportunities.

All these outcomes can be a reality only when all the salient features of

NREG Act, and the process suggested are meticulously planned and

implemented. The key factor for the success of the programme lies in the

active participation of the rural households coupled with effective involvement

of the functionaries at the grassroots level (panchayat) who are in-charge of

implementing the programme. Transparency - a critical input in designing and

executing the activities at the different levels of structures created to plan,

execute, monitor and evaluate the programme - plays an indispensable role in

making the programme sustainable.

The scheme was launched in the beginning of 2006. Almost four years

have elapsed since the inception of the scheme. How does the scheme

perform? Do the provisions of NREGA and the guidelines evolved under the

schemes provide a wholesome process for effective implementation of the

scheme? Has the process been followed in letter and spirit?. What are the

hurdles at different phases of the process? The scheme envisages visible

outputs and outcomes. What are the outputs and outcomes of the scheme?

To what extent has the scheme been able to bring changes in the living

conditions of the people? What are the problems experienced by the various

stakeholders especially at the grassroots level? These are all some of the

major issues which require a study and an indepth analysis. Such a study

would throw enough light on the functioning of the scheme, the actual

outcome against the expected outcome, the problems that crop up in

implementing programme and so on. It is against this backdrop, the present

study has been taken up in select districts of Kerala.

19

Objectives of the study

The broad objective of the study is to analyse the functioning of the

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme encompassing all its

essential aspects. More specifically, the study aims at:

i). analyzing the extent to which the scheme has guaranteed

employment and livelihood to different sections of rural

households;

ii). assessing the quality of the assets created and their likely impact

on the agrarian economy;

iii). ascertaining the impact of the scheme on the socio-economic

conditions of the people;

iv). assessing the limitations and constraints faced by the

functionaries in implementing the scheme;

v). identifying the problems faced by the participants (primary

stakeholders of the scheme; and

vi). identifying and document the best practices as (if any) adopted in

implementation of the scheme.

Scope and coverage

The broad issues to be addressed would include:

• There is a mismatch between employment days guaranteed and

the actual number of days employed. Why there is a gap? What are

the problems in providing guaranteed employment days?

• The problems in identifying the works as per the provisions of Act

and the guidelines issued.

• There is also a mismatch between the wage assured under the act

and the wages actually paid. What are the reasons? What are the

problems faced in providing wages assured?

• Do the functionaries of the panchayat have problems in

implementing the scheme at the panchayat level? What is the

nature and dimension of the problems? How could the problems be

overcome?

20

• Certain panchayats within the district and certain blocks within a

district are likely to perform better than others in implementing the

scheme. What are the enabling or pushing factors that help them

perform better? What are the retarding or pulling factors for poor

performance?

• The outcome and impact of the scheme to a larger extent depend

on the quality and relevance of assets created. What do people

think about quality and relevance of the assets created?

• An important objective of the scheme is to help reduce poverty. Has

the scheme succeeded in reducing poverty?

• The credibility and success of the scheme depends on the degree

of transparency exhibited in the project related activities. What is

the mechanism adopted to ensure transparency in the project?

These are all some of the important central issues that would be

addressed under the study. The findings and the inferences drawn thereon in

the context of the issues raised would definitely help in finding out the

problems, limitations and constraints in implementing the scheme and would

help in finding solutions to overcome the problems.

The target group for the study would include both primary and

secondary stakeholders of the project viz., the men and women who

participated in the scheme, the functionaries of the panchayat and the Block

Development Office, the personnel working in the project and the project

officer of DRDA.

Methodology

Methods

The study has employed mix of methods to address the objectives laid

down. Both primary and secondary data were collected.

To begin with, a thorough review of the secondary data related to the

NREGS at the district, block and panchayat levels was undertaken and

documented.

21

A comprehensive household survey was done mainly to ascertain the

outcome and impact of the project in the light of project interventions. A

pretested interview schedule was administered to collect the data from the

sample beneficiaries.

Qualitative methods such as focus group discussion, case study and

interview with key informants were used to supplement and complement the

inferences drawn from the survey data.

Research questions addressed

The major research questions addressed under the study are:

o What are the efforts made by the panchayat, Block Development

Office and DRDA for registering the rural households under the

scheme?

o Have all the eligible rural households got registered under the

scheme?

o Have all the registered households sought for employment

participated in the works under the scheme? If not what are the

factors hindering participation of the households?

o What is the average number of days employed in a year? Are there

variations in terms of number of days employed with reference to

caste and gender?

o What are the facilities made available in the worksite? Are they

adequate? If not, what facilities are required at the worksite?

o Have all the panchayats identified the works to be undertaken as

per the guidelines? How they estimated the quantum and value of

work identified? Is there any mismatch between the demand for

work and the availability of work? What are the steps taken by the

panchayats to fill the gap between demand and availability?

o What is the average wage earned by the household? Is there any

variation in the wages earned across the households? If so what

are the reasons? Are the wages distributed hovering around the

22

minimum wages prescribed? If ‘no’ what are the reasons? What is

the system followed in the distribution of wages? Have the

households experienced any problems in getting wages? If ‘yes’

what are the problems?

o What are the views and opinion of the women employed under the

scheme on the implementation of the scheme? What are the

problems that they face in the worksite?

o What is the quality of work? Have the works undertaken helped in

developing creative assets? Have they helped in conserving soil,

water and other natural resources?

o What is the impact of the programme on the rural households with

special reference to i) creation of livelihoods; ii) income iii) assets;

iv) expenditure; v) savings; vi) liability; vii) migration; and viii) social

capital? How do people spend the wages earned? What is the level

and intensity of migration after the introduction of the scheme?

o What is the mechanism evolved and adopted to ensure

transparency and accountability under the scheme? What is the

degree of transparency and accountability found in the scheme?

o Are the people satisfied with the way in which the programme is

implemented? If ‘no’ what are the improvements suggested by the

people?

o What are the difficulties experienced by the functionaries at different

levels to implement the scheme? What are the measures initiated to

overcome such difficulties?

Sample design

Kerala State was the venue of the study. Multi stage sampling process

was adopted to select the sample for the study.

First Stage: Selection of District

There are fourteen districts in Kerala. Four districts were selected for

the study. The criteria adopted were: i) Geographical location. The entire

State of Kerala divided into three regions viz., Eastern high land, Central

23

midland and Western coastal low land. We have chosen two districts from

eastern highland, one from central midland and one from western coastal low

land. ii) Period of implementation of the scheme. The scheme has been

implemented in three phases viz., Phase I, Phase 2 and Phase 3. Two of the

districts chosen fall under first phase, one under second phase and the fourth

under third phase. iii) Performance of the district in the implementation of

NREGS good performing, moderately performing and least performing

districts. Regarding performance of four districts chosen, one come under

best performing, the second one come under moderately performing and

remaining two districts come under least performing. The districts selected

based on these criteria are: i) Palakkad; ii) Wayanad; iii) Idukki; and

iv) Alapuzha.

Second Stage: Selection of Blocks

Having chosen the districts, the next stage is to select the blocks. Two

blocks from each district were chosen. The criteria followed were:

i) concentration of agricultural labourers; ii) concentration of SC/ST

households; and iii) performance of the block.

Third Stage: Selection of Panchayat

From each Block chosen, four panchayats were selected for the study

except one Block where there were only three panchayats. The criteria

followed were i) performance of the Panchayat ii) Concentration of agricultural

labourers. and iii) concentration of SC/ST households and The total number of

Panchayat selected for the study was 31.

Fourth Stage: Selection of Beneficiaries

Having selected panchayats, the next stage was to select the

beneficiaries of the NREGS. We obtained the list of workers from

panchayats. We chose 20 beneficiaries from each panchayat at random.

The total sample beneficiaries for the study were 620 (See Table 2.1)

24

Table 2.1: Sample frame work

District Block Panchayat Sample

Beneficiaries

Eruthenpathy 20 Vadakarapathy 20 Perumatty 20

Chittur

Kozhinjampara 20 Puthur 20 Agali 20

Palakkad

Attappady

Sholayur 20 Pozhuthana 20 Thoriyode 20 Kottathara 20

Kalpetta

Vengapally 20 Edavaka 20

Thavinhal 20 Thondarnad 20

Wayanad

Manathavady

Mananthavady 20

Adimali 20 Pallivasal 20 Bisonvalley 20

Adimali

Konnathady 20 Vattavada 20

Marayur 20 Mankulam 20

Idukki

Devikulam

Kanthalloor 20 Nedumudi 20 Thakazhy 20 Kainakari 20

Champakulam

Edathua 20 Neelamperur 20 Muttar 20 Kavalam 20

Alapuzha

Velliyanad

Ramankary 20 4 8 31 620

Tools for data collection

As indicated, an interview schedule was administered to collect the

data from the respondents. The schedule sought data on socio-economic

profile of the respondents like, family details, housing condition, income and

expenditure pattern, assets possessed like land owned, livestock and

household durables, loans, migration, social participation of members,

awareness about NREGA, registration, employment and wage under NREGA,

25

effects of NREGA, the impact of NREGA and the respondent’s perception

about the functioning of NREGA and so on.

We have conducted Focus Group Discussion in 31 panchayats for

which we used a check list. The checklist canvassed qualitative data on start-

up activities, launching of the scheme in the Panchayat, registration and issue

of job cards, identification of works, demand for employment, execution of

work, payment of wages, impact of the scheme, staff and training, record

maintenance, monitoring of the activities, social audit, grievances redressal

mechanism, organization structure, mechanism evolved to ensure

transparency, relevance of the scheme for the area, difficulties encountered

and suggestions for the better implementation of the scheme.

Framework of Analysis

The data gathered through survey were edited and tabulated. Two-way

tables were constructed for all the variables considered under the study to

present a comparative analysis of the performance of NREGS in selected

districts. District-wise data were compared against the aggregate data to

present a critical analysis and review of the scheme.

Qualitative data collected through the focus group discussion were

compiled, edited and used throughout the study to supplement and

complement the inferences drawn from the survey data.

Case studies conducted have been edited and presented in

appropriate places to support the inferences drawn from survey and focus

group discussion.

It should be noted here that the study has mostly relied on the primary

data gathered through survey, FGD, direct observation and case study.

However, the study has made use of secondary data drawn from website and

officials records, registers wherever they were found necessary and relevant.

* * * * *

26

Chapter - 3

Profile of Kerala and the Districts chosen for the Study

Location

Wedged between Arabian Sea in the west and the mountains of the

Western Ghats in the east, Kerala state stretches north-south along a coast

line of 580 kms with a varying width of 35 to 120 kms. The state with a

landmass of 38,863 square kilo meters is one of the smallest states as it has

just 1.18 per cent of the total landmass of the country. The nature of the

terrain and its physical features divide an east west cross section of the state

into three distinct regions viz., eastern highlands, central midlands and

western costal lowlands.

The high lands on the eastern edge, close to the Western Ghats,

comprises of steep mountains and deep valleys, covered with dense forests.

Almost all the 44 rivers of the state originate here. This area is dotted with tea

and coffee plantations as well as spice gardens. The central midlands with

rolling hills and shallow valleys are dotted with paddy fields in the lower areas

and groves of rubber and other cash crops in the elevated slops. The western

coastal lowlands comprises of relatively flat fertile plains, wide deltas, deep

back waters, lakes and shifting mud-flats. The important feature of this area is

the extensive paddy fields and groves of coconut trees crisscrossed by a

backwater network of interconnected canals, lakes and rivers. The backwater

networks of the costal lowlands, with its 1920 km length, cover more than 20

per cent of India’s waterways. Kerala receives a good annual rainfall

benefiting out of the South West and North East monsoons. The annual

rainfall of 3107 mm is much higher comparing the national average of 1197

mm. The state is bestowed with rich natural resources, and nick named as

‘Gods own Country’.

27

Administration

Kerala with its state capital in Thriruvanathapram has 14 districts. For

administrative purpose the state is divided into 63 Taluks and-development

blocks. Total number of Gram Panchayats in the state is 999.

Table 3.1 District profiles

S.No Districts Area

(sq. km) No of

Taluks No. of

Panchayaths 1 Kasaragod 1992 2 39 2 Kannur 2966 3 81

3 Wayanad 2131 3 25 4 Kozhikode 2344 3 77 5 Malappuram 3550 6 99 6 Palakkad 4480 5 90 7 Thrissur 3032 5 92 8 Ernamkulam 2407 7 91

9 Idukki 5019 4 54 10 Kottayam 2203 5 75 11 Alapuzha 1414 6 75 12 Pathanamthitta 2642 5 54 13 Kollam 2491 5 69 14 Thiruvanthapuram 2192 4 78

Kerala 38863 63 999 Source: Planing board of Kerala (2009) and district websites

Demographic features

Kerala is one of the thickly populated states in the country. According

to 2001 census, the state has a population of 31,838,559, which is 3.44 per

cent of the country’s total population. The population density of 819 people

per sq. km is one of the highest in India. The state also has the dubious

distinction of female outnumbering male population. The sex ratio is 1058

female for every 1000 male.

Kerala’s unique settlement pattern and wider infrastructure

development makes it difficult to see the differences between urban and rural

areas and there is a strong rural-urban continuum in all along the state. Of the

total population, urban dwellers figures to 82.7 lakh persons which is above

one-fourth (26 percent) of the whole population and rural populace constitute

235.7 lakhs.

28

Table. 3.2: District wise population profile (as per 2001 census)

Population Sl.no

District

Person Male Female

Population

Density/

sq. km

1 Kasaragod 1203342 587763 615579 604 2 Kannur 2412365 1154144 1258221 813 3 Wayanad 786627 393397 393230 369 4 Kozhikode 2878498 1398674 1479824 1228 5 Malappuram 3629580 1759479 1870101 1022

6 Palakkad 2617072 1265794 1351278 584 7 Thrissur 2975440 1422047 1553393 981 8 Ernamkulam 3098378 1535881 1562497 1050 9 Idukki 1128605 566405 562200 252 10 Kottayam 1952901 964433 988468 884 11 Alapuzha 2105349 1012572 1092777 1489

12 Pathanamthitta 1231577 588035 643542 467 13 Kollam 2584118 1248616 1335502 1038 14 Thiruvanthapuram 3234707 1571424 1663283 1476 Kerala 31838559 15468664 16369895 819

Source: Planning Borad of Kerala (2009)

Hindus, who constitute 56.20 per cent of the total population, is the

most prominent religious community in the state. This is followed by Muslims

(24.7 per cent) and Christians (19 per cent). A small number of Sikhs,

Buddhists, Jains, Jews and other religious communities are also present.

Kerala is also home for indigenous tribal population who constitute 1.14

per cent of the total population. Major portion of them reside in the main

stream with other people. The highest concentration of scheduled tribes is

seen in Wayanad district (37.36 per cent) followed by Idukki (14 per cent) and

Palakkad (10.89 per cent) and these three districts together account for over

60 per cent of ST population of the state. The coastal district of Alapuzha has

the lowest percentage of tribal population. The highest distribution of people

belonging to scheduled castes is in Palakkad district (13.85 per cent) followed

by Thiruvananthapuram (11.87 per cent), Thrissur (11.34 per cent) and

Kollam (10.34 per cent). Nearly half of SC population of the state is distributed

in these four districts.

29

The proportion of child population (0-14 yrs) to the total population is

just 26 percent in Kerala, which is the lowest among the major states of India.

The proportion of people in the working age group (15-59) is 63.4 percent in

Kerala as against 55.6 per cent in India. Kerala seems to be aging fast with

people who have above 60 years forming 10.5 per cent of the total population,

which is the highest among the major states of India. The aged population of

the state is 33.36 lakhs.

Figure 3.1 Age-wise Distribution of Population in Kerala

Source: Census of India. 2001

Literacy and health status

The state has progressed well in advance among the Indian states, in

terms of socio-demographic status of its population. Kerala’s achievement in

literacy attainment (90.9 per cent as per 2001 census) especially female

literacy (87.86 per cent) and 100 per cent enrolment of children in school,

irrespective of gender, has contributed much to the socio-economic progress

of the state. Besides, the state has a positive sex ratio, that favours female

population. Kerala also has the lowest Infant Mortality Rate(IMR)(13 per 1000

live births), lowest MMR (110 per l lakh live birth) in the country. Life

expectancy rate is highest in the country for both male (71.3 years) and

female (76.3 years).

82.96 ( 26%)

201.82, (64%)

33.35 (10%)

0-14 years

15-59 years

60+ years

30

Economy

While the social and demographic state of Kerala showing a rosy

picture, the weak state economy contradicts with it. The state is one of the

highest revenue deficit states in India, which is estimated to be 56 per cent of

the State GDP, as per the statistics published by the Dept. of Economic and

Statistics. The State GDP at factor cost at constant price is Rs.1,62,415 crore

in 2007-08) with a weak industrial development and ever declining trend of

agriculture in the state, the tertiary sector, including retail trade, tourism,

telecom, construction etc. contribute to the bulk of the state economic output.

The sectoral share of tertiary sector to the State GDP at constant prices

(2007-08) constitutes 57 per cent at current prices. The contribution from

agriculture (primary sector) is decreasing and constitutes just 17 per cent (at

constant prices). The secondary sector remains almost stagnant at about 26

per cent for the past years.

Figure 3.2. Sectoral contribution to state economy

Within the state, the districts such as Ernakulam, Trivananthapuram,

Thrissur and Palakkad have better trade and industrial background and

therefore have better State GDP status, while the districts such as Wayanad,

Idukki, Kasargode and Pathnamthitta which are mainly agriculture based,

have low GDP. The agriculture sector of the state is dominated by cultivation

of cash crops such as coconut, rubber, tea, coffee, cashew nut and spices.

17%

26%57%

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

31

Further, the 580 km long costal front helps to gain economic advantage of rich

marine products.

Another key feature of Kerala’s economy is its heavy dependency on

remittance. In a state with 31.8 million people, 2.19 million people are

emigrants in other countries, especially Middle East Asian nations. Foreign

remittance to Kerala is showing an increased trend even during recession

period, and in the last 5 years it has increased 135 per cent to touch a

whooping Rs.43,300 crore, making it as the major contributor to the state

economy (25 per cent of the total economic output). With a slow industrial

growth and reduced opportunities in the primary sectors, migration to other

countries and the subsequent remittances to the state holds much

importance. Further, the high growth in the tertiary sector in the state has a

direct bearing on this “remittance economy”.

Though the state economy is weak, the household level financial

condition in the state is better. The per capita state income of Rs.41814 (at

current cost during 2007-08) is much higher than that of the per capita

national income of Rs.33299/-. The poverty ratio of the state is also low at 15

per cent ( as per the 2004-05 poverty estimation) against the country’s

poverty ratio of 27.50 per cent. An estimated 17,23,556 households in the

state fall under BPL category.

Employability and employment

Kerala, being an agrarian economy, a good percentage of its

population is confined to agriculture and other agro based industries. 32.3 per

cent of the total population belongs to the working category (main and

marginal workers) and 67.7 percent are non-workers. The distribution of the

working population in the state is cultivators (7.2 per cent), agricultural

labourers (16 per cent), household industries (3.5 per cent) and other workers

(73.2 per cent).

Though the state has progressed in literacy and education attainment,

the work participation rate (WPR) in Kerala, shows a negative status

comparing to the national average. More than half of the labour force of the

32

age group of 15-29 years is unemployed. Further, the WPR of women falls far

short for men. As against 51.6 per cent for male and 22.7 per cent for female

in 2001 at the all India level, the work participation rate in Kerala was 50.6

percent for male and 15.3 per cent for male. The educational specific WPR

also shows a clear gender gap. The structural change in the employment

scenario of the state has the impact on lower work participation especially the

female participation. The last few decades witnessed the continuous decline

of several labour intensive activities, such as rice cultivation, traditional

cottage industries, etc. The corresponding growth has not happened in the

industrial sectors in the state. Further, conversion of agriculture land for non

agriculture use has been fast in the recent years, which has resulted in a

sharp decline in women oriented agricultural works.

Table 3.3: Education specific WPR per persons of age 15 years and above

Kerala All-India Level of

Education Rural Male

Rural Female

Urban Male

Urban Female

Rural Male

Rural Female

Urban Male

Urban Female

Not literate 61.82 33.3 63.9 30.4 89.2 55 83.1 30.4

Lit. & upto Primary

81.9 38.1 75.7 28.7 89.5 44.9 85.5 23.4

Middle 82 32.6 81.3 20.1 80.2 37.1 76 16.1

Secondary 69.2 26.2 64 17.4 73.2 30.5 67.3 12.3

Higher Secondary

53.9 14.7 47.9 13 70.9 25.2 60.8 12.9

Diploma Certificate

81.7 46.6 81.6 40.4 82.1 52.3 79.8 48.6

Graduate & above

78.8 45.9 79.7 42.9 85.1 34.5 79.5 29

Source: NSSO Report (2004-05)

Among those who are employed, there is sharp disparity in wage

earning among the salaried people and the casual laborers. Also the rural-

urban divide in the earning is visible in Kerala (See Table 3.4).

Palakkad District

Palakkad district with a total area of 4,480 km is one of the largest

districts in Kerala. It is bounded on the east by the Coimbatore district of Tamil

Nadu, on the north and northwest by Malappuram district and on the south by

Thrissur district. Palakkad lies near the Palghat Pass, a, 32 to 42 km wide

natural gap through the Western Ghats ranges, that run parallel to the west

33

coast of India, and connects Kerala to the plains of the state of Tamil Nadu to

the east. This district, situated almost in the centre of the State, has no

coastal line. Based on the physical features, the district can be divided into

two natural divisions - midland and highland. The midland region consists of

valleys and plains. It leads up to the highland which consists of high mountain

peaks, long spurs, extensive ravines, dense forests and tangled jungles.

While Ottappalam taluk lies completely in the midland region, all other taluks

in the district lie in the midland and highland regions. About 1,360 sq.km of

land in the district is covered by forests.

Table 3.4: Employment in Kerala - An overview

Rural Urban Particulars

Female Male Female Male

Average wage/salary earning (Rs.) per day received by regular wage /salaried employees of age 15-59 years 116.93 151.61 150.89 229.74

Average wage/salary earning (Rs.) per day received by casual labourers of age 15-59 years 75.37 137.28 93.56 142.51

Unemployment rate ( usual principal status) 220 72 330 41

Percentage of workers 51.2 48.8 47.6 52.4

Number of full-time workers 362472 432132 110263 180311 Number of part-time workers 154376 59633 71842 19977

Number of working owners 327470 233297 102160 85660

Number of hired workers 130363 211582 49426 99266 Source: NSSO Report Nos.522 and 525 GOI

The district is divided into five taluks, viz, Alathoor, Palakkad, Chittoor,

Mannarkkad and Ottappalam. There are 90 Panchayats in the district

comprising 144 villages. Total number of households in the district is 0.53

million; and total population is 2.6 million. The density of population is 584 per

sq.km, which is lower than that of the state average. Sex ratio is 1,066 and

literacy level is 84.35 per cent (Male 89.52%; Female 79.56%).

The district is one of the main rice producing regions in Kerala and its

economy is primarily agricultural. Rice cultivation is taken up in 1,15,910

hectares. The district also has fairly well developed industrial sector with

1,975 factories and 2,516 SSI units. Work Participation Rate (WPR) is only

36.11 per cent. The WPR of female (21.20 %) is much less than that of the

male (51.99 %). 1.67 million people in the working age group are not engaged

in any activity. Agriculture and household industries engage more than 46 per

34

cent of the workers. Per capita income is very low (Rs.18,031). Of the total

households (5,30,216) in the district, 52.13 per cent families live below

poverty line . Among the total number of BPL households in the district,

51,595 households belong to SC community, while 2812 households belong

to Scheduled Tribes.

Wayanad District

The district with an area of 2,131 sq. km. is nicknamed as ‘Green

Paradise’ due to the presence of dense forests and foliage. It is bounded on

the east by Nilgiris ranges of the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Mysore

district of Karnataka, on the north by Coorg district of Karnataka, on the south

by Malappuram district and on the west by Kozhikode and Kannur district. The

district has a rich forest cover of 78,787 ha. Most of the reserve forests in the

state are in this district.

The district is divided into three taluks, namely, Sulthan Bathery, Vythiri

and Mananthavady. There are 25 panchayats covering 48 villages. The total

number of households in the district is 1,66,763 while the total population is

7,80,619. The density of population is 369 per sq.km which is far below the

state average. The sex ratio is 995 female per 1000 male. The literacy rate in

the district is 85.52 per cent.

The different religious groups of the state are more or less equally

represented in the district. One-fourth of the population of Wayanad is

constituted by Christians. They are the largest religious group in Wayanad.

Hindus of different castes like Nairs, Thiyyas, etc. who settled here from

different parts of Kerala, form the rest. Wayanad has the highest

concentration of tribal in Kerala. They form 17.1 per cent of the total

population of the district. The native Adivasis mainly consist of various sects

like Paniyas, Kurumas, Adiyars, Kurichyas, Ooralis, Kattunaikkans, etc.

This high altitude district is characterised by the cultivation of perennial

plantation crops and spices. Wayanad is known for its sprawling spice

plantations. Coffee is ubiquitous in Wayanad. It is cultivated in every

panchayat, both in the form of large plantations and small holdings covering a

35

total area of 66,999 hectares. Tea is also cultivated in the district. Paddy is

cultivated in 22,772 hectares of land. The rice fields of Wayanad are in the

valleys formed by hillocks and in majority of paddy lands, only a single crop is

harvested. The districts have no major industrial units.

The work participation rate is 39.53 per cent. The WPR for male is

55.82 per cent, while that of female, it is 23.17 per cent. There are 4,72,006

people in the productive age group, who are not involved in any work. The

cultivators constitute 16.77 per cent (51,751 persons ) of the working

population, while 30.50 per cent of the workers (94,139 persons) are

agriculture labourers.

Per capita income of the district is Rs. 34,123. Of the total households

of 1,66,763 in the districts, 64,794 families (49.87 %) fall under below poverty

line category, of which 19,502 households are scheduled tribes.

Idukki District

Idukki has an area of 4,358 sq. km and is the second largest district of

Kerala. The district borders Pathanamthitta to the south, Kottayam to the

southeast, Ernakulam to the northeast and Thrissur to the north and

Coimbature, Dindigul and Theni Districts in Tamilnadu to the east. Sprawling

over an area of 5,061 sq. kms, the district is marked by undulating hills and

valleys. The highest peak of Kerala, Anamudi, is in the district. The different

levels of elevation promote the growth of diverse flora. The district has at

present about 2,60,907 ha. forest area. The district has several protected

areas including Periyar Tiger Reserve and Eravikulam National Park. Further,

the highlands of the district are dotted with tea and coffee plantations and

spice gardens.

The district has four Taluks viz, Udumpanchola, Devikulam, Peermedu

and Thodupuzha covering 51 Gram Panchayaths and 64 villages. Idukki has

a population of 11,29,221. With just 259 people per sq. km, the district has the

least population density among the 14 districts of Kerala. Total number of

households in the district is 2,65,344, which is lowest in the state. 88.69 per

36

cent of the population is literate (Male 92.33%; Female 85.02%). Sex ratio in

the district is 993, lower than that of the state average.

Christians constitute the majority among the population of the district.

The district has a high concentration of Scheduled Tribe population.

According to the latest Census around 11,516 Scheduled Tribe families are

living in the district. There are 245 tribal settlements in the District of which 74

are in Thodupuzha; 11 in Peermedu; 126 in Devikulam and 34 in

Udumbanchola Taluk. Almost all the scheduled tribes are living in the remote

hilly banks and in the deep interiors of forests of the district. Mannans, Mala

Arayans, Urali, Muthuvans, Malapulaya, Paliyan and Ulladan are the different

groups of tribals in the district. Many of the ST population are working as

agricultural labourers in the tea and cardamom estates. Devikulam and

Peerumedu taluks have a large concentration of Tamil population who are

mainly labourers in tea and cardamom estates.

86.98 per cent of the population in the district is literate, making it one

of the lowest in the state. This is mainly attributed to lower literacy rate among

the tribal population. .

The economy of Idukki is predominantly agriculture. The District has the

agro-climatic conditions suitable for the cultivation of plantation crops like tea,

coffee, rubber, coconut, cardamom, pepper, etc. The District acquired second

place in the state in agriculture produces. Idukki district is industrially very

backward. However, with its incredible scenic beauty, the district is a major

tourist attraction in the state, attracting lakhs of international and domestic

tourists every year. The Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary at Thekkady and Munnar

hill station are the renowned tourist centers in the district.

Work participation rate is just 39.71 per cent. 6,84,390 people in the

productive age group are not engaged in any work. Of the total working

population, half of them belong to agriculture and agriculture labourers. About

ten per cent of the total workers are estate labourers. The poverty ratio in the

district, as reported in 2001 census, is relatively low with just 15 per cent and

this includes 3,856 Scheduled Tribe families. However, the recent agriculture

37

crisis has resulted in increased risk of more households falling into poverty.

The closure of several tea estates in the region in the last few years has also

aggravated the situation.

Alapuzha District

Bounded on the northeast by Ernakulam and Kottayam districts, on the

east by Pathanamthitta, on the southeast by Kollam district and on the west

by the Arabian Sea, Alapuzha district lies in the eastern costal plains of the

state. The district is divided into two revenue divisions viz:Alapuzha division

comprising Cherthala, Ambalappuzha and Kuttanad taluks with 47 villages

and Chengannur division comprising Karthikapally, Chengannur and

Mavelikkara taluks with 44 villages. Total Gram Panchayaths in the district is

75. According to 2001 census, Alapuzha district has a population of 2.10

million. The density of population is 1489 persons per sq. km. which is highest

in the state. The district has 0.48 million households and population per

household is 4.36. The district has an SC population of 1,99,231 which

constitutes 9.45 per cent of the total population of the district. There is also a

small number of tribal population (3131) in the district.

The sex ratio recorded in this district is 1079 females to 1000 males.

The district has the third highest literacy level among the districts of Kerala

with 93.66 per cent. The female literacy rate is also high with 91.14 against

the state average of 87.86 per cent.

A good part of Alapuzha District is densely covered with waterways.

Kuttanad, a low lying area in the district is famous for paddy fields and a large

network of inland canals. The district economy depends primarily on the

agriculture and marine resources. The total production of rice here is almost

ten percent of the total production of the State. The district also has a major

share in the coconut cultivation. Alapuzha is the most important centre in the

State for coir industry. Almost 80 per cent of the coir factories in the State are

in this district. However, the district is industrially backward. Alapuzha district

occupies a very important position in the fisheries map of Kerala. Its western

boundary is the Arabian sea, having rich marine resources. More than 20 per

38

cent of the total area of the district is water-logged, and the 20,000 acres of

kari lands and 42,736 acres of paddy fields in Kuttanad are suitable for

pisciculture. The total population of fishermen in the district is 136,300.

Alapuzha is relatively backward district in terms of the standard of living

of the people. Per Capita income of the district, Rs 21,916, is one of the

lowest in the state. Agriculture and traditional industries in the district are

facing a major crisis, where a major section of population is engaged in

farming and in the coir industry. This had resulted in increased poverty among

the rural masses as the bulk of the poor in villages were employed in these

sectors. There was a decline in the per capita income of agricultural

labourers, farmers, and coir workers and small-scale manufacturers of coir

products. 45.95 per cent of the rural families in Alapuzha are considered

below-the-poverty line families. This makes it as the district with highest

proportion of population below poverty line.

The Work Participation Rate (WPR) of the district is very low with just

34.30 per cent of the population (in the productive age group) engaged in

some kinds of work. While the WPR of male is 49.41 per cent, the WPR of

female is only 20.29 per cent. Of the total workers in the district, 54,704 are

main workers while 1,76,305 are marginal workers. Only 3.81 per cent of the

workers are cultivators while 13.70 per cent are agriculture labourers. 7.20 per

cent are engaged in household industries and 75.29 per cent are other

workers.

Conclusion

The analysis of the socio-economic and demographic status of the

state points to the fact that Kerala has achieved a very distinct development

and has high potential of growth in terms of human resources. This is

supplemented by the rich natural resources of the state. However, the

economic scenario of the state is not very promising with poor growth in the

farm sector which employs a vast majority of the population and relatively

poor industrial growth. The State’s unique inter-linkage with international

economy through its large expatriate population and high concentration of

39

cash crops in the agriculture makes the State vulnerable to any economic

recession in the world economy. Even though the poverty rate in Kerala is low

(15%) among the Indian states, numerically the size of BPL families still holds

a serious attention as there are1.72 million BPL households. The low work

participation rate of Kerala (33.3%) further increases the concern over the

sustainability of the development of the state. The increased unemployment

among the population put the State with greater responsibility of creating

employment opportunities to this population. Thus focused intervention to

create sustainable livelihood source for the poor still holds importance in

Kerala.

The profile of the four chosen districts, viz. Palakkad, Wayanad, Idukki

and Alapuzha shows that the economy of these districts is predominantly

agrarian. In all these districts the dependency of the people on its rich natural

resources are visible and the livelihood security hence depends on the

protection of the natural resources. Though social and demographic progress

is better in all the districts, the economic situation is not promising. The

incidence of poverty and low work participation rate in these districts coupled

with the ever shrinking farm sector necessitates planned intervention like

NREGA in these districts.

* * * * *

40

48.31

51.69

49.61

50.39

49.93

50.07 50.14

49.86

49.58

50.42

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

Pe

rc

en

t

P alakkad Idduki Wayanad A lapuz ha Total

Male

F emale

Chapter - 4

Socio-Economic Profile of Sample Households

In the last chapter, we have presented the profile of the Kerala State

and the selected districts with reference to select key variables. We have

made an attempt here to sketch the profile of the NREGS workers in chosen

districts. The objective is to identify the socio-economic background of the

workers and their families. This, we thought, would enable us to ascertain and

portray what type of households get involved in NREGS. It must be noted that

all the respondents (620) we have interviewed across the four districts are

NREGS workers. Their profile are presented with reference to the population

of the households, size of the family, gender, community, literacy, housing,

occupation, migration, income, expenditure, assets possessed, borrowings

and social participation.

Population and Gender

The total population of the households is 2,592. The average size of

the family is 4.18. District wise distribution of the average size of the families

shows that Alapuzha has slightly large size of family followed by Wayanad.

The gender wise distribution of the population shows a slightly high

percentage of female population (50.42%). More or less similar pattern can be

observed in all the districts except Alapuzha, where the male population is

marginally high (50.14%) (See Figure 4.1)

Figure 4.1: Population and Gender

41

Age

The age-wise distribution of population of the sample households

reveals that around two-third of the population are in the productive age group

of 19 to 60 years. Further disaggregation shows that 30.32 per cent are in the

age group of 19-35 years and 33.41 per cent are in the age group of 36 to 59

years. School going age group constitutes around one-fourth of the total

population. The aged population accounts for 7.45 per cent while, children

below 5 years accounts for 4.48 per cent. District-wise analysis shows that the

age group of 36-59 is high in all the four districts. The aged population is

highest in Palakkad (9.74%) while population below five years is highest in

Idukki (6.10%) (See Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Age of the Sample Population

Districts Age (Years)

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

< 5 18

(3.4) 39

(6.1) 30

(4.3) 29

(4.0) 116 (4.5)

6-17 121

(22.7) 148

(23.2) 198

(28.2) 164

(22.9) 631

(24.3)

18-35 167

(31.3) 194

(30.4) 207

(29.5) 218

(30.5) 786

(30.3)

36-59 176

(32.9) 210

(32.9) 232

(33.0) 248

(34.6) 866

(33.4)

> 60 52

(9.7) 48

(7.5) 36

(5.1) 57

(7.9) 193 (7.5)

Total 534

(100) 639

(100) 703

(100) 716

(100) 2592 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

The figures in the parenthesis represent the column percentage

Caste Composition

Caste-wise distribution of the households indicates that 16.9 per cent

of the sample households belong to Scheduled Caste community; 12.3 per

cent to Scheduled Tribes. The remaining 70.80 per cent of the households

belong to other caste groups. Idukki district has the highest percentage of SC

families with 26.9 per cent of the sample households followed by Alapuzha

with 25.6 per cent. Wayanad has the least number of SC households, where

just four households (2.5%) fall under this category. However, the district has

the highest number of Scheduled Tribe households (20.6%), followed by

Palakkad (17.9%) and Idukki (10%) (See Figure 4.2). An important inference

42

that can be drawn from the analysis is that all households, irrespective of

community, participated in NREGS.

Figure 4.2: Caste Composition of the Sample Households

12.117.9

70

26.9

10

63.1

2.5

20.6

76.9

25.6

1.3

73.1

16.912.3

70.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Pe

rc

en

t

P alakkad Idduki W ayanad Alapuz ha Total

D is tric ts

S C

S T

Other

Literacy

The overall literacy rate among the sample population is 91.78 per

cent. District-wise analysis reveals that Alapuzha has the highest literacy rate

with 99 per cent followed by Wayanad (93.75%), Idukki (90.14%) and

Palakkad (81.46%). The educational attainment of the sample population

shows that majority of them have attained middle or secondary school level

education. They together accounts for 52 percent. Graduates constitute

around 5 percent. The percentage of professionals is around one per cent.

The educational attainment is slightly better in Alapuzha and Wayanad when

compared to other two districts. (See Table 4.2)

Number of Disabled

There are 105 disabled persons constituting 4.05 per cent of the total

population. The distribution of disabled population based on the nature of

disability shows that, 33.33 per cent of them are orthopaedic, followed by

visually disabled (24.76%) and hearing /speech impaired (20.95%). There are

a few cases of mental illness (9 persons), mental retardation (5 persons) and

cerebral palsy (8 persons). Among the districts, Palakkad has the maximum

disabled population followed by Alapuzha. (See Table 4.3)

43

Table 4.2: Literacy status of the sample population

Districts Literacy level

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Illiterate 99

(18.5) 63

(9.9) 44

(6.3) 7

(0.1) 213 (8.2)

Informal education 18

(3.4) 27

(4.2) 13

(1.9) 17

(2.4) 75

(2.9)

Primary 101

(18.9) 99

(15.5) 140

(19.9) 103

(14.5) 443

(17.1)

Middle 103

(19.3) 184

(28.8) 142

(20.2) 169

(23.6) 598

(23.1)

Secondary 141

(26.4) 151

(23.6) 195

(27.7) 258

(36.1) 745

(28.7)

Higher secondary 40

(7.5) 65

(10.2) 106

(15.0) 102

(14.3) 313

(12.1)

Graduate 22

(4.1) 31

(4.9) 44

(6.3) 32

(4.5) 129 (4.1)

Professionals 3

(0.6) 6

(0.9) 9

(1.3) 15

(2.1) 33

(1.3)

Not applicable 7

(1.3) 13

(2.0) 11

(1. 6) 12

(1.7) 43

(1.7)

Total 534

(100) 639

(100) 704

(100) 715

(100) 2592 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Table 4.3: Number of Disabled among sample population

Districts Nature of the Disability

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Visual 8

(20.5) 3

(17.7) 2

(12.5) 13

(39.4) 26

(24.8)

Hearing/Speech 7

(17.1) 1

(5.9) 4

(25) 10

(30.3) 22

(20.1)

Orthapaedic 16

(41.0) 10

(58.8) 5

(31.3) 4

(12.1) 35

(33.3)

Mentally ill 3

(7.7) 2

(11.8) 2

(12.5) 2

(6.1) 9

(8.6)

Mentally retarded 2

(5.1) - 3

(18.8) - 5

(4.8)

Cerebral palsy 3

(7.7) 1

(5.9) - 4

(12.1) 8

(7.6)

Total 39

(37.1) 17

(16.2) 16

(15.2) 33

(31.4) 105

(100) Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Housing

A vast majority of the sample households (90.3%) have house of their

own. Around seven percent of them live in rented houses. The respondents

who live in rented houses are found to be more in Idukki and Wayanad. Six

households live in estate quarters at free of cost; all of them were in Idukki

44

district. District-wise analysis shows that Alapuzha has the maximum number

of households (96.3%) having own house followed by Palakkad (91.4%) (See

Table 4.4).

Table 4.4 Housing details of the Sample Households

Districts Ownership of the house

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad

Alapuzha

Total

Own 128

(91.4) 136

(85.0) 142

(88.8) 154

(96.3) 560

(90.3)

Rented 5

(3.6) 17

(10.6) 17

(10.6) 4

(2.5) 43

(6.9)

Living with parents

3 (2.1)

1 (0.6)

1 (0.6)

1 (0.6)

6 (1.0)

Staying with relatives

4 (2.9)

- - 1

(0.6) 5

(0.8)

Free Estate Quarters

- 6

(3.8) - -

6 (1.0)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

The type of house in which the respondents live indicates that majority

of them live in asbestos/tiled/tin roof houses (72.7%). Around 10 per cent of

them live in houses constructed under the Indira Awas Yojana. 8.5 per cent of

them live in huts. Respondents living in concrete houses were found to be

more in Idukki (15.6%) followed by Wayanad. More number of respondents in

Palakkad were found to have availed IAY when compared to respondents in

other districts. (See Figure 4.3)

Figure 4.3: Details on Housing Type of sample households

Palakka

d

Idduki

Waya

nad

Alapuzha

Tota

l

8.6

15

68.6

7.9

9.4

9.4

65.6

15.6

9.4

2.5

75.6

12.5

6.9

11.9

80.6

0.6

8.5

9.5

72.7

9.2

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Percent

Distric ts

C oncrete

As bes tos /Tiled/Tin roof

IAY

Hut

45

Majority of the households (82.1%) have electricity connection. Among

the districts, Alapuzha has the maximum number of houses (91.3%) with

electricity connection followed by Palakkad (86.4%). The percentage of

households without electricity was found to be high in Idukki district (26.9%).

Figure 4.4: Electricity Connection in Sample Households

82.173.1

86.491.3

78.1

13.617.9

8.821.9

26.9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

P alakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuz ha Total

Dis tric ts

Pe

rc

en

t

Y es

No

Source of Drinking Water

The distribution of households based on the source of drinking water

shows that majority of the households have access to protected drinking

water sources (See Table 4.4). Around 83 per cent of the households have

safe sources of drinking water such as water tap within household premises

(24.2%), public stand post (28.9%) and open well (27.1%). Rest of the

households depend on unprotected water sources such as river, stream and

water falls. District-wise distribution of households shows that three sources of

drinking water viz, water tap within the household premises, public taps and

open wells constitute the main sources of drinking water in all the four

districts. In Alapuzha, 23.8 per cent of the households depend on rivers while

in Idukki 17 per cent of the population depends on unprotected sources of

drinking water. In Palakkad, however, 90 per cent have access to protected

sources of drinking water followed by Wayanad with 84.5 per cent.

46

Table 4.5: Source of Drinking Water for the sample households

Districts Source of drinking water

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad

Alapuzha

Total

Water tap in the HH premises

18 (12.9)

68 (42.5)

50 (31.3)

14 (8.1)

150 (24.2)

Public stand post 84

(60.0) 21

(13.1) 11

(6.9) 63

(39.4) 179

(28.9)

Hand pump 4

(2.9) 2

(1.3) 4

(2.5) 5

(3.1) 15

(2.5)

Open well 20

(14.3) 42

(26.3) 70

(43.8) 36

(22.5) 168

(27.1)

Pond 1

(0.7) 1

(0.6) 17

(10.6) 2

(1.3) 21

(3.5)

River 7

(5.0) 2

(1.3) -

38 (23.8)

47 (7.6)

Stream water 6

(4.3) 4

(2.5) 5

(3.1) 2

(1.3) 17

(2.7)

Falls - 14

(8.8) 2

(1.3) -

16 (2.6)

Direct pipe connection from falls

- 6

(3.8) 1

(0.6) -

7 (1.1)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Households with latrine facilities

Majority of the households (83.2%) have latrine facilities in their

houses. A small number of households (1.8%) depend on community latrines.

Among the four selected districts, Wayanad has the maximum number of

households (95%) with latrine facilities.

Figure 4.5: Households with latrine facilities

72.9 73.1

94.4 91.383.2

26.421.9

5.6 7.51.50.7

50 1.3 1.8

0

20

40

60

80

100

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Districts

perc

en

t

Households with Toilet Households without Toilet Using Community Latrine

47

Main Occupation of the Sample Population

The working population constitutes 64 per cent of the total population.

The distribution of the population based on their main occupation reveals that

31.18 per cent of the working population is agriculture labourers. Farmers

constitute 11.41 per cent of the working population. Skilled labourers

constitute 6.19 per cent while unskilled labourers account for 13.26 per cent.

Quite an interesting observation is that NREGS has emerged as the main

occupation to a sizeable section of the working population (16.49%). It is quite

high in Wayanad district with 28.81 per cent of respondents responding

NREGS as the main occupation. In other districts, it hovers around 12 to 13

per cent. Farming as main occupation was high in Idukki district (23.56%)

while it was low (2.04%) in Alapuzha district. ( See Table 4.6)

Table 4.6 Main Occupation of the Sample Population

Districts Main Occupation

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

House wife 8

(2.5) 53

(14.5) 54

(15.3) 77

(19.6) 192

(13.4)

Retired/ Old age 10

(3.1) 6

(1.7) 7

(1.1) 11

(2.8) 34

(2.4)

Farmer/Tiller 33

(10.6) 86

(23.7) 37

(10.5) 8

(2.0) 164

(11.4)

Agriculture labour 137

(42.2) 74

(20.3) 111

(31.4) 126

(32.1) 448

(31.2)

Skilled labour 27

(8.3) 15

(4.1) 15

(4.2) 32

(8.1) 89

(6.2)

Unskilled labour 38

(11.7) 55

(15.1) 10

(2.1) 66

(16.8) 169

(11.8)

Traditional artisan 2

(0.6) - - 1

(0.3) 3

(0.2)

Services 3

(0.1) 2

(0.6) 2

(0.6) 6

(1.5) 13

(0.9)

Petty shop 20

(6.2) 1

(0.3) - 1

(0.3) 22

(1.5)

Business 1

(0.3) - - -

1 (0.1)

Government 1

(0.3) 3

(0.8) 2

(0.5) 1

(0.2) 7

(0.4)

Private shop 5

(1.5) 25

(6.8) 14

(3.9) 14

(3.5) 58

(4.0)

NREGS 40

(12.3) 45

(12.3) 102

(28.8) 50

(12.7) 237

(16.5)

Total 325

(100) 365

(100) 354

(100) 393

(100) 1437 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

48

Subsidiary Occupation

Of the total working population of 1437 from the sample villages 899

have subsidiary occupation. NREGS has emerged as an important subsidiary

occupation for two-third of the working population. District-wise analysis

shows that NREGS is a very significant subsidiary occupation for 75 per cent

of the working population in Alapuzha, followed by Wayanad with 70 per cent.

Some of the other subsidiary occupations of the population include agriculture

labour (8.68%), farming (4.12%) and skilled labour (3.89%) (See Table 4.7).

An important inference that can be drawn from the analysis is that NREGS

has emerged as an important source of livelihood for the rural households.

Table 4.7: Subsidiary Occupation of the Sample Population

Districts

Subsidiary Occupation

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

House wife

- 2

(0.7) 1

(0.6) 14

(6.1) 17

(1.9)

Retired/ Old age 4

(1.8)

-

3 (1.9)

6 (2.6)

13 (1.5)

Farmer/Tiller 1

(0.5) 24

(8.1) 12

(7.5) -

37 (4.1)

Agriculture labour 24

(11.1) 13

(4.4) 23

(14.4) 18

(7.9) 78

(8.7)

Skilled labour 11

(5.1) 15

(5.1) 2

(1.3) 7

(3.1) 35

(3.9)

Unskilled labour 8

(3.7) 68

(23.2) 3

(1.9) 10

(4.4) 89

(9.9)

Services - - 3

(19) 1

(0.4) 4

(0.4)

Petty shop 35

(16.1) - - -

35 (3.9)

Vendor - - - 2

(0.9) 2

(0.2)

Business - - 1

(0.6) -

1 (0.1)

Private shop 1

(0.5) 2

(0.7) 1

(0.6) -

4 (0.4)

NREGS 133

(61.3) 169

(57.7) 111

(69.4) 171

(74.7) 584

(64.1)

Total 217

(100) 293

(100) 160

(100) 229

(100) 899

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

49

Livestock Owned

Out of the total 620 sample households, only 237 (38.23%) possess

some kind of livestock. Among them, 37.13 per cent have cows and 29.54 per

cent possess goats. Owning of livestock is found to be more in Alapuzha,

where 73 households own one or more livestock followed by Palakkad with 59

households. The human-animal population ratio is very low with 1:0.1.

Table 4.8: Livestock Owned by Sample Households

Districts Details

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

He buffaloes - - 1

(1.75 ) -

1 (0.42)

Cows 21

(35.5) 20

(41.7) 40

(70.1) 7

(9.6) 88 (37.1)

Bullock 2

(3.4) 1

(2.1) -

-

3 (1.3)

Goat 18

(30.5) 18

(37.5) 10

(17.5) 2

(27.4) 66

(27.9)

Sheep - - - 4

(5.5) 4

(1.7)

Pig - 2

(4.2 ) - - 2 (0.8)

Poultry 17

(28.8) 5

(10.4) 6

(10.5) 42

(57.5) 70

(29.5)

donkey 1

(1.7) - - -

1 (0.4 )

Rabbit - 2

(4.2 ) -

-

2 (0.8 )

Total 59

(100 ) 48

(100) 57

(100) 73

(100) 237

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Household Assets

Owning household assets is an indicator of improved income and a

symbol of wellbeing. Around 19 per cent of households do not own any

household assets. Number of households without any household assets is

high in Idukki district with 27.50 per cent followed by Wayanad with 20 per

cent.

Respondents having household assets indicate that more than 50

percent them possess cell phone and television. Around one-third of them

have LPG connection. District-wise analysis shows that the respondents

possessing cell phone and LPG are more in Wayanad with 60.63 per cent and

41.88 per cent respectively. With regard to possession of television,

50

respondents in Alapuzha stand first with 60.63 per cent. The respondents in

Palakkad and Alapuzha are found to have possessed more items of

household assets when compared to other two districts.

Table 4.9 Household Assets of the Sample Respondents

Districts Details

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Nil 26 (18.6)

44 (27.5)

32 (20.0)

15 (9.4)

117 (18.9)

Grinder 59 (42.1)

9 (5.6)

8 (5.0)

13 (8.1)

89 (14.4)

LPG connection 21 (15.0)

33 (20.6)

75 (46.9)

64 (40.0)

193 (31.1)

Television 81 (57.9)

78 (48.8)

75 (46.9)

97 (60.6)

331 (53.4)

Fans 54 (38.6)

3 (1.9)

11 (6.9)

129 (80.6)

197 (31.8)

Cell phone 77 (55.0)

82 (51.3)

97 (60.6)

80 (50.0)

336 (54.2)

Cycle 17 (12.1)

- 1

(0.6) 16

(10.0) 34

(5.5)

Two wheeler 20 (14.3)

- 6

(3.8) 5

(3.1) 31

(5.0)

Three wheeler 3 (2.1)

1 (0.6)

- 2

(1.3) 6

(0.1)

Solar home lighting system

2 (1.4)

0

3 ( 1.9)

- 5

( 0.8)

Other assets -

- 4

(2.5) 2

(1.3) 6

(0.1) Total 140 160 160 160 620

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Households Annual Income

The details on annual income of the respondents indicate that more

than one-third of the respondents still live below poverty line (less than Rs.

24,000/). The percentage of people having less than Rs.24,000/- per annum

was found to be high in Alapuzha (48.7%) followed by Palakkad (36.5%),

Idukki (31.3%) and Wayanad (26.3%). Around 24 per cent of the households

have an annual income of more than Rs.48,000/-. District-wise analysis

shows more or less similar pattern.

51

13.6 16.97.5

28.116.6

22.9 19.418.8

20.6

20.3

26.4 2528.1

19.424.7

17.1 12.5 18.810 14.5

20 26.3 26.9 21.9 23.9

P alakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuz ha Total

Distric ts

Pe

rc

en

t > 48000

36000-48000

24000-36000

12000-24000

< 12000

Figure 4.6: Annual Income of the Sample Households

Expenditure Pattern

The data on expenditure pattern of households reveals that around 46

per cent was spent on food. The other major items of expenditure are

education (9%), medical (7.63%), clothing (7.12%), transport (7.01%) and

redemption of prior debts (5.5%). District-wise analysis shows that

households in Alapuzha were found to have spent more on food (51.6%).

Table 4.10: Annual Expenditure (in percentage)

Districts Expenditure

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Food 42.1 45.5 46.1 51.6 46.5

Fuel and electricity 4.2 2.6 2.7 6.6 4.0

Education 8.0 10.7 8.7 8.5 9.0

Tobacco, alcohol, gambling 4.4 1.4 1.4 0.8 1.9

Entertainment 2.5 1.1 2.0 2.0 1.9

Cosmetic 3.8 4.7 4.6 2.6 3.9

Clothing 6.3 7.5 8.5 6.1 7.1

Medicals 6.9 9.0 7.2 7.4 7.6

Transport 8.2 6.6 7.0 6.4 7.0

Festivals, religious ceremonies 4.5 3.9 4.7 2.6 3.9

House maintenance 2.4 1.7 1.5 1.1 1.6

Interest on loans, debts 7.0 5.2 5.6 4.4 5.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

52

35.6

64.3

33.1

66.8

38.6

61.3

36.7

63.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

P ercent

P alakkad W ayanad Alapuz ha Total

Distric ts

Y es

No

SHG Membership

Self Help Group movement was successful in all the southern states

including Kerala. Both Government as well as Non Governmental

Organizations have promoted this community based women’s organizations in

the state. SHGs are predominantly a women organization. Men SHGs are yet

to emerge. Kudumbashri in Kerala promotes the SHGs of women. Of the total

sample population, 70.98 per cent are eligible to become members of SHG.

Of this, two-third of them is members of SHG. On an average, each

household has a membership in SHG. In Alapuzha, Idukki and Palakkad

certain households have more than one member in SHGs

Figure 4. 7: SHG Membership of women from sample households

Borrowing

Of the total sample population, 400 have taken loan from various

sources. The distribution of household shows that, majority (36.25%) have

taken loan from SHGs, followed by those from Co-operative banks (28.25%).

Around two-third of the respondents are reported to have borrowed during the

last year. A considerable number of respondents have gone in for second

loan. There are a very few respondents, who have gone in for third and fourth

loan. In the case of first Loan, the major source of borrowing for the

respondents is SHG (36.8%) followed by Co-operative banks and Commercial

53

banks (24.10%). The institutional sources including SHGs are found to be

major source of borrowing for 90 per cent of the borrowers. Non-institutional

sources such as moneylenders and relatives constitute around 3 per cent.

(See Figure 4.7)

The households were found to have borrowed for a variety of

purposes. Construction and repairing of house was the major purpose

(20.76%) followed by education (17.84%), medical (10.53%) and agriculture

(10.23 %). A sizable percentage of households borrowed money for purchase

of household assets (7.06 per cent), purchase of livestock (5.56%) and

purchase of food grain (4.09%). A few households borrowed to purchase land

and to redeem the prior debt. Around 10 per cent of the households borrowed

to meet expenses related to ceremonies and festivals. (See Table 4.11)

The extent of loan borrowed shows that around 46 per cent of the

households borrowed less than Rs.10,000/-. 22 per cent of the households

borrowed between Rs.10,000- Rs.20,000. A sizable percentage of

households (8.5%) borrowed more than Rs.50,000/-. The average loan

borrowed was Rs.28,913/-. (See Table 4.12)

The interest rate as reported by majority of the respondents (82.59%)

was less than 12 per cent, followed by 13-24 per cent (14.51%). The mean

rate of interest is around 13 per cent indicating that the households have been

able to borrow at a reasonable rate, as the major source of borrowing is

institutional agencies including the SHGs. (See Table 4.13)

The repayment of loan raised is found to be satisfactory as majority of

the respondents, who have borrowed started repaying the loan. Around one-

fourth of the loan raised by the households has been repaid. (See Table 4.14)

54

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Pe

rc

en

t

Pala

kkad

Idduki

Waya

nad

Ala

puzha

Total

Distric ts

C ommerc ial B anks

C o-Operative B anks

S HG

Money lenders

R elatives

Ins uranc e C ompanies

P rivate B anks

Hous ing board

Figure 4.7: Source of Borrowing of the sample households

Table 4.11: Purpose of Borrowing of the sample population

Districts Purpose

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Enterprise 2

(2.4) 15

(18.8) 3

(3.1) 2

(2.4) 22

(6.4)

Agriculture 2

(2.4) 6

(7.5) 20

(20.8) 7

(8.5) 35

(10.2)

Purchase of land 5

(5.95) 1

1.3) 1

(1.0) 4

(4.8) 11

(3.2)

Purchase of household assets

8 (9.5)

5 (6.3)

6 (6.3)

4 (4.8)

23 (6.7)

Purchase of food grains

1 (1.2)

3 (3.8)

5 (5.2)

5 (6.1)

14 (4.1)

Purchase of animals 6

(7.1) 4

(5.0) 5

(5.2) 4

(4.8) 19

(5.6)

Construction of house 26

(30.9) 7

(8.8) 13

(13.5) 13

(15.8) 59

(17.2)

Repairing of house 1

(1.2) 1

(1.3) 4

(4.1) 6

(7.3) 12

(3.5)

Education 8

(9.5) 12

(15.0) 20

(20.9) 21

(25.6) 61

(17.8)

Medical treatment 8

(9.5) 15

(18.8) 7

(7.3) 6

(6.3) 36

(10.5)

Repayment of old loan 4

(4.8) 2

(2.5) 4

(4.1) 2

(2.4) 12

(3.5)

Social & Religious ceremony

37 (4.4)

7 (0.9)

1 (0.1)

- 45 (13.2)

Total 84 (100)

80 (100)

96 (100)

82 (100)

342 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

55

Table 4.12 Extent of Loan Borrowed by the Sample Households

Districts Extent of Loan

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

<10000 28

(34.6) 26

(39.4 ) 47

(54.0 ) 38

(52.1 ) 139

(45.3 )

10000-20000 25

(30.9 ) 17

(25.8 ) 17

(19.5 ) 9

(12.3 ) 68

(22.1 )

20000-30000 11

(13.6 ) 4

(6.1 ) 9

(10.3 ) 6

(8.2 ) 30

(9.8 )

30000-40000 8

(9.9 ) 1

(1.5 ) 5

(5.7 ) 6

(8.2 ) 20

(6.5 )

40000-50000 7

(8.6 ) 7

(10.6 ) 4

(4.6 ) 4

(5.5 ) 22

(7.2 )

>50000 2

(2.5 ) 11

(16.7 ) 5

(5.7 ) 10

(13.7 ) 28

(9.1 )

Total 81

(100 ) 66

(100 ) 87

(100 ) 73

(100 ) 307

(100 )

Average

22728.40 39598.48 21149.43 35369.86 28913.68

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Table 4.13 Amount Repaid

Districts Sources

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No Repayment 25

(30.9 ) 31

(47.0 ) 49

(56.3 ) 14

(19.2 ) 119

(38.8 )

< 10000 47

(58.0 ) 31

(47.0 ) 34

(39.1) 50

(68.5 ) 162

(52.8 )

10000-20000 5

(6.2 ) 2

(3.0 ) 3

(3.4 ) 5

(6.8 ) 15

(4.9 )

20000-30000 - 2

(3.0 ) - 1

(1.4 ) 3

(1.0 )

30000-40000 2

(2.5 ) - - - 2

(0.7 )

40000-50000 1

(1.2 ) -

1 (1.1 )

1 (1.4 )

3 (1.0 )

> 50000 1

(1.2 ) - - 2

(2.7 ) 3

(1.0 )

Total 81

(100) 66

(100 ) 87

(100 ) 73

(100) 307

(100)

Average 6373.27 2954.24 2339.08 7977.40 4876.43

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

56

Table 4.14 Interest Rate

Districts Interest Rate

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha

Total

No interest - - 1

(1.1) -

1 (0.3)

<12 57

(70.4) 60

(90.9) 85

(97.7) 39

(53.4) 241

(78.5)

13-24 22

(27.2) 3

(4.5) 1

(1.1) 33

(45.2) 59

(19.2)

25-36 1

(1.2) 1

(1.5) -

1 (1.4)

3 (1.0)

37-48 1

(1.2) 1

(1.5) - -

2 (0.7)

>49 - 1

(1.5) - -

1 (0.3)

Total 81

(100) 66

(100) 87

(100) 73

(100) 307 100)

Average Interest rate

13.58 12.13 10.21 15.52 12.78

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Migration

Around 13 per cent of the 620 respondents reported incidence of

migration in their families (See Table 4.15).The incidence of migration was

high (20%) in Palakkad when compared to other districts. The number of

persons migrated from the households indicates that, only one has migrated

in majority of the households (87.5%) (See Table 4.16). The duration of

migration in majority of the families was more than six months. Persons

migrating for more than six months were quite high (82.35%) in Alapuzha

district, followed by Idukki with 69.56 per cent (See Figure 4.8). Places where

people migrate shows that 40 per cent migrate to other states; 20 per cent

within the district. People migrating to other states are high in Alapuzha

(82.4%) (See Table 4.18)

The main reasons for migration as reported by the respondents are:

i) seeking employment during lean season (40 %); ii) education of children

(32.5% ) and; iii) better wages (22.5%). (See Table 4.17)

57

Table 4.15: Migration of Sample Household

Number of Respondents Districts Response

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Yes

28 (20.0)

23 (14.4)

12 (7.5)

17 (10.6)

80 (12.9)

No

112 (80.0)

137 (85.6)

148 (92.5)

143 (89.4)

540 (87.1)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Table 4.16 Number of Persons Migrated from the HH

Number of Respondents Districts No. of Persons Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

One

26 (92.9)

20 (87.0)

11 (91.7)

13 (76.5)

70 (87.5)

Two

1 (3.6)

2 (8.7)

- 3

(17.6) 6

(7.5)

Above Two 1

(3.6) 1

(4.3) 1

(8.3) 1

(5.9) 4

(5.2)

Total 28

(100) 23

(100) 12

(100) 17

(100) 80

(100)

Average 1.11 1.22 1.25 1.35 1.21

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Table 4.17 Reasons for migration

Districts Reasons

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Seeking employment in lean season

21 (75.0)

7 (30.4)

2 (16.70)

2 (11.8)

32 (40.0)

Better earning - 8

(34.8) 3

(25.0) 7

(41.2) 18

(22.5)

Children education 5

(17.9) 8

(34.8) 7

(58.3) 6

(35.3) 26

(32.5)

Better amenities 2

(7.2) - -

2 (11.80)

4 (5.0)

Total 28

(100) 23

(100) 12

(100) 17

(100) 80

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

58

Figure 4.8 Duration of Migration

32.1

32.1

17.917.9

4.3

21.7

4.3

69.56

25

8.3

56.6

11.8

5.9

82.35

16.3

21.3

8.8

53.75

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

P erc ent

P alakkad Idduki W ayanad Alapuz ha Total

Distric ts

< 2 Months

2-4 Months

4-6 Months

A bove 6 Months

Table 4.18 Place of Migration

Districts Place migrated

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha

Total

Within in the District

10 (35.7)

5 (21.7)

4 (33.3)

1 (5.9)

20 (25.0)

Within the state

11 (39.4)

11 (47.8)

4 (33.3)

2 (1.8)

28 (35.0)

Outside the State

7 (25.0)

7 (30.4)

4 (33.3)

14 (82.4)

32 (40.0)

Total 28

(100) 23

(100) 12

(100) 17

(100) 80

(100) Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Social Participation as a Member in CBOS and CSI

Participation in community based organizations and civil society

institutions help build social capital among the members of the community.

The distribution of respondents based on their social participation shows that

almost all are members in one or the other local social organizations. Out of

the 620 respondents, 96.3 per cent used to attend Grama sabha meeting. 80

per cent of the respondents are members in caste based associations while

60.2 per cent are SHG members. Around 10 per cent are members in local

co-operatives, SHG federations and / or other CBOs. Thus it can be

concluded that the respondents are actively participating in local social

forums.

59

Table 4.19: Social Participation as a Member in CBOs and CSIs

Districts Social Participation CBOs and CSIs

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Gramasabha 124

(88.6 ) 154

(96.3) 159

(99.4) 160

(100.0) 597

(96.3)

Caste Association 16

(11.4) 43

(26.9) 10

(6.3) 59

( 36.9) 128

(80.0)

Youth Association 1

(0.7) -

5 (3.1)

5 (3.1)

11 (6.7)

Local Co-operatives 4

(2.7) 58

(36.3) 2

(1.3) 2

(1.3) 66

(10.7.)

NGOs 3

(2.1) 3

(1.9) 6

(3.8) 13

(8.1) 25

(4.0)

SHGs 74

(52.9) 117

(73.1) 89

(55.6) 93

(58.1) 373

(60.2)

SHG Federations 24

(17.1 ) 7

(4.3) 10

(6.2) 24

(15.0) 65

(10.5)

*Others CBOs 28

(20.00) 15

(9.38) 9

(5.62) 14

(8.75) 66

(10.65)

**Others 1

(0.71) -

2 ( 1.25 )

- 3

(0.48)

Total 140

160

160

160

620

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

* Temple Committee fisherman, Merchant Association, Welfare Association, construction

workers union,* Political Party Kerala State Tailoring Association National Social Service

Conclusion

An analysis of the socio-economic profile of the respondents and the

members of their families reveal that the beneficiaries of NREGA are from

different sections of the households. The marginalized sections of the

community have participated in the scheme. 4.5 per cent of the population are

disabled. A vast majority of the population (64%) are in productive age group.

The literacy rate is 91.78. However, inter-district variation could be noticed.

The housing conditions of the households are fairly good with 91.5 per cent of

the respondent living in tiled or concrete houses. 82 per cent of the

households have electricity connection. Around 80 per cent of the households

have access to protected drinking water sources with minor inter-district

variations. Regarding occupation pattern, NREGS has been emerging as

main occupation for 16.49 percent and as subsidiary occupation for two-third

60

of the population. The households do not possess much livestock. The

human-animal population ratio is very low with 1:0.1.

Around 19 per cent of the households do not own any household

assets. More than 50 per cent of the households own cell phone and

television. Around one-third of the households have LPG connection. Little

more than two-third of the households have an annual income of less than

Rs.24,000/-. The main sources of borrowing are SHGs, formal financial

institutions like commercial banks and co-operatives. The important purposes

of borrowing include construction and repairing of house, education, medical,

agriculture, purchase of household assets, redemption of prior debts and

social ceremonies. Around 45 per cent of the households have borrowed less

than Rs.10,000/- ; the mean borrowing being Rs.28,912/-. The repayment is

found to be good. The rate of interest on loan is normal and hovers around 13

per cent. The incidence of migration could be noticed in all the districts. It was

high in Palakkad. The main reasons for migration are seeking employment

during lean season, education of children and better wages. To sum up, the

beneficiaries of NREGS are from poor to moderate socio-economic

background and the NREGS has been emerging as the major source of

livelihood for BPL households in these districts.

* * * * *

Chapter - 5

Performance of NREGS in Kerala

Introduction

Kerala State is a pioneer in strengthening local governments in the

post constitutional amendment phase. It has more than a decade of

experience in local level planning and development. This has provided a

unique position to the state to take over full responsibility for implementation

of a right-based pro-poor programme of NREGA. The Government has

consciously decided to internalize the operationalisation of NREGA into

Panchayati Raj System.

The salient features of the approach are: i) implementation of NREGA

through Grama Panchayats; ii) communicating the distinctive features of the

scheme to the various stakeholders, especially to panchayat leaders; iii)

involvement of Kudumbasree network of poor women in a big way; iv) focus

on total resource management in forest areas, river basins and watershed

areas as the state has very little public land; v) designing processes and

programmes to see that NREGS fits into the administrative operating system

now existing in Panchayats; vi) institution of consistent and coherent

information and accountability systems and participatory processes to ensure

transparency; and vii) aiming of zero corruption in implementing NREGA

(S.M.Vijayanand 2009).

These features need to be kept in view while analyzing the

performance of NREGS in Kerala. This chapter makes an attempt to assess

the performance of NREGS based on the indepth study conducted among

620 respondents spread over 31 panchayats in eight blocks of four districts.

The inferences drawn from the survey were supplemented and complemented

by the qualitative data gathered through a series of focus group discussions

that we had in all selected 31 panchayats among the key stakeholders of the

project.

62

NREGS in Kerala

The scheme known as Kerala Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

(KREGS) created under NREGA has been implemented in Palakkad and

Wayanad districts of Kerala in February 2006. Subsequently, it has been

implemented in all the remaining 12 districts.

An assessment of the progress of the NREGS in Kerala shows that

number of households registered under the scheme has increased from 3.27

lakhs in 2006-2007 to 23.30 lakhs in 2009-10. The percentage of households

provided employment under the scheme has shot up from 11.30 to 43.34 –

recording four fold increase over a period of four years. The total person days

employed witnessed a fourteen fold increase from 11.30 lakhs in 2006-07 to

155.87 lakhs in 2008-09. An interesting feature of NREGS in Kerala is the

participation of women. Of the total person days of employment, more than

80 per cent was constituted by women person days indicating very high

participation of women in the scheme. Person days of households employed

for 100 days, though found to be low has recorded a steady increase over a

period of time. The progress of NREGS in Palakkad and Wayanad, where the

scheme was introduced in 2005-06 in terms of households registered,

households provided employment, participation of SC, ST and woman were

found to be good. The scheme is picking up in Idukki and Alapuzha (See

table 5.1)

Start up Activities

This is the first ever massive scheme guaranteeing 100 days of

employment in a year. The responsibility of implementing the scheme has

been given to local panchayats. There is no room for machinery. Contractors

have no place in the scheme. It is a people-centered scheme. Hence,

meticulous planning and preparation of people are quite essential to see that

the scheme takes off smoothly. The Government has initiated various

measures to generate awareness about the essential features of the act

among the various stakeholders and to provide regular support and help to

the Grama Panchayats to implement the scheme in letter and spirit.

63

Table 5.1: Performance of NREGS at State level and selected sample Districts of Kerala

Levels Particulars 2006-07 Phase I

2007-08 Phase II

2008-09 Phase III

2009-10 Phase III

Households Registered 327132 579617 2330566 2330566

Percentage of Households provided employment

3.46 12.90 27.42 43.34

Total Person days (in Lakhs) 11.30 18.58 155.87 102.84

Percentage of SCs persondays

21.85 11.18 16.63 16.0

Percentage of STs persondays 3.40 20.86 8.82 9.96

Percentage of Women person days

80.30 70.26 85.92 86.23

State

Percentage of Households employed for 100 days

0.008 1.27 1.76 0.20

Households Registered 202916 208735 221733 221733

Percentage of Households provided employment

4.80 12.06 44.50 35.89

Total Person days (in Lakhs) 0.19 14.13 25.98 18.42

Percentage of SCs persondays

24.53 27.77 23.75 23.40

Percentage of STs persondays 82 2.24 5.54 5.56

Percentage of Women person days

83.08 87.98 89.56 92.41

Palakkad

Percentage of Households employed for 100 days

0.01 0.06 3.69

0.02

Households Registered 124216 125960 129831 129831

Percentage of Households provided employment

1.27 32.41 43.40 39.27

Total Person days (in Lakhs) 18769 1413301 2598104 1842820

Percentage of SCs persondays

6.04 7.03 6.78 6.42

Percentage of STs persondays 18.65 26.14 26.19 29.14

Percentage of Women person days

63.88 66.13 77.19 78.79

Wayanad

Percentage of Households employed for 100 days

-

2.29 6.59 0.33

Households Registered - 149255 184900 184900

Percentage of Households provided employment

- 5.86 27.02 31.03

Total Person days (in Lakhs) - 1.00 15.27 15.62

Percentage of SCs persondays

- 12.66 12.76 10.03

Percentage of STs persondays - 9.32 9.74 10.28

Percentage of Women person days

- 67.48 74.20 72.14

Idukki

Percentage of Households employed for 100 days

- - 2.49 0.21

Households Registered - - 219282 219282

Percentage of Households provided employment

- - 17.13 14.36

Total Person days (in Lakhs) - - 5.31 4.62

Percentage of SCs persondays

- - 18.82 18.98

Percentage of STs persondays - - 0.37 0.43

Percentage of Women person days

- - 89.71 91.84

Alapuzha

Percentage of Households employed for 100 days

- - 0.10 0.0004

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

64

The various start-up activities taken up to generate awareness and to

motivate the rural households to actively participate in the scheme include the

following:

o The District Poverty Alleviation Unit has been given the

responsibility of implementing the scheme. The DPAUs in

collaboration with KILA and SIRD organized a series of training

programmes on the essential features of NREGA and the mode of

implementation to all the Block level and Panchayat level

functionaries.

o Kudumbasree has been assigned a key role in different phases of

implementation of the scheme. Kudumbasree has three-tier

structure viz., Neighborhood Group, Area Development Society

(ADS), Community Development Society (CDS). The office bearers

of ADS and CDS were trained on the scheme by the block level

functionaries.

o The panchayat functionaries along with the trained office bearers of

ADS and CDS generate awareness among the rural households.

The process followed by them is as follows:

- Organising meeting among the various Kudumbasree units and

explaining the essential features of the scheme.

- Organising meeting in public places within the panchayat to

make the people aware of the scheme.

- Organising ward level meetings under the leadership of

respective ward members.

- Organising special meetings in SC/ST colonies to ensure that all

SC/ST households get registered under the scheme.

- Conducting exclusive Grama sabha meetings to create

awareness about the scheme and to discuss the issues related

to the functioning of the scheme.

- Displaying banners, boards and posters and distributing

handbills to the households to ensure that the scheme is known

to everybody.

65

- Making announcements about the scheme in every street

through public address system.

- Involving various CBOs such as youth clubs, farmers’

associations and co-operatives in promoting awareness

(Alapuzha District).

- Arranging exposure visits to generate awareness on best

practices.

The process has been meticulously followed throughout the state.

Awareness on the Scheme

Sources: Participation of the rural households in the scheme primarily

depends on the awareness about the scheme. The Government has

employed various methods and different agencies to generate awareness

about the scheme. The efforts initiated by the government have yielded the

desired results. The analysis on the sources through which the households

come to be aware of the scheme indicates that the Panchayat played a key

role in creating awareness about the scheme followed by SHGs. Media like

newspapers, radio, television were also found to have played a significant role

in generating awareness about the scheme.

District-wise analysis of the sources of awareness shows that the role

of SHGs, media, friends, relatives and neighbors was found to be minimal in

Palakkad District when compared to other districts (See Table 5.2).

Table 5.2: Awareness about NREGS: Sources

Districts Sources

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Panchayat 123

( 87.9) 155

(96.9) 131

(81.9) 145

(90.6) 554

(89.4 )

SHG 30

( 21.4) 98

(61.3) 92

(57.5) 114

(71.3) 334

(53.9)

Friends/Relatives/Neighbors 24

(17.1) 55

(34.4) 74

(46.3) 49

(30.6 202

(32.6)

News papers 12

(8.6) 23

(14.4) 87

(54.4) 66

(41.3) 188

(30.3)

Radio 3

(2.1 ) 11

(6.9 ) 55

(34.4) 35

(21.9) 104

(16.8)

Television 6

(4.3 ) 13

(8.1) 46

(28.8) 40

(25.0) 105

(16.9)

Government Officials 1

(0.7) 1

(0.6 ) 5

(3.1) 11

(6.9) 18

(2.9)

NGO Representative - 2

(1.2 ) 3

(1.9) 12

(7.5) 17

(2.7)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to Number of Respondents

66

Level of Awareness: The Act has certain salient features. People should be

aware of the essential features of the Act in order to be able to make use of

the scheme fully. Start-up activities undertaken by the government

functionaries, panchayats and Kudumbasree have largely helped in

generating awareness on the essential features of the Act and the Scheme

among the rural households. A very high level of awareness could be found

among them on the essential features of the Act such as: i) 100 days of

employment per household; ii) minimum wage; iii) equal wage for men and

women; iv) universal Act; v) work within a radius of 5 km; vi) no labour

displacing machinery; vii) right to payment within a fortnight; and viii) eligibility

for unemployment allowance, etc. The level of awareness was found to be

high among the Rural Households of Palakkad and Wayanad (See Table 5.3)

which is mainly because the scheme was introduced much earlier when

compared to the other two districts.

Table 5.3: Awareness on Main Provisions of NREGS

Number of Respondents Districts

Provisions of NREGS

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

100 days of employment per household

140 (100)

158 (98.8)

160 (100)

160 (100)

618 (99.7)

Minimum wage 138

(98.6) 154

(96.3) 159

(99.4) 158

(98.8) 609

(98.2)

Knowledge about correct minimum wage

138 (98.6)

158 (98.8)

160 (100)

139 (86.9)

595 (96.0)

Equal wage for men and women

140 (100)

157 (98.1)

159 (99.4)

156 (97.5)

612 (98.7)

Work within a radius of 5km

137 (97.9)

144 (90.0)

159 (99.4)

129 (80.6)

569 (91.8)

Universal Act 131

(93.6) 141

(88.1) 144

(90.0) 93

(58.1) 509

(82.1)

Role of Grama Sabha 137

(97.9) 144

(90.0) 155

(96.9) 145

(90.6) 581

(93.7)

No Labour Displacing Machinery

134 (95.7)

132 (82.5)

149 (93.1)

134 (83.8)

549 (88.5)

Eligibility for Unemployment Allowance

131 (93.6)

122 (76.3)

140 (87.5)

112 (70.0)

505 (81.5)

Compensation for delayed payment

128 (91.4)

116 (72.5)

142 (88.8)

119 (74.4)

505 (81.5)

Medical assistance for injury at the worksite

133 (95.0)

143 (89.4)

149 (93.1)

153 (95.6)

578 (93.2)

Worksite Facilities 132

(94.3) 128

(80.0) 156

(97.5) 150

(93.8) 566

(91.3)

Exgratia payment for death and disability

134 (95.7)

124 (77.5)

133 (83.1)

123 (76.9)

514 (82.9)

Right to Payment Within a Fortnight

132 (94.3)

143 (89.4)

148 (92.5)

147 (91.9)

570 (91.9)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to Number of Respondents

67

Initial response and acceptance of the scheme

Inspite of concerted efforts made by the Government and the

Panchayats to generate awareness and to get the rural households

registered, the initial response for the scheme was not encouraging. The

focus group discussion with the various stakeholders revealed that the

response was low in the beginning in all the four selected districts. Seeing is

believing. Rural households were waiting to see how the scheme got

operationalised. Certain category of people, especially the educated,

registered under the delusion that Government would provide guaranteed

‘white-collar’ jobs depending on the level of their education. But when they

realized the pattern of works undertaken under the scheme, they either

withdrew or kept away from further procedures. However, in course of time,

when the scheme was implemented with all its essential features, households

have accepted and participated in the scheme.

Registration

To seek and get employment under the scheme, every household

should get registered with the panchayat. The rural households may not

register themselves spontaneously. The implementing agencies need to

motivate the people to get registered. The Panchayats along with

Kudumabashree have played a key role in this regard. The efforts taken by

them are : i) distribution of application for registration by the ward members

with the help of SHG members; ii) constitution of a special team consisting of

school teachers, anganwadi workers and ST promoters to get the households

registered (Wayanad District); iii) convening the ward level meetings and

persuading the households to register; iv) door-to-door canvassing by the

SHGs, ADS and CDS (Wayanad); v) convenes special meetings in SC/ST

colonies; vi) enabling the households to take photographs free of cost.

Inspite of the sincere efforts made by the Panchayats and the

Kudumbasree, there were households which did not show interest in

registration. The main reasons for not registering under the scheme are: i) the

nature and type of work undertaken under the scheme was a restricting factor

68

for some households; ii) the households that could sustain without 100 days

of guaranteed employment did not come forward; and iii) lack of awareness

about the scheme in some pockets (Idukki).

Registration is a continuous process. Applications are received at any

point of time in the year and the applicants are registered under the scheme.

For instance, around 50 per cent respondents only are reported to have

registered under the scheme in Palakkad District when the scheme was

launched in the year 2005-06. Around 31 per cent of the respondents

registered in 2007-08 and the rest in the subsequent years. This trend could

be noticed in other districts too (See Table 5.4). An important inference that

could be drawn from the analysis is that registration is not a one-shot affair. It

is a continuous process. The rural households after observing the benefits of

the scheme have started joining the scheme.

Table 5.4: Year of Registration

No of Respondents Districts

Years Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

2006-07 72

(51.4) -

123 (76.9)

- 195

(31.5)

2007-08 43

(30.7) 117

(73.1) 19

(11.9) 1

(0.6) 180

(29.0)

2008-09 19

(13.6) 36

(22.5) 15

(9.4) 149

(93.1) 219

(35.3)

2009-10 6

(4.3) 7

(4.4) 3

(1.9) 10

(6.3) 26

(4.2)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Issue of Job Cards

Every household registered under the scheme should be issued a job-

card. The Act stipulates that job-cards should be issued within a fortnight of

application for registration. Photographs of adult members who are applicants

have to be attached to the job-cards. The cost of job-card including

photographing has to be borne as part of the programme cost.

The Secretary of the panchayat is responsible for issuing job-cards.

The job-cards are issued to the households free of cost. The focus group

69

discussions at the panchayat level revealed that in the initial stage it took one

to four months to issue the job-cards. The delay was mainly due to

inadequate staff and lack of computer facilities. But now, job-cards could be

issued within the stipulated period of 15 days.

The survey findings indicate that around 48 per cent of the respondents

were able to get job- cards within a period of 15 days. Around 23 per cent of

the respondents could get the job-cards within a period of 16-30 days. The

mean time lag between the date of application and the issue of job cards was

49 days in Alapuzha, followed by Idukki with 45 days, Palakkad 39 days and

Wayanad 35 days (See Table 5.5). The primary causes for delay in issuing

job cards as reported by the respondents during the focus group discussion

are: i) non-production of ration cards by the applicants; ii) lack of internet

facilities in some blocks; iii) lack of inadequate staff iv) scattered households

in districts like Idukki where the Panchayat officials really struggled to reach

the households; v) joint family system prevailing among the ST households.

NREGA guarantees employment only to the households. This makes the work

inadequate to those living in joint families. As a result, a few ST households

were hesitant to come under the scheme.

Table 5.5: Time lag between the Application and Issue of Job Card

Number of the Respondents Districts Time lag in (Days)

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

< 7 36

(25.7) 10

(6.2) 57

(35.7) 16

(10.1) 119

(19.2)

8-15 37

(26.4) 50

(31.3) 42

(26.3) 52

(32.5) 181

(29.2)

16-30 36

(25.7) 43

(26.9) 28

(17.5) 34

(21.3) 141

(22.7)

31-60 12

(8.6) 31

(19.4) 14

(8.8) 38

(23.8) 95

(15.3)

> 60 19

(13.6) 26

(16.3) 19

(11.9) 20

(12.5) 84

(13.5)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average 38.50 45.26 35.29 48.77 42.22

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

70

The respondents in the focus group discussion reported that the

problem can be overcome provided; i) a separate computer with internet

facilities could be made available exclusively for NREGS; and ii) adequate

staff are appointed based on the population and number of households

registered under the scheme.

Around 98 percent of the respondents reported that they did not spend

money to obtain the job card. Two percent (Palakkad and Idukki) reported that

they spend less than Rs.20/- to obtain the job cards.

The workers generally keep the job cards with them. They bring the job

card when they come to the worksite. This is a common practice that could be

observed in all the blocks of four districts. However, in certain worksites in

Idukki district, the mate (ADS) collects the job card, keep it with them till the

work gets completed and give it back to the workers on the last day of the

work.

Job cards are computerized in all the panchayats. Though the

Panchayats have problems in issuing job-cards, the process has been made

simple and easy over a period of time.

Identification of Work

The primary motto of NREGA is to provide employment guarantee in

rural areas. The Act has specified the kinds of work that can be taken up

under the scheme. They are labour-intensive in nature and include: i) water

conservation and water harvesting; ii) drought proofing, including afforestation

and tree plantation; iii) irrigation canals, including micro and minor irrigation

works; iv) provision of irrigation facility, plantation, horticulture land

development in land owned by households belonging to SC/ST; v) renovation

of water bodies including desilting of tanks; vi) land development; vii) flood

control and protection works including drainage in water logged areas; viii)

rural connectivity to provide all weather access.

71

The panchayats while preparing the plan of work under the scheme

should ensure that the works selected fall under the category suggested.

Identification and recommendation of the works were the responsibility of the

Gram Sabha. The priority in selecting the works that have to be taken up must

also be mentioned in the resolution of the Grama Sabha.

The focus group discussions revealed that Grama Sabha (Special)

were convened to select and recommend the works. People participating in

the Gram Sabha were invited to suggest works that could be undertaken in

their panchayat, keeping in view the provisions of NREGA. Priorities of works

are also decided at the Gram Sabha meeting. The representatives of the

people and panchayat officials and the staff concerned arrive at a consensus

and sort out the works that could be carried out. Once the items of works are

identified, prioritized and recommended by the Gram Sabha, the engineer and

overseer prepare the estimates for the works and get them approved by the

authorities concerned. Kudumbasree also plays a vital role in facilitating the

people to identify the work. An important factor that can be noticed in

selection of work is convening the Grama Sabha ward-wise which provides a

scope for harvesting the views of all the people from various wards of the

Panchayat.

Around two-third of the respondents reported that the works to be

undertaken under NREGA were selected in Gram Sabha meeting convened

at the ward level; and 21 per cent of the respondents said that the works were

selected in meeting convened by the ADS/CDS/mates. Around 19 percent of

the respondents reported that the works were selected by the panchayat (See

Table 5.6). District wise analysis shows that the works were mostly selected

at the Grama Sabha meeting at the ward level in Wayanad and Palakkad as

reported by more than three-fourths of the respondents. The inference is that

the Gram Sabha, the Panchayat and Kudumbasree play an active role in

identifying the works.

72

Table 5.6: Selection of Works

Districts Selection of Works

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Grama Sabha meeting at ward level

107 (76.8)

103 (64.4)

133 (83.2)

80 (50.1)

423 (68.2)

ADS/CDS/MATE meeting 33

(23.6) 1

(0.6) 38

(23.8) 57

(35.6) 129

(20.8)

Panchayat 20

(14.3) 64

(40.0) 6

(3.8) 27

(16.9) 117

(18.9)

AE - 2

(1.3.) - -

2 (0.3)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to Number of Respondents

Priority of Works

The works identified need to be prioritized. Priority is likely to differ from

block to block and district to district. Priority depends on the felt needs of the

people. The focus group discussions held at different locations across the

districts revealed that priority does differ from district to district (See Box 5.1).

Box 5.1: Priority of Works

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha

o Channel cleaning and renovation of water bodies

o Watershed activity

o Desilting the ponds

o Social forestry

o Trenches to prevent man-animal conflict

o Road work

o Drainage cleaning

o Land development

o Renovation of traditional water bodies.

o Agri-related works

o Maintenance of roads, culverts etc.

o Land improvement

o Rural connectivity

o Watershed

o Land development

o Water harvesting and soil conservation

o Agri-related works

o Common canal / channel renovation (Removal of Pola - Eichornia)

o Maintenance of road

73

Items of work undertaken as reported by the respondents corroborate

this. For instance, the major items of work undertaken in Palakkad include

renovation of traditional water bodies (67.1%) flood control and protection

work (53.6%) rural connectivity (46.4%) irrigation canals (45%) and water

conservation and water harvesting (29.3%). The major items of work

undertaken in Wayanad as reported by the respondents are rural connectivity

(77.5%) followed by land development (68.1%) and water conservation and

water harvesting (46.3%). In Alapuzha, the main items of work include

common canal / channel renovation (65%) and flood control and protection

work including drainage in the water logged area (63.8%) (See Table 5.7).

Thus, the priority in the selection of work differs from region to region.

Table 5.7: Items of Works Undertaken

Districts Works Undertaken

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Water conservation and water harvesting

41 (29.3)

31 (19.4)

74 (46.3)

6 (3.8)

152 (24.5)

Drought Proofing, including Afforestation and the tree plantation

3 (2.1)

7 (4.4)

1 (0.6)

37 (23.1)

48 (7.7)

Irrigation canals including micro and minor irrigation works

63 (45.0)

13 (8.1)

40 (25.0)

104 (65.0)

220 (35.5)

Provision of irrigation facilities, plantation, horticulture, land development to land owned by households belonging to the SC/ST / IAY/BPL families

1 (0.7)

41 (25.6)

50 (31.3)

42 (26.3)

134 (21.6)

Renovation of traditional water bodies including desilting of tanks

94 (67.1)

23 (14.4)

23 (14.4)

44 (27.5)

184 (29.7)

Land development 22

(15.7) 9

(5.6) 109

(68.1) 18

(11.3) 158

(25.5)

Flood control and protection work including drainage in the water logged areas.

75 (53.6)

48 (30.0)

42 (26.3)

102 (63.8)

267 (43.1)

Rural connectivity to provide all-weather access

65 (46.4)

149 (93.1)

124 (77.5)

36 (22.5)

374 (60.3)

Any other work that may be notified by the Central Govt.

6 (4.3)

3 (1.9)

- 6

(3.8) 15

(2.4)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to Number of Respondents

74

Problems in Identification of Work

The success of NREGS, to a great extent, depends on identification of

works as per the provisions of the Act. Adequate work has to be identified to

meet the demand of the local households. And, the work should be made

available within a radius of 5 km. from the household, so as to avoid the

hardships to the working population. However, in actual practice, the Gram

Sabha and Panchayat may come across certain problems and hurdles in

identifying the works. Problem may be location-specific. The focus group

discussions with the functionaries of the Panchayats and participants of the

programme have brought forth certain problems. They are listed below.

o The private land owners adjacent to the common land where the

NREGS works are proposed to be taken up raise boundary disputes as

there has been no clear and proper demarcation between common and

private lands

o The private land owners over a period of time have encroached the

common land. As a result, officials find it difficult to locate the extent of

common land encroached and evict the encroachment.

o People suggest various items of work in Grama Sabha meetings. Many

such works do not come under the purview of NREGA Act. Officials

have to struggle very hard to convince the people that such items of

work cannot be taken up under NREGS.

o Sometimes the functionaries may not be able to adhere to the

guidelines in selection of work as the geography of the district is

completely different from other districts. For example, flood control in

Kuttaanad in Alapuzha requires intervention every year on the same

site which is not possible under the Act.

Demand for employment

NREGS is demand-driven. People who are interested in doing work

under NREGS should come forward voluntarily and seek work job under the

scheme. The process of demanding employment as followed is stated here.

75

o Job seekers should submit the application form. The members of

ADS/CDS and mate facilitate the job seekers to submit the application

form.

o On receipt of the applications, dated receipts are given. The persons

responsible for issuing job cards are overseer, accountant-cum-

computer operator and Secretary of the Panchayat. It must be noted

that the dated receipts are given to only those job-seekers, who apply

in the prescribed format.

o Special efforts have been taken to see that SC/ST households get

representation; provided job cards; facilitated to apply for job and

provided job under the scheme.

o Special community meetings were organized in all the panchayats.

o Special awareness classes have been conducted in the SC hamlets

under the leadership of the Panchayat Presidents to ensure the

inclusion of all SC households under the scheme.

o It must be noted that all the households registered under the scheme

may not participate in the works. For instance, of the total households

registered under the scheme in Idukki district, around 50 per cent

participated. The reason is, tea estate labour constitute majority of the

working population in Idukki district. Many of them have registered

under NREGS. But they do not work under the scheme, as the

prevailing wage rate in tea estates is high. In Palakakd, only 55 per

cent of the registered workers participated in NREGS. The reasons are

i) initial misconception about the scheme; and ii) desire to get

unemployment allowance.

Figure 5.1: Employment sought under NREGA

95.7

94.4

92.5

95.6

94.5

Palakkad

Idukki

Wayanad

Alapuzha

Total

76

The survey shows that 95 per cent of the respondents sought work

under the scheme. District wise analysis indicates not much variation among

the respondents who sought employment. (See figure 5.1). The respondents

who sought employment in the prescribed application form should be given

the dated receipt. The Grama Panchayat should issue a dated acknowledge

the receipt of the written application for employment, against which the

guarantee of providing employment within 15 days operates. 57.1 per cent of

the respondents reported that they got the dated receipt from the Panchayat;

the rest did not. District wise analysis shows that majority of the respondents

(around 80%) in Palakkad and Alapuzha got the dated receipt; whereas the

job seekers, who got the dated receipt is less than 25 per cent in Idukki and

50 per cent in Wayanad (See Table 5.8). Thus, the practice of issuing dated

receipt is not fully adopted.

Table 5.8: Receipt of “Dated Receipt”

Number of Respondents Districts Response Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Received 111

(79.3) 37

(23.1) 80

(50.0) 126

(78.8) 354

(57.1)

Not Received 29

(20.7) 123

(76.9) 80

(50.0) 34

(21.3) 266

(42.9)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100) Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Time lag between date of application and provision of employment

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act stipulates that the

employment should be given to the job seekers within a period of 15 days

from the date of receipt of application. Focus group discussions with the

stakeholders shows that in majority of the panchayats, jobs could be given

within the stipulated period of the time, but it was delayed in some cases by

one month (Alapuzha), five months in Idukki, and seven months in Palakkad.

No delay beyond 15 days was reported in Wayanad.

77

Table 5.9: Time lag between the Application and Provision of Employment

Number of Respondents Districts Time lag in days

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

< 15

66 (47.1)

121 (75.7)

146 (91.3)

109 (68.2)

442 (71.2)

16-30

40 (28.6)

18 (11.3)

14 (8.7)

20 (12.5)

91 (14.7)

31-45

8 (5.7)

1 (0.6)

- 3

(1.9) 12

(1.9)

46-60

7 (5.0)

16 (10.0)

- 13

(8.1) 36

(5.8)

> 60

19 (13.6)

4 (2.5)

- 15

(9.4) 39

(6.3)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average Time Lag 43 21 12 41 29

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

The survey findings reflect more or less a similar situation. Around 71

per cent of the total respondents said that they could avail job within 15 days

form the date of application. Around 15 per cent said that the time lag varied

between 15 to 30 days. District-wise analysis shows that Wayanad has been

able to provide employment within a period of 15 days. In other districts there

has been delay beyond 60 days. The average time lag between the date of

application and provision of job was the lowest in Wayanad (12 days) and the

highest in Palakkad with 43 days (See Table 5.9). One-third of the

respondents reported that they experienced delay in getting employment. Of

them, four percent got the unemployment allowance.

Execution of Work

The execution of activities designed under the NREGS goes through a

systematic process. Better execution and better reach of the scheme greatly

depends on the awareness about the process among all the stakeholders of

the project. The steps envisaged under the process include: i) Identification of

work; ii) preparation of people’s estimates by the engineers; iii) project

initiation meeting; iv) citizen’s information board; v) provision of implements;

vi) creating worksite facilities; vii) maintenance of muster roll;

viii) maintenance of worksite diary by the mate; ix) inspection of the work and

x) documentation of the works (visual).

The focus group discussions with various stakeholders of the project,

direct observation in the field and perusal of records maintained at different

78

levels have clearly indicated that the various steps envisaged under the

scheme have been meticulously followed. The process as narrated is more or

less the same in the various panchayats across the four districts. The process

as narrated by the stakeholders during focus group discussions and

crosschecked thro’ direct observation is outlined here.

o Convening the ward level meeting of the people to arrive at a

consensus on the works that can be taken up in the respective

wards.

o Preparation of proposal and action plan by the panchayat officials

and NREGS staff based on the works selected.

o Submission of proposals and action plan in Gram Sabha meeting

and getting its approval.

o Inspection of the worksite by the ward members and committee

concerned and taking photographs of the works site before the

commencement of the work.

o Sending the proposals to the appropriate bodies for approval (Block

and district level official)

o Receipt of technical support and notice from the block and district

level functionaries.

o Requisition and receipt of muster roll before commencing the work

o Receipt of technical and administrative sanctions from the

appropriate authorities.

o Fixing the dates for commencement of work and announcing the

same to the applicants.

o Commencement of the work on the stipulated date

o Provision of implements for doing the work and providing the

facilities required at the worksite

o Monitoring of the work by the local level functionaries and by the

officials atleast once in fourteen days where the work is under

progress.

o Measurement of the work executed on completion.

o Documentation of the completed works by the overseers and taking

photography of the completed works.

o Payment of wages to the workers through banks/post offices.

79

Average number of days of employment

The Act guarantees 100 days of employment to a rural households.

Any number of adult members, who registered under the scheme from a

household, can work. But the total number of personal days employed per

household should not exceed 100 days. There are households that have fully

made use of 100 days of guaranteed employment. There are also families,

which could not make use of the 100 days of employment. The average

number of days of employment, as per the survey, has shown an increasing

trend. The average number of days employed per household has increased

from 23.6 in 2006-07 to 61.5 days in 2008-09 in Wayand. In palakakd the

average number of days of employment has increased from 12.8 days to 53.2

days. These two districts have performed well. Idukki district, where the

scheme was introduced in 2007-08, has made slow progress in this regard.

Same trend could be seen in Alapuzha district too. (See Figure 5.2)

Figure 5.2 Average Number of days of employment

12.9

0

23.6

09

36.2

5

50.2

0

22.4

53.2

28.9

60.5

13.9

38.6

21.8

14.1

19.4

18.8

18.5

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Districts

2006-07 2007-08

2008-09 2009-10 Upto September 2009

80

Table 5.10: Community-wise average number of days employed

Districts

Years Community

2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Upto September 09

SC 18.47 23.94 47.76 20.88

ST 5.60 40.84 53.48 19.88

Others 13.73 37.18 54.00 19.04 Palakkad

Total 12.86 36.23 53.15 19.41

SC - 7.30 34.81 22.95

ST - 3.50 28.56 17.94

Others - 4.32 26.41 21.96 Idukki

Total - 5.04 28.88 21.83

SC 15.25 99.25 88.50 13.75

ST 12.12 41.09 65.76 19.33

Others 26.89 50.99 58.13 18.81 Wayanad

Total 23.55 50.16 60.46 18.79

SC - - 15.78 20.07

ST - - - 14.00

Others - - 13.42 12.00 Alapuzha

Total - - 13.86 14.09

SC 3.57 10.65 31.52 21.14

ST 7.11 32.01 52.16 19.08

Others 10.60 23.58 37.99 17.77 Total

Total 8.98 22.42 38.63 18.50

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Community-wise analysis of the average number of days employed

indicates that SC/ST households have been able to make use of the scheme

to the maximum extent possible. For instance, the average number of days

employed was as high as 99.25 days for SC households in Wayanad in the

year 2007-08; it came down to 88.59 days in the year 2008-09. Yet, it was

much higher when compared to other groups including ST. A comparison of

average number of days employed among the different communities for the

year 2008-09 in Idukki shows that SC households have high average number

of days employed (34.81 days) followed by ST (28.56 days) and others (26.41

days). In Alapuzha too a similar trend could be seen (See Table 5.10). It can,

therefore, be concluded that SC/ST households have made use of the

scheme better when compared to other communities. This can be attributed to

the special efforts made by the functionaries of the scheme to generate

awareness among the SC/ST households and motivate them to join and make

use of the scheme.

81

100 days employed

An important indicator of the success of the programme is the number

of households made full use of the 100 days of employment. Higher

percentage of households fully making use of 100 days of work would mean:

i) the active participation of the rural households; ii) ability of the Panchayats

to identify the works, generate employment opportunities to meet the demand

for employment from the rural households; iii) improved income among the

households leading to security of access to food and other basic necessities;

and iv) checking of distress migration.

The field data on the number of rural households employed for 100

days show that there has been a steady and sure increase. The number of

households employed for 100 days was just 12 constituting 4 percent of the

respondents in 2006-07. It went upto 86 constituting 14 percent of the

households. District-wise analysis reveals that Wayanad leads with 30

percent employed for 100 days followed by Palakkad with 20 per cent of the

respondents in 2008-09. The other two districts have initiated the scheme

later. Only very few respondents are employed for 100 days. (See Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3: Number of Respondents employed for 100 days per annum

2.90

50

1.9

10.7

0

21.3

0

7.9

20

5

30

1.3

13.9

1.4 0.6 0.6

0.6

0.8

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Districts

2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010

Participation in various items of work

The Act has listed certain items of labour intensive activities that can

be taken up under the scheme. It has also specified that the material cost

should not exceed the prescribed limit with an intention of channelising the

maximum benefit in the form of improved wages and income to the poor rural

82

households. Items of works undertaken across the state are likely to vary as

they depend upon the geographical and physiological conditions.

An analysis of the participation of the respondents in various items of

work reveals that majority of the workers (56.4%) were found to get involved

in road works; followed by flood control and protection work (35.5%), irrigation

canals (26.6%), land development (23.4%), renovation of traditional water

bodies (22.6%) and water conservation and water harvesting (19.4%).

District-wise analysis indicates that 93.1 per cent of the respondents in

Idukki were found to have participated in road works; in Wayanad too majority

of the respondents (69.4%) were found to have participated in road work.

While in Alapuzha, majority of the respondents were found to have

participated in flood control and protection works (48.8%), and cleaning

irrigation canals (43.8%). In Palakkad, majority of respondents (58.6%) were

found to have participated in renovation of traditional water bodies and flood

control and protection works (50.7%). (See Table 5.11).

Table 5.11: Participation in Works

Districts Items of works

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Rural connectivity to provide all-weather access

67 (47.9)

149 (93.1)

111 (69.4)

21 (13.1)

348 (56.1)

Flood control and protection work, including drainage in the water logged areas.

71 (50.7)

39 (24.4 )

32 (20.0)

78 (48.8)

220 (35.5)

Irrigation canals, including micro and minor irrigation work

63 (45.0)

11 (6.9)

21 (13.1)

70 (43.8)

165 (26.6)

Land development 17 (12.1)

8 (5.0)

99 (61.9)

21 (13.1)

145 (23.4)

Renovation of traditional water bodies including desilting of tanks

82 (58.6)

11 (6.9)

18 (11.3)

29 (18.1)

140 (22.6)

Water conservation and water harvesting

33 (23.6)

17 (10.6)

65 (40.6)

5 (3.1)

120 (19.4)

Provision of irrigation facilities, plantation horticulture, land development to land owned by households belonging to the SC/ST/IAY/BPL families

2 (1.4)

20 (12.5)

40 (25.0

35 (21.9)

97 (15.6)

Drought Proofing, including afforestation and the tree plantation

4 (2.9)

4 (2.5)

1 (0.6)

11 (6.9)

20 (3.2)

Any other work that may be notified by the Central Govt.

4 (2.9)

1 (0.6)

1 (0. 6)

3 (1.9)

9 (1.5)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to the Number of the Respondents

83

Distance between worksite and place of residence

The work should be made available within a radius of 5 km from place

of residence of the participants as far as possible. In case, the works could

not be identified, the workers are permitted to work in the adjoining

panchayats, where enough works are available. The logic in fixing the limits of

5 km radius is to ensure that the workers do not face hardships in reaching

the worksite and do not waste time and energy in commuting to the work site.

It is also to ensure that all development works are identified and executed

within the panchayat limits.

Table 5.12: Distance between residence and place of work

Number of Respondents

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Districts

Distance (in km.)

Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max

< 1 71

(50.70) 7

(5.0) 101

(58.10) 8

(5.0) 112

(70.00) -

140 (87.5)

16 (10.0)

424 (68.40)

31 (5.0)

1-3 62

(44.30) 76

(54.30) 57

(35.60) 44

(27.50) 39

(24.4) 69

(43.1) 17

(10.6) 66

(41.3) 175

(28.2) 255

(41.10)

3-5 7

(5.00) 54

(38.60) 1

(0.60) 76

(47.5) 4

(2.50) 70

(43.80 3

(1.90) 78

(48.80) 15

(2.40) 278

(44.80)

> 5 - 3

(2.10) 1

(0.60) 32

(20.0) 5

(3.10 21

(13.10) -

-

6 (1.00)

56 (9.00)

Total 140

(100) 140

(100) 160

(1000 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

The distance between place of residence and place of work has clearly

revealed that two-thirds of the respondents have to travel less than 1 km to

reach their worksite. Around 28 percent of them have to travel 1 to 3 km and

24 of them have to cover a distance of 3-5 km. Thus, 99 per cent of the job

seekers under the scheme were able to get work within a radius of 5 km.

District-wise analysis shows that a vast majority of the respondents in

Alapuzha (98.1%), Wayanad (94.4%), Idukki (90.6%), Palakakd (93.6 %)

have reported that worksites were located within a radius of 3 km from their

residence. (See Table 5.12).

When the worksite lies beyond 5 km from the headquarters, transport

allowance needs to be paid, 30 respondents (4.8%) reported to have received

transport allowance.

84

Mode of transport

A vast majority of the respondents (95%) were able to reach worksite

by walk as the distance to worksite was less than 3 km. in all the panchayats.

Very few used other modes of transport such as bus, jeep, auto and bike.

District-wise analysis shows that workers in Idukki and Wayanad used Jeep,

bus and Auto (See Figure 5.4). Boats were the mode of transport in Alapuzha.

The mode of transport depends on the geographical condition and the type of

transport facilities available in the district.

Figure 5.4 Mode of Transport

96.491.3

96.6 96.9 95

3.67.5

3.1 0.6 3.70

15.610.6

006.9

0.6 0 1.90 0 04.4 1.1

6.8

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Districts

Perc

en

t

Foot Bus Jeep Auto Boat

The transport cost incurred by majority of the respondents (out of 30

respondents) was less than Rs.10/-. Very few respondents were found to

have incurred Rs.10/- to Rs.20/- The transport cost in the case of distance

exceeding 5 km was borne by the Panchayats. When the distance is less than

5 km. the workers met the travel expenses.

Working hours

The working hours as reported by majority of the respondents (88%)

across the districts is that the work commences at 8 am and closes at 5 pm.

In a few places of the districts, the works commenced at 9 am and or at 8.30

a.m. (See the Table 5.13). The workers do have lunch and tea breaks.

The working time and duration varies across the Districts. For instance,

the workers in Alapuzha district are not accustomed to the working hours

followed in other districts. The traditional agriculture labourers in Alapuzha

85

work from 06.30 a.m. to 01.30 p.m. The reason is obvious. The district is

covered with rivers and backwaters. The water during the morning will be at

normal temperature and as the time passes the temperature rises. In other

words, the people in the region have to experience hot humid temperature

around noon. As a result, the labourers stop working after 01.30 p.m. Thus,

working hour for the agriculture labourer in Alapuzha district starts earlier and

stops earlier. The workers who are used to this timing find it difficult to adjust

with the timings adopted in other districts.

Table 5.13: Working hours

Number of Respondents Districts Working hours Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

8.00 am to 5.00 pm 109

(77.8) 134

(83.8) 151

(94.4) 155

(96.9) 549

(88.5)

8.30 am to 5.00 pm 14

(10.0) -

3 (1.9)

1 (0.6)

18 (2.9)

8.00 am to 4.30 pm - 1

(0.6) 1

(0.6) -

2 (.3)

8.30 am to 4.30 pm 17

(12.1) 20

(12.5) - -

37 (6.0)

8.00 am to 4.00 pm - 4

(2.5) 5

(3.1) -

9 (1.5)

9.00 am to 5.00 pm - 1

(0.6) -

4 (2.5)

5 (0.8)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Facilities at the worksite

Basic facilities are to be provided at the worksite. The facilities to be

provided as per the Act include medical aid, drinking water, shed and crèche if

there are more than 5 children below the age of six years.

The panchayats by and large have been able to provide facilities at the

worksite. The facilities provided as reported by majority of the respondents

include: drinking water (77.4%), first aid box (54%), shade (45%) and tools

(32.4%). Crèche facility was found to have been provided in a few worksites

of Wayanad and Alapuzha. Extra facilities extended at the worksite, as

reported by respondents include gloves (1%), tea and snacks (2.1%), and

arrangement for supply of food at the worksite (2.9%) etc., particularly in

Alapuzha district. (See Table 5.14).

86

Table 5.14: Facilities available at the work site

Districts

Facilities at the worksite

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Drinking water 102

(72.9) 111

(69.4) 143

(89.4) 124

(77.5) 480

(77.4)

Shed for dressing 58

(41.4) 53

(33.1) 90

(56.3) 76

(47.5) 277

(44.7)

Toilet (temporary) 41

(29.3) 19

(11.9) 16

(10.0) 3

(1.9) 79

(12.7)

First Aid box 85

(60.7) 61

(38.1) 112

(70.0) 87

(54.2) 355

(55.6)

Tools 25

(17.9) 90

(56.3) 29

(18.1) 57

(35.6) 201

(32.4)

Creche - - 3

(1.9) 2

(1.3) 5

(0.8)

Gloves - - - 6

(3.8) 6

(1.0)

Tea and Snacks - 1

(0.6) 5

(3.1) 8

(5.0) 14

(2.3)

Food available at worksite - - - 18

(11.3) 18

(2.9)

No Facilities 29 (20.7)

10 (6.3)

3 (1.9)

7 (4.4)

49 (7.9)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to number of the respondents

Regarding the adequacy of worksite facilities, a little less than two-

thirds of the respondents reported that facilities are not adequate. District-wise

analysis shows that the worksite facilities were found to be lacking in Idukki as

reported by majority of the respondents (72.5%) followed by Alapuzha

(61.3%) and Palakakd (64.6%). (See Table 5.15)

Table 5.15: Adequacy of the worksite facilities

Number of Respondents Districts Response

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Adequate 50

(35.7) 44

(27.5) 79

(49.4) 54

(33.8) 227

(36.6)

Not Adequate 90

(64.3) 116

(72.5) 81

(50.6) 106

(66.3) 393

(63.4)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Of the 393 respondents who said that the facilities at the worksite are

inadequate, majority of them reported that facilities such as shade for

dressing and resting, tools, first aid box, toilet and drinking water should be

87

made available. Around one-third of them reported that tea and snacks can be

given at the worksite free of cost (See Table 5.16).

Table 5.16: Facilities required at the worksite

Districts Worksite facilities required

Palakkad N= 90

Idukki N=116

Wayanad N=81

Alapuzha N=106

Total N=393

Drinking water 15

(16.7) 28

(24.1) 9

(11.1) 8

(7.5) 60

(15.3)

Shed for dressing 44

(48.9) 70

(60.3) 24

(29.6) 34

(32.0) 172

(43.8)

Toilet 24

(26.7) 52

(48.2 ) 27

(33.3) 35

(33.0) 138

(35.1)

First Aid box 37

(41.1) 59

(50.9 ) 23

(28.3) 16

(15.1) 135

(34.4)

Tools 49

(54.4) 47

(40.5) 53

(65.4) 16

(15.1) 165

(41.9)

Creche 3

(3.3) 1

(1.9) 1

(1.2) 2

(1.9) 7

(1.8)

Gloves 3

(3.3) 3

(2.5) -

8 (7.5)

14 (3.6)

Tea and Snacks - 53

(45.7) 22

(27.1) 46

(43.4) 121

(30.8)

Vehicle - 16

(13.7) 8

(9.8) -

24 (6.1)

Food at the worksite - 5

(4.3) 13

(16.0) 23

(21.7) 41

(10.4)

Doctor/ nurse - - 1

(1.2) 23

(21.7) 24

(6.1)

Umbrella - - - 5

(4.7) 5

(1.3)

Shoes - - - 3

(2.8) 3

(0.8)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to number of the respondents

Tools

NREGS as indicated earlier is labour intensive. Use of machinery is

prohibited. As a vast majority of the participants are landless agriculture

labourers, they may not possess the tools. Hence, it is essential that tools are

made available at all the worksites by the panchayats for those who do not

possess tools for work. Around two-fifth of the respondents reported that

panchayats provided tools; around 22 per cent said they bought their own

tools for work. One-third of them said tools were jointly arranged by workers,

panchayat and Kudumbashree.

District-wise analysis shows that the tools were mostly made available

by the panchayats in Palakakd district and Kudumbashree is reported to have

played a good role in providing tools in Alapuzha (See Table 5.17). It must be

88

noted that 44 respondents were found to have hired tools for work; of whom

majority (75%) are from Alapuzha.

Table 5.17: Who provided tools for the work in the worksite

Number of Respondents Districts

Who provided tools Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Panchayat 98

(70.0) 49

(30.6) 45

(28.1) 56

(35.1) 248

(40.0)

Self 8

(5.7) 5

(3.1) 45

(28.1) 78

(48.8) 136

(21.9)

Kudumbasree 4

(2.86) -

1 (0.6)

23 (14.4)

28 (4.6)

Self, Panchayat and Kudumbasree

30 (21.4)

106 (66.2)

69 (43.1)

3 (1.8)

208 (33.5)

Total

140 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

620 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Problems faced at the worksite

Around 75 per cent of the respondents said that they did not face any

problems at the worksite. The rest did face some problems. Two important

problems faced at the worksite as reported are: i) tools are not good (67.7%);

and ii) too heavy tools to work (25.3%). There are few location specific

problems like snakebite at the worksites (8.9%) and difficulties in working

continuously in water bodies (12.0%) (See Table 5.18)

Women have reported certain specific problems during the focus group

discussion. They are: i) they are not able to strictly follow the time schedule

as they have responsibilities at home; ii) a few are not accustomed to hard

physical work; iii) tools are not women friendly; iv) toilets are not made

available at certain worksites; v) women above the age of 50 found it hard to

put up with the work under NREGS; and vi) they have also come across with

location specific problems. For instance, cleaning the weed-infested canals is

an important item of the works undertaken in Alapuzha district. The women

have to travel in boats to remove the weeds in the canals and load them in the

boat and deposit them on the banks of the canal. The women could not

balance themselves in the boat while performing all these activities.

89

Table 5.18: Problems faced at the worksite

Districts Worksite problems

Palakkad (N= 40)

Idukki (N=30)

Wayanad (N=33)

Alapuzha (N=55)

Total (N=158)

No need based work 2

(5.0) 1

(3.3) 3

(9.1) -

6 (3.8)

Using pickaxe/ lifting heavy stone (for women)

9 (22.5)

12 (40.0)

8 (24.2)

11 (20.0)

40 (25.3)

Lack of good tools/ Tools are not good

40 (100)

10 (33.3)

28 (84.8)

29 (52.7)

107 (67.7)

Hot weather condition 12

(30.0) 1

(1.3) 2

(6.0) 2

(3.6) 17

(10.8)

Non availability of First Aid facility

1 (2.5)

1 (1.3)

- - 2

(1.3)

Lack of co-operation from the land owners (road work)

- 6

(20.0) -

2 (3.6)

8 (5.0 )

Over work load - 1

(1.3) -

1 (1.8)

2 (1.3)

Injuries - - 2

(6.0) 4

(7.3) 6

(3.8)

Difficult in working continuously in water bodies

- - - 19

(34.5) 19

(12.0)

Snakes at the worksite - - - 14

(25.5) 14

(8.9)

Scarcity of boat - - - 2

(3.6) 2

(1.3)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to number of the respondents

Payment of Wages

Payment of wage is a very significant component under the scheme.

The Act has specifically stated that i) every worker under the scheme is

entitled to minimum wage as fixed by the state government; ii) equal wages

should be paid to men and women; iii) wage should be paid on a weekly basis

either through bank or post office; and iv) wage rate should be published

permanently at every worksite. These conditions are stipulated to ensure

transparency, accountability and corruption free system.

Field observations revealed that muster rolls received from the

panchayat office are maintained at the worksite. The muster rolls provide

details on the job card number, the number of workers and the days worked.

The mates maintain the muster rolls. The mates are mostly women drawn

from Kudumbashree. They are selected through a participatory process. They

are trained well. The interaction with them revealed that they are all aware of

90

the salient features of the NREGA, entitlements of the NREGA workers,

worksite facilities to be provided and transparency safeguards to be adopted

at the worksite. They are trained in the maintenance of muster rolls and

measurement of work. Field observations in the worksites have clearly

indicated that the mates have performed duties such as mobilizing the

workforce, marking the worksite, allotting the works, maintaining the muster

rolls, ensuring the provision of worksite facilities, ensuring the quality of work

executed, general worksite supervision, dealing with emergencies, helping the

overseer/engineers etc. to the utmost satisfaction of the various stakeholders

of the scheme.

Wages are paid after measuring the work. Overseer/engineer

measures the quantity of work before and after the execution of the work.

They visit the worksites and measure the work usually after the completion of

the muster rolls. They do visit the worksites in between and give necessary

instructions at the worksite. The wages are distributed through the bank/post

office after the measurements are made.

Awareness about minimum wages

98.4 per cent of the respondents were aware of the minimum wage

fixed by the state government. All the respondents in Wayanad and Alapuzha

were aware of the minimum wage; a few respondents in Palakkad (9.3%) and

Idukki (2.5%) were not aware of the minimum wages.

The respondents were also aware of the mode of fixation of wage

under the scheme. A high level of awareness on the various aspects of the

scheme including the fixation of wages can be attributed to the involvement of

Kudumbashree units from the beginning of the scheme and high literacy rate

among the participants.

Wages earned under the scheme

The minimum wage earned under the scheme as reported by majority

of the respondents (86.3%) is Rs.125/-. Around 19 per cent of them said it

varied from Rs.100 to 124/-. District wise analysis shows that the minimum

wage earned was lower in Palakkad District when compared to other districts

(See Table 5.19).

91

Table 5.19: Wages earned under the scheme

Number of Respondents Districts Minimum wage earned under the scheme

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

<100 22

(15.7) -

4 (2.5)

2 (1.3)

28 (4.5)

100-124 55

(39.3) 25

(15.6) 4

(2.5) 4

(2.5) 88

(14.2)

>125 63

(45.0) 135

(84.4) 152

(95.0) 154

(96.3) 504

(81.3)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average 106.04 123.35 123.55 123.88 119.59

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

The maximum wage under the scheme as reported by the respondents

indicates that 99.4 per cent of them could get a wage of Rs.125 per day which

indicates that they are all assured of minimum wages prescribed by the state

government. (See Table 5.20)

Table 5.20: Maximum wage earned under the scheme

Number of Respondents Districts

Maximum wage earned under the scheme

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

< 124 3

(2.1) - - -

3 (0.5)

125 136

(97.1) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 616

(99.4)

> 126 1

(0.7) - - -

1 (0.2)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average minimum wage earned

121.4 124.18 123.44 124.99 123.51

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Mode of payment of wage

Wages were paid either thro’ bank or thro’ post offices to prevent

corruption. 89.8 per cent of the respondents reported that they got wages

through the bank. Rest of them got the wages through post offices. Payment

of wage through post office was practised in Alapuzha District (See Table

5.21)

92

Table 5.21: Mode of payment of wage

Number of Respondents Districts Mode Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Through Bank

140 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

96 (60.0)

556 (89.6)

Through Post Office - - - 64

(40.0) 64

(10.3)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Around 95 per cent of the respondents reported that they did not face

any problem in withdrawing the cash form the bank. Rest did face problems

which were mostly related to initial reluctance on the part of the bank officials

to entertain NREGA accounts.

Time lag between date of completion of work and payment of wage

The wages should be paid on a weekly basis, and in many cases within

a fortnight of the date on which the work was done. Around 62 per cent of the

respondents reported that the wages were paid within a period of 15 days. It

took 16-30 days to get wage in the case of around one-fourth of the

respondents. A few respondents could get wage after a period of 60 days

only. District-wise analysis shows that around one-third of the respondents, in

Palakkad was able to get the wage after a period of one month. There were

incidents of delay beyond one month in other districts too. The average time

lag between date of completion of work and receipt of wage shows that

Wayanad has the lowest time lag of 12.57 days, followed by Alapuzha with

20.86 days. The average days for all the districts is 22.68 days (See Table

5.22).

Important reasons for the delay in payment of wages as reported by

the respondents and as learnt during the focus group discussions were; i) lack

of staff; ii) delay in providing muster rolls; iii) delay in measurement; iv) lack of

adequate monitoring by the Panchayat; and v) delay on the part of the bank.

93

Table 5.22: Time lag between date of completion of work and receipt of wages

Number of Respondents Districts Time lag in days

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

< 15 20

(14.3) 115

(71.9) 140

(87.6) 107

(66.9) 382

(61.6)

16-30

67 (47.9)

26 (16.3)

16 (10.0)

36 (22.5)

145 (23.4)

31-45

8 (5.7)

6 (3.8)

4 (2.5)

8 (5.0)

26 (4.2)

46-60

34 (24.3)

13 (8.1)

- 7 (4.4)

54 (8.7)

> 60

11 (7.9)

- - 2 (1.3)

13 (2.1)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average 40.13 23.21 12.57 20.86 22.68

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

All the respondents reported that they were able to get full wages as

per the muster rolls. They were all fully paid and there has been no incidence

of non-payment or under payment.

NREGA wage and market wage

A comparison between NREGA wage and wage prevailing in the

market has revealed that NREGA wages were much lower than the prevailing

wage rates in the case of men. The average difference for all the districts put

together worked out Rs.74/-. In other words, the wages for men was around

Rs.200/- in the market, whereas it was Rs.125/- under NREGS. The

difference was quite high in Alapuzha district, where men were able to get

double the NREGA wage in the market.

However, the NREGA wages are better than what it generally prevails

for the women in all the four districts. The difference was as high as Rs.38 in

Palakkad District, whereas NREGA wage was closer to market wage in Idukki

and Alapuzha districts (See Table 5.23).

94

Table 5.23: Difference between wages under NREGS and the prevailing wages for other than NREGS work

Number of Respondents Districts

Average wage in Rs.

Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

NREGS 125.25 125 125 125 125.06

Normal 163.21 197.41 170.56 259.69 198.83 Men

Difference - 37.96 - 72.41 -45.56 -134.69 -73.77

NREGS 124.54 125 124.09 125 124.66

Normal 86.69 123.75 110.88 118.38 110.67 Women

Difference +37.85 +1.25 +13.21 +6.62 +13.99

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Impact

NREGS has been in operation for the last four years. In Kerala the

scheme was introduced only in two districts viz., Wayanad and Palakkad in

2005-06 under Phase I. The scheme was extended in two more districts in

2006-07 under Phase II and subsequently in all the remaining 10 districts

under Phase III. The complete effects or impact of the scheme cannot be

gauged as the scheme is yet to fully take off with all its essential components.

However, this scheme generated certain immediate effects such as increase

in income, changes in the expenditure pattern, improvement in level of living,

purchase of assets etc. (See Box 5.2). We have attempted to assess the

impact as perceived by the respondents of the study. The variables

considered are: income, expenditure, savings, livestock, empowerment of

women, migration and benefits to households and panchayats.

On Income: One of the major purposes of the NREGS is to increase the

family income of the poor households in the rural areas. It is the direct benefit

expected of the NREGS. After the implementation of the scheme the average

family income in these districts is found to have increased by a minimum of

Rs. 1479/- in Palakkad to Rs.2601/- in Idukki District. In other two districts viz.,

Wayanad and Alapuzha the average increase in the family income was

Rs.1856/- and Rs.2093/- respectively.

95

Box 5.2: The multiplier effects of NREGA

Parijan, a member of the traditional orthodox Muslim family is around 40 years of age.

She was married to Abdul Rehman in 1987 when she was 18 years old. Life was quite

happier until her husband met with an accident and got paralyzed in1991. There was nobody

to support her at times of distress and she had to work as a servant maid and agricultural

laborer to run her family. She has two daughters and the family lives in a hut.

Parijan came to know about NREGA only in 2007 even though it was introduced in

the year 2006. She registered and started working under the scheme. She worked for 23 days

in 2007 – ’08 and 50 days in 2008 – ’09. She has already completed 38 days of work for the

current year and she hopes to hit the guaranteed 100 days before the end of the financial

year.

The wages she earned during the initial period was mainly spent on consumption

expenditure. Later she could save some money and with that she started a canteen within the

premises of panchayat. The canteen is run well and yields profit. She has now enough

revenue to run the family. Her aim is to see that her daughters are got married and settled.

She feels that NREGA has not only helped her to earn wages, but also enabled her to start a

micro-enterprise which has now become an important source of livelihood.

Table 5.24: Impact of NREGS on the family income

Number of Respondents Districts Increase in income in Rs.

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No change 65

(46.4) 19

(11.9) 23

(14.4) 9

(5.6) 116

(18.7)

< 2500 47

(33.6) 93

(58.1) 111

(69.4) 112

(70.0) 363

(58.5)

2500-5000 20

(14.3) 26

(16.3) 16

(10.0) 23

(14.4) 85

(13.7)

> 5000 8

(5.7) 22

(13.8) 10

(6.3) 16

(10.0) 56

(9.0)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average 1479 2601 1856 2093 2024

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

District wise analysis shows that there has been a substantial change

in the family income on account of the NREGS in all the districts except the

Palakkad District. In Palakkad about 46 per cent of the people opined that the

scheme has hardly brought changes in the family income. Even among those

who reported change in the family income about 33.6 per cent reported that

only a marginal change is realized (Rs. >2500 per annum). The remaining 20

percent reported an increase of more than Rs.2500/- in their family income.

But in other three districts, about 85 to 95 per cent of the people reported to

96

have seen substantial increase in their family income. However, such

increase in the family income was less than Rs.2500/- in majority of the

cases. Those who reported to have marginal income of more than Rs.2500/-

constituted about one-fourth of the total respondents from these districts.

Thus, the change in the average family income in all these districts was

moderate. .

On Expenditure: Increase in family income should have resulted in more

family expenditure. The details on the family expenditure collected from the

respondents showed that about 40 per cent of them did not see any change

in the family expenditure whereas, about 47.3 per cent reported to have spent

more than what they were spending earlier to this intervention. The change in

the family expenditure ranged between less than Rs.2500/- and more than

Rs.5000/-. However, people who spend more than Rs.2500/- accounted for

12.8 percent in all the four districts.

Table 5.25: Impact of NREGS on the expenditure

Number of Respondents Districts The impact of NREGS on the expenditure in Rs.

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No change 84

(60.0) 36

(22.5) 60

(37.5) 68

(42.5) 248

(40.0)

< 2500

43 (30.7)

79 (49.4)

97 (60.6)

74 (46.3)

293 (47.3)

2500-5000

12 (8.6)

28 (17.5)

3 (1.9)

12 (7.5)

55 (8.9)

> 5000

1 (0.7)

17 (10.6)

- 6 (3.8)

24 (3.9)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average 763.21 2368.75 542.34 963.38 1172.20

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

District wise analysis of the family expenditure revealed that there was

not much change in Palakkad District, where about 60 per cent reported no

change. While in Idukki district it was only 22.5 per cent who reported no

change in the average family expenditure. In other two districts viz., Wayanad

and Alapuzha the number of respondents who reported no change was

around 40 per cent. Thus, in Idukki District change was noticed in the family

97

expenditure to a great extent while in Palakkad district people did not spend

more on family expenses. There have been obvious changes in the family

expenses after the implementation of the scheme. Majority stated that their

family expenses too increased in proportion to the increase in family income.

Only in Idukki district more than one fourth of the respondents reported

increase in the family expenditure by more than Rs.2500/-. Thus, with the

introduction of the scheme the family expenditure and purchasing capacity of

rural households have improved in all the four districts.

A look at the spending pattern of the income earned by the

respondents from the NREGS reveals that they use it for a variety of

purposes. The items of expenses include expenses on household activities,

buying of food grains, meeting day-to-day expenses, spending on education

of the children, hospital expenses repayment of old debts, construction of

house and buying durable assets.

Table 5.26: Spending pattern of the wages earned under NREGS

Districts Particulars

Palakkad (N=140)

Idduki (N=160)

Wayanad (N=160)

Alapuzha (N=160)

Total (N=620)

Household activities 76

(54.3) 58

(36.3) 73

(45.6) 90

(56.3) 297

(47.9)

Education 39

(27.9) 60

(37.5) 58

(36.3)) 51

(31.9 ) 208

(33.5)

Buying assets 14

( 10.0) 11

(6.9) ) 14

(8.8) 10

( 6.3) 49

( 7.9)

Buying food grains 27

( 19.3)) 61

(38.1) 46

(28.8) 54

( 33.8) 188

(30.3)

Hospital expenses 17

(12.1 ) 50

(31.3) ) 52

(32.5) 21

( 13.1) 140

(22.6)

Payment of old debts 42

(30.0 ) 11

(6.9 ) 21

( 13.1) 8

(5.0 ) 82

(13.2)

Celebrations 4

(2.9) 2

( 1.3 ) 7

(4.3 ) 6

( 3.8) 24

(3.9)

Agricultural activities 2

(1.4)) - - -

2 (0.3)

Buying clothes 3

(2.1) -

20 (12.5)

4 (2.5)

27 (4.4)

Day-to-day expenses - 5

(3.1) 2

(1.2) 2

(1.3) 9

(1.5)

Construction of house - 2

(1.3) 3

(1.9) 10

(6.3) 15

(2.4)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figure in the parenthesis represents the percentage to the Total Respondents

From the overall analysis it is found that the income is spent by a

sizeable number of respondents for meeting the household expenses.

98

(47.9%), expenses on education of the children (33.5%) buying food grains

(30.3%) and for meeting medical expenses (22.6 %). The other expenses met

out of the additional income include repayment of old debts (13.2%) buying of

assets (7.9%) buying clothes (4.4%) celebrations (3.9%) construction of

house (2.4%) (See Box 5.3 and 5.4) and other day- to-day expenses (1.5%).

People opined that the introduction of the scheme improved the debt-servicing

capacity of the poor households and also helped in reducing the liabilities. It

can be concluded that the households spend the income mainly on household

expenses and on education and clothing of the children. The spending pattern

of the people from different districts hardly shows any differences except

redemption of prior debts (30%) in Palakkad District.

Box 5.3: Age Has Not Withered Away the Spirit to Work

O. Kunjamma (72 years) is a senior citizen of Nedumudi Panchayat of Alappey district. He has seven children; all of them happily settled. He lives with his youngest son. He is an active member of CPI (M). NREGS was introduced in the panchayat in 2009. Planning to do something productive, he joined NREGS. The work taken up in his ward under the scheme was removal of weeds from the Bhoothapandam lake. He actively participated in the work. He said he was quite happy because i) he could earn at this stage ii) could do some useful work in the village and iii) he could spend the wages earned for a productive purpose viz., construction of a house for his son.

Box 5.4: NREGS enabled to come out of the vicious cycle of poverty

The case of two sisters

Karthiyani and Vasanthi are two sisters born and brought up in Nandiyodu, a hamlet

(9th ward in Pattancherry) of Chittor block. They are the daughters of Kombi and Devu who

belongs to ST. They had an elder brother supporting them. He became chronically ill and

died. The entire family fell into the vicious cycle of poverty.

It is at this juncture they came to know about NREGS through Kudumbashri. Both of

them registered themselves under the scheme. They were active participants of NREGS.

After 2 years of work, they had a bank balance of Rs. 20000/- (Canara bank,

Meenakshipuram). They were mostly idle without much work before the launch of NREGA.

NREGS provides assured work with a minimum wage of Rs. 125/- per day. They have plans

to construct a new house through IAY (Indira Awas Yojana) with an additional contribution

from their own savings.

99

Table 5.27: Impact of the NEREGS on the Saving (Per annum)

Number of Respondents Districts

The impact of the NEREGS on the Saving in Rs.

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No Saving 84

(60.0) 100

(62.5) 91

(56.9) 69

(43.1) 344

(55.5)

< 1250 37

(26.4) 54

(33.8) 43

(26.9) 69

(43.1) 203

(32.7)

1250-2500 9

(6.4) 2

(1.3) 9

(5.6) 19

(11.9) 39

(6.3)

> 2500 10

(7.1) 4

(2.5) 17

(10.6) 3

(1.9) 34

(5.5)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Average savings 754.07 236.56 715.97 567.98 562.66

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

On Savings: The household savings is a function of the household income

and expenditure. In all the four districts increase in the family income was

reported to be moderate. The moderate income so earned on account of the

scheme was reported to have been spent by the families for meeting their

family expenses. As such, the extent of savings at the household level would

also be marginal if at all the families have propensity to save. The average

savings as reported by the respondents ranged from Rs. 236/- (in Idukki

district) to Rs.754/- in Palakkad district, while the overall average savings was

Rs.562/- . It is seen from the table that only 45 per cent of the households

have savings. 32 percent of the household save upto Rs.1250/- The rest

constituting about 12 per cent have savings ranging from Rs.1250 to Rs.2500.

District-wise analysis reveals that that there was no savings as

reported by majority of the respondents. They constituted 60 per cent in

Palakkad, 62.5 percent in Idukki, 56.9 per cent in Wayanad and 43.1 per cent

in Alapuzha. Thus, Alapuzha district has shown better results in this respect,

where majority has reported to have savings ranging from Rs. 1250 to Rs.

2500. In Idukki, people reported that the habit of saving has been picking-up

even among the weaker sections of the community. It should, however, be

noted that the extent of savings was less than Rs.1250 in majority of the

households in all the districts.

100

Table 5.28: Impact of NREGS on livestock

Number of Respondents Districts Livestock Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No change 128 (91.4)

156 (97.5)

152 (95.0)

133 (83.1)

569 (91.8)

She buffalo - - 1 (0.6)

- 1 (0.2)

Cow 2 (1.4)

- 7 (4.4)

7 (4.4)

16 (2.6)

Goat 5 (3.6)

2 (1.3)

- 15 (9.4)

22 (3.5)

Poultry 5 (3.6)

2 (1.3)

- 5 (3.1)

12 (1.9)

Total 140 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

620 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

On Livestock: There has been increase in the livestock population after the

implementation period in all the four districts. In Alapuzha District 16.9 per

cent reported an increase in the livestock population especially cow, goat and

poultry. 97.5 percent of the respondents in Idukki reported that there was not

much change in the livestock population. Similar is the case with Wayanad

where 95 per cent reported no change in the livestock. In the case of

Palakkad District about 8.6 per cent expressed that there is an increase in the

livestock particularly the number of cows, goats and poultry birds. Thus, the

NREGS is found to have enabled a few households to buy livestock and

adopt it as the secondary occupation for improving their economic condition. It

is understood from the FGD that livelihood opportunities have increased after

the introduction of the scheme. Some of them bought goat out of their wages.

This scheme is specially benefiting the senior citizens, who didn’t have any

other choice to lead their life.

On Empowerment of women: The scheme has its focus on poor and

marginalized sections of the community. It has sought to do away with

discriminating practices in payment of wages to women. The Act has

categorically offered equal wages to men and women. Further, the Act

emphasized the role of women in the scheme. Field evidences do indicate

that participation of women in the scheme is quite high in states like Kerala

and Tamil Nadu when compared to other states.

101

High participation of women is likely to empower them socially,

economically and politically. 60 percent of the respondents reported that the

women are socially empowered. They work as group in NREGA resulting in

close relationship and connectivity with panchayats and government officials.

They state earning enhances their status in the family. They also participate in

Grama Sabha meetings and meeting of the Social Audit Committee which

earns a status for them in the community. Women are consulted in meetings.

All these give them a sort of social empowerment. 41.4 percent of the

respondents said that the women are economically empowered for obvious

reasons. First, they outnumber the men at the worksite but earning equal

wages. Second, they supplement and complement the income earned by the

male members in the household. Third, the income earned under the scheme

especially for the women headed households offer economic independence.

Fourth, women enjoy freedom in spending the money they earned. Few

respondents reported that the women are politically empowered as they

participate in decision making process under the scheme. (See Table 5.29).

District-wise analysis shows that social empowerment was found to be

high in Alapuzha as reported by majority of the respondents (74%) followed

by Idukki with two-thirds of the respondents reporting. Majority of the

respondents in Wayanad (60%) reported economic empowerment followed by

Idukki with 44 percent.

Table 5.29: Impact of the NREGS on women empowerment

Number of Respondents Districts Women Empowerment

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N+620

No change 58

(41.4) 36

(22.5) 55

(34.3) 26

(16.2) 175

(28.2)

Socially 64

(45.7) 106

(66.2) 86

(53.8) 118

(73.8) 374

(60.3)

Economically 38

(27.1) 70

(43.7) 96

(60.0) 53

(33.1) 257

(41.4)

Politically 1

(0.7) 5

(3.1) 11

(6.9) 2

(1.2) 19

(3.0

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figure in the parenthesis represents the percentage to the Total Respondents

102

Table 5.30: Migration to other areas in search of job before the introduction of the NREGS

Number of Respondents Districts Response Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Not migrated 109

(77.8) 155

(96.9) 155

(96.9) 154

(96.3) 573

(92.4)

Migrated 31

(22.1) 5

(3.1) 5

(3.1) 6

(3.8) 47

(7.6)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Place of Migration

Within in the District 15

(48.4) 3

(60.0) 4

(80.0) 2

(33.3) 24

(51.1)

Within the state 8

(25.7) 1

(20.0) - 2

(33.3) 11

(23.4)

Outside the State 8

(12.9) 1

(20.0) 1

(20.00) 2

(33.3) 12

(25.53)

Total 31

(100) 5

(100) 5

(100) 6

(100) 47

(100)

Duration of the migration

Below 2 months 20

(64.5) 1

(20.0) 1

(20.0) -

22 (46.8)

2 to 4 months 2

(6.5) -

2 (40.0)

2 (33.3)

6 (12.8)

4 to 6 months 6

(19.4) -

1 (20.0)

1 (16.7)

8 (17.0)

6 to 12 months 2

(6.5) 3

(60.0) 1

(20.0) -

6 (12.8)

above 12 months 1

(3.2) 1

(20.0) -

3 (50.0)

5 (10.6)

Total 31

(100) 5

(100) 5

(100) 6

(100) 47

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

On migration: People of Kerala freely migrate to other states seeking

employment opportunities. Both educated and illiterate do so, if necessary.

Those who are qualified to work in organized sectors move to other countries

of the world. Whereas, those who are not lettered or who do not have

necessary qualification for getting a job in the organized sector normally move

to nearby places especially during the lean season. Table 5.30 shows that

only 7.6 percent of the total respondents reported to have migrated in search

of employment. The prevalence of migration was more in Palakkad district

than other districts. In Palakkad about 22 per cent of the respondents

reported migration for employment while, in other districts this remained

around three to four percent. Thus, except Palakkad district the extent of

migration was found to be meager.

103

Among those who have migrated, a vast majority had reported that

they migrated within the district (51.1%) and within the state (23.4%). The rest

who constituted 25.53 per cent reported to have migrated to other states.

Intra-district migration is found to be prevalent more in Wayanad (80%)

followed by Idukki (60%) and Palakkad (48.4%). In the case of Alapuzha, an

equal number of respondents (33.33%) reported prevalence of intra district,

inter district and inter state migration. (See Table 5.31)

In terms of periodicity of migration, around half of the total respondents

who reported to have migrated stated that they migrated for a period of less

than two months; 30 percent of the respondents migrated for a period of 2 to 4

months; the rest for a period ranging from six months to one year (12.8%) and

more than one year (10.6%). It can, therefore, be noted that there is no

uniform pattern among these districts in regard to the periodicity of migration.

Table 5.31: The level and intensity of migration after the introduction of NREGS

Number of Respondents Districts The level and intensity of migration after the introduction of NREGA

Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No change

105 (75.0)

92 (57.5)

132 (82.5)

148 (92.5)

477 (76.9)

Decreased

24 (17.1)

68 (42.5)

26 (16.3)

10 (6.3)

128 (20.6)

Increased

10 (7.1)

- 2

(1.3) 1

(0.6) 13

(2.1)

Men migrated for better wage 1

(0.7) - - 1

(0.6) 2

(0.3)

Total 140 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

160 (100)

620 (100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

The details on the level and intensity of migration after introduction of

NREGS as reported by the respondents are presented in Table 5.31. About

77 percent of the respondents stated that there was no change in the level of

migration, while 20.6 per cent reported decrease in the level and intensity of

migration which the respondents attributed to the implementation of the

scheme. Even through the rate of migration has come down after the

implementation of the scheme, migration of men, especially those below the

104

age of 35 remained unchanged as the young men with reasonable level of

secondary and higher secondary school education feel inferior in working

under these kinds of programmes which involve manual/physical work. Such

migration was due to the educated men seeking better employment avenue

elsewhere. The extent of decrease in the migration was reported more in

Idukki district (42.5%) followed by Palakkad (17.1 %) and Wayanad (16.3 %).

However, in Palakkad district about 10 per cent of the respondents reported

increase in the level of migration even after the NREGS intervention. This

trend in Palakkad district is attributed to the fact that men in these villages of

Palakkad district move to nearby cities of Tamil Nadu for better paid jobs.

Benefits of NREGS

Table 5.32: Benefits of NREGS to HH

Number of Respondents Districts

Benefits Palakkad

N=140 Idduki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N= 620

Guaranteed employment 38

(27.1) 3

(1.9) 7

4.3) 18

(11.2) 66

(10.6)

Paying of children’s education fee

15 (10.7)

25 (15.6)

19 (11.9)

13 (8.1)

72 (11.6)

Hospital expense 10

(7.1) 29

(15.6) 16

(10.0) 22

(13.8) 77

(12.4)

Increase in family status 17

(12.1) 13

(18.1) 16

(10.0 ) 12

(7.5) 58

(9.4)

House maintenance 5

(3.6) 10

(6.2) 7

(4.3) 6

(3.8) 28

(4.5)

Household expenses 39

(27.9) 58

(36.2) 28

(17.5 27

(16.9) 152

(24.5 )

Payment of debts 7

(5.0) 26

(16.2) 18

(11.2) 20

(12.5) 71

(11.4)

Family savings increased 13

(9.2) 5

(3.1) 14

(8.8) 21

(13.1) 53

(8.5)

Women have cash in hand 14

(10.0) 6

(3.8) 2

(1.3) -

22 (3.5)

Purchased assets 2

(1.4) 3

(1.9) 4

(2.5) -

9 (1.4)

Family income increased - 32

(20.0) 58

(36.2) 54

(33.8) 144

(23.2)

Poverty reduced - - 3

(1.9) 16

(10.0) 19

(3.06)

No change 11

(7.9) 4

(2.5) 8

(5.0) 3

(1.9) 26

(4.1)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figure in the parenthesis represents the percentage to the Total Respondents

The NREGS has brought in several benefits to rural households. The

major benefits as listed by the respondents, include: guaranteed employment;

sufficient income for meeting expenses on education, healthcare and

105

household expenses; improved family income leading to improvement in the

status of the family; house maintenance, repayment of debts, purchase of

assets etc. (See Box 5.5).

Except a small percentage of (4.1) respondents, everyone expressed

that the additional income from NREGA helped them in several ways. They

stated that the additional and guaranteed income from NREGA was very

much useful in meeting the household expenses to a great extent. The

increase in the expenses of the households was obviously made possible

through implementation of NREGA.

Box 5.5: NREGA assures stable income: The case of Subadra

Subadra aged 57 is a resident of Vadakarappathy Panchayat of Chittoor block in Palakkad district. Her husband was an agricultural labourer. He could not continue to work as he is ageing. Hence he looks after his small farm of 1 acre. The couple has a son, who is working as a driver and a daughter.

Subadra was also working as an agricultural labourer before the advent of NREGA in her area. She came to know of NREGA when the panchayat initiated some start-up activities to generate awareness among the people about the scheme. She and her daughter-in-law registered themselves under the scheme. They were not aware of the provisions of the scheme. However, in course of time, they came to know more about the scheme because of the efforts taken by the panchayat. They said that they could perceive the opportunities available in the scheme and decided to make use of the scheme to the maximum extent possible.

Both of them worked for 80 days at the rate of 40 days each in 2006-07. In the subsequent two years, they fully made use of the guaranteed days of employment. For the current year they have already worked for 30 days and they were sure of hitting the maximum of 100 days.

Subadra and her daughter-in-law were quite satisfied with the scheme. The major benefits for them from the scheme are: i) secured livelihood opportunity for a period of 100 days; ii) better wages; iii) improved income which enabled them to buy income generating assets like cow and consumer durable asset like TV; and iv) redemption of prior debts.

They said that they did not have any problem in registration, getting employment and wages. They were quite satisfied with the way in which the scheme is implemented in their panchayat.

From the overall responses of the people, it is understood, that it

increased the family income (23.2%) and improved the households expenses

(24.5%). Other benefits as reported by the people are guaranteed

employment (10.6%), money for meeting educational expenses (11.6%),

hospital expenses (12.4%) and improve the capacity to service the old debts

(11.4%). Increase in the family economic status is another important benefit

realized on account of the NREGA intervention. District wise analysis reveals

more or less similar pattern of responses. People expressed that the scheme

helped them in getting 100 days of assured employment and a minimum

106

annual wage of Rs.12,500/- per family. This guarantee was not there earlier

and it relieved them from the problem of searching for wage-labour during the

off-season.

Table 5.33: Benefits of the NREGS for the Panchayat

Districts Benefits

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Road maintained 24

(17.1) 96

(60.0) 114

(71.62) 69

(43.1) 303

(48.8)

Land leveled/ developed

2 (1.4)

3 (1.8)

47 (29.3)

12 (7.5)

64 (7.26)

Elephant trench created 7

(5.0) - 1

(0.58) 5

(3.1) 13

(2.0)

Canal/ Channel Renovated

23 (16.4)

5 (3.1)

31 (19.3)

65 (40.6)

124 (20.0)

Well Renovated 4

(2.8) 3

(1.8) 12

(7.5) 17

(10.6) 36

(5.8)

Pond Renovated 29

(20.2) 1

(0.6) 28

(17.5) 11

(6.8) 69

(11.1)

Pond Created 9

(6.2) -

15 (9.3)

10 (6.2)

34 (5.4)

Check dam Created 19

(13.2) - -

3 (1.8)

22 (3.5)

Trees Planted 1

(0.7) 3

(1.8) 1

(0.6) 9

(5.6) 14

(2.2)

Rain water Harvested 9

(6.2) 7

(4.3) 6

(3.8) 4

(2.5) 26

(4.1)

Retaining Wall Constructed

11 (7.7)

1 (0.6)

3 (1.9)

1 (0.6)

16 (2.5)

Improved water resources

5 (3.5)

3 (1.8)

15 (9.3)

4 (2.5)

27 (4.3)

More people get employed

- 26

(16.2) 8

(9.3) 35

(21.8) 69

(11.1)

Increase in the social participation of backward community

- 10

(6.2) 7

(4.3) 3

(1.8) 20

(3.2)

Senior citizen's are employed in the work

- 9

(5.6) 1

(0.6) - 10

(1.6)

Panchayat funds are saved

- 1

(0.6) 1

(0.6) - 2

(0.3)

Better yield for land owners

- 3

(1.8) 11

(6.9) 13

(8.1) 27

(4.3)

New road created - -

2 (1.2)

3 (1.8)

5 (0.8)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figure in the parenthesis represents the percentage to the Total Respondents

The immediate concern of the scheme is to guarantee employment and

certain level of income. The scheme has also kept in view sustainability of

income by insisting on such works that would have spin off effects. For

instance, works related to water and soil conservation are likely to result in

intensification of agriculture which in turn would lead to improved employment

opportunities in the long run. (See Box 5.6). It would also result in

107

maintenance of community assets in a state of efficiency. The panchayats

and the people therefore, gain from the scheme.

It is clear from the views of the majority of the respondents that the

Panchayats made use of the scheme for maintenance of road and renovation

of pond, rivers, canals and channels. The NREGA helped the Panchayats in

maintaining the public assets which are useful to the society. District-wise

analysis of the benefits accrued to the panchayats shows that benefits

accrued differ from district to district. This is due to different geographic nature

and the preference and priorities of the people in the Panchayat in the

selection of works for implementation under the scheme.

Box 5.6: Regenerating agriculture through NREGA

Vadakarapatty Grama Panchayath in Chittoor block of Palakkad district with a

geographical area of 5480 ha. is a rain-shadow region. The major sources of livelihood for

the households in the panchayat are agriculture and animal husbandry. The households

in this region did not face much problem as they had enough rain and ground water was

available at the depth of 12 feet. This situation slowly deteriorated due to

commercialization of agriculture, declining ground water and failure to network the existing

water bodies. This situation further worsened due to continuous drought in the area from

1986 – 1996. Public had to stand in long queue to get even drinking water supplied

through lorries. The situation improved with the implementation of the watershed

programme in the region.

The real turning point, however, in the opinion of the people is the launching of

NREGA in the panchayat in 2005-06. The scheme with the focus on soil and water

conservation helped in renovating many supply channels and the 12 ponds/tanks, which

were in a bad shape for many years. The impact of the work executed is quite visible.

Ground water level has increased; area under cultivation has gone up; cropping system

has changed; employment in agriculture has slightly improved; people are quite conscious

of importance of soil and water conservation. There is also marked improvement in the

participation of people in Grama Sabha meeting and the people demand schemes and

projects that would enhance their well being.

Box 5.7: A pond in a private land for a common purpose

Krishnasami, residing in Perumatty Panchayat of Chittoor block of Palakkad

district, owns 30 cents of land. Karupathurankkadu, which is situated in a valley. The land

could be converted into a water body. He agreed that the panchayat could make use of

the land for developing a pond. The subject was discussed in the grama sabha meeting

and it was decided to dig a pond.

A group of 44 workers worked for three months and completed the work of

digging a pond with a length of 60 feet and a width of 45 feet. Of the 44 workers, 40 were

women and four were men. The total estimate was Rs. 5 lakhs; but the work was

completed at a cost of 3.23 lakhs. The effect of the work was improved ground water in

the surrounding areas which led to improved agricultural activities.

108

The works taken up by the panchayats under NREGS helped the

Panchayat in several ways either directly or indirectly. The road works carried

out enabled the pancayats creating good connectivity with neighbouring

villages and urban centres. The land and water improvement activities were

very useful to the panchayats in recharging the ground water which leads to

improved irrigation facilities (See Box 5.7). The clearance of drainages helped

easy flow of water and in draining the rainwater and maintaining overall

sanitation in the villages.

Table 5.34: Changes that the Scheme has brought in the Panchayat

Districts Changes

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Soil erosion prevented 25

(17.9) 3

(1.9) 13

(8.1) 6

(3.7) 47

(7.5)

Ground water level increased

29 (20.7)

1 (0.6)

37 (23.1)

7 (4.3)

74 (11.9)

Community assets created 25

(17.8) 2

(1.2) 6

(3.7) 3

(1.9) 36

(5.8)

Check dam constructed 2

(1.4) 2

(1.2) 4

(2.5) 1

(0.6) 9

(1.4)

Good connectivity 22

(15.7) 95

(59.3) 80

(50.0) 73

(45.6) 270

(43.5)

Drainage canal cleaned 7

(5.0) 1

(0.6) 8

(5.0) 32

(20.0) 44

(7.0)

Easy flow of rain water 9

(6.4) 2

(1.2) 2

(1.2) 23

(14.3) 36

(5.8)

People's contact increased with Panchayat

6 (4.2)

2 (1.2)

4 (2.5)

11 (6.9)

23 (3.7)

Unemployment reduced 6

(4.2) 20

(12.5) 6

(3.7) 17

(10.6) 49

(7.9)

Agriculture Improved 16

(11.4) 1

(0.6) 45

(28.1) 33

(20.6) 95

(15.3)

Sanitation maintained 1

(0.7) 13

(8.1) 3

(1.9) 20

(12.5) 37

(5.9)

Social awareness increased

- 4

(2.5) 30

(18.7) 2

(1.2) 36

(5.8)

Women empowered - 4

(2.5) 5

(3.1) 18

(11.2) 27

(4.3)

Poverty reduced - - 10

(6.2) 7

(4.3) 17

(2.7)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figure in the parenthesis represents the percentage to the Total Respondents

Box 5.8: Prevention of men – animal conflict

Sholayur is a Panchayat in Attappady block of Palakkad district. This is a place where 3 rivers – Kodakarapallon, Bhavani and Siruvani meet. The area is elephant frequented region. The elephant cross the rivers and cause damage to the crops cultivated and disturbed human population. The Grama Sabha decided that a trench from Thekkimukkiyoor to Koodapetty would help solve the problem. The total estimate was Rs. 9 lakhs. The work was commenced on 5

th September 2007 and completed on 7

th August

2009. The total person days spent on the work is 2000.

109

This scheme by providing employment helped in reducing the

magnitude of unemployment in these villages. These changes in the

panchayats are not however uniform in the villages of different districts. We

could notice differences in respect of each item among the districts.

Change in Relationship

Sharing of work with other members is supposed to improve the social

relationship among the NREGS employees. 54.7 percent of the respondents

reported that there is appreciable change in the relationship among the

members involved in the NREGS works. The scheme has helped in bringing a

sense of oneness among the community members. It has also created

confidence among the people and willingness in them to take up any work for

the welfare of the Panchayat as a whole. The district wise analysis reveals

that NREGA has resulted improved relationship among the respondents in

Wayanad and Alapuzha as reported by majority of the respondents. The

improved relationship is a sign of emergence of social capital which could be

meaningfully used for developing other forms of capital such as human

capital, physical capital and financial capital.

Table 5.35: Change in the relationship among the Households after the introduction of NREGS

Number of Respondents Districts Response Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

No Change in relationship

77 (55.0)

110 (68.8)

48 (30.0)

46 (28.8)

281 (45.3)

Change in relationship

63 (45.0)

50 (31.3)

112 (70.0)

114 (71.3)

339 (54.7)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Kind of Changes

Cooperation 14

(10.0) 33

(20.6) 73

(45.6) 72

(45.0) 192

(30.9)

Acceptance 11

(7.8) 9

(5.6) 15

(9.3) 16

(10.0) 51

(8.2)

Sharing the Households Expenses

48 (34.2)

- 10

(6.2) 15

(9.3) 89

(14.4)

Confidence in moving with the people

- - 17

(10.6) 17

(10.6) 34

(5.4)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

110

Social Audit

Social Audit is one of the salient features of NREGS. This is meant to

ensure transparency and create a corruption-free atmosphere in the

implementation of the programme. Social audit process along with appropriate

use of Right to Information (RTI) Act is expected to uphold the rights of the

citizenry in rural India. As per the guidelines of the NREGS each Panchayat

needs to have a Social Audit Team, which should carry out the audit in order

to verify if the programme is socially beneficial, corruption-free, and yields the

results it is expected to produce amidst the rural community.

• The social audit teams in all the study districts have been formed

based on the guidelines of the NREGS. It consisted of 12 members,

which included ward members, workers in NREGS, representatives

from SC/ST population, a representative from the neighbouring ward

etc.

• It was found that Social Audit has been conducted in all the four

districts under review viz., Palakkad, Idukki, Alapuzha, and Wayanad.

In Idukki and Alapuzha districts the number of social audit conducted

was found to be less, and upon probing, it was found that the

programme got initiated in these two districts, only a little later than the

other two districts (Palakkad and Wayanad) under study.

• The social audit team has pursued the records, in order to understand

the works undertaken, estimation, spill over details, SC/ST

participation, muster roll and job card related details. The social audit

team interacts with beneficiaries of NREGS in person and crosscheck

the details given in the muster roll such as attendance, wage received

for each work etc. The teams also visited the worksites and monitored

the work that are taken up and evaluated the works that are completed.

They check whether the work done tallies with the works given in

measurement book. The team verifies the vouchers and receipts if

material component is used in the work.

• The team interacts with Panchayat functionaries to understand the

problems faced, draw-backs if any they feel in the programme, and

111

their suggestions for overcoming the hitches with policy guidelines or

practical problems in implementation.

• The team, based on their observation, interaction and perusal of

records, prepares the social audit report. The report is then submitted

to authorities concerned and functionaries of the Panchayat for making

necessary changes, observation and suggestions. The final social

audit report after making necessary changes is presented in the Grama

sabha. The report as approved by the Grama sabha is compiled and

consolidated and submitted to the authorities concerned at the block

and District levels.

• The report is submitted to the Block Office. However, no significant

changes in the way the programme is implemented has been

suggested in the social audit report.

Grievance Redressal

In a massive rural employment generation scheme like NREGS,

grievances from some sections of the population or from workers themselves

are possible. The NREGS guidelines provides for grievance redressal

mechanism and a toll-free number to make complaints, in case the problems

are not solved locally. It was found that in all the four study districts

complaints have been raised. People have had complaints; and workers have

had complaints as well. All these problems have been discussed, sorted out

and settled either at the Panchayat level or through the intervention of the

block level officials. No complaint has taken shape out of proportion to be able

to handle beyond the block level. The toll-free number available for making

complaints about mismanagement of the programme or individual grievances

is not known to many of the respondents present in the FGDs. As a result,

none of them could use the toll-free number meant for grievance redressal.

Transparency and Accountability

The response about transparency and accountability under NREGS in

all the four districts under study is identical and unwavering. They reported

that there is cent per cent transparency and accountability under the scheme

112

because monitoring is done regularly by VMC, Social audit team, Overseer /

AE, and the Panchayat officials.

Difference between NREGS and SGRY

How do people perceive the difference between NREGS and the

earlier SGRY – both aimed at employment generation at local level - but at

different scales and with varying implications and methodologies? This is one

of the vital points that required probing. The responses of the participants of

the FGD has been consolidated and presented here (See Box 5.9).

Relevance of the Scheme to the Panchayat

In Palakkad, Idukki, and Wayanad districts the programme was

reported to be very much beneficial to the Panchayat in general, and for the

rural community who are dependent on wage employment in particular.

However, it was reported from some regions of Alapuzha district (such as

Box 5.9: NREGA vs SGRY

NREGA SGRY

This is an Act with a legal guarantee for employment, being given operational face through a scheme called NREGS.

This is one of the schemes like any other scheme of the government.

One gets 100 days of guaranteed employment in a year.

There is no legal guarantee about providing employment.

It is possible everyone of the population, if they are willing can get benefited.

The allocation might be sufficient to meet about 40% of the people, even if more people wanted.

Imperative it should be labour intensive Emphasis is given to labour intensive work.

No involvement of contractors Housing works under SGRY mostly given to contractors.

Gram Sabha and Panchayat decide which works should be undertaken, and which one should be given priority.

The officials decide based on instructions and funds they received.

The Panchayat can decide to create sustainable community assets.

Works taken as piece meal.

People directly involved in planning as Gram Sabha is involved.

Plan comes from the top.

40% material cost; 60% labour cost There is no specification about labour component.

Registration, ID, muster roll for making corruption-free administration.

No muster roll.

Bank transfer of wages considerably reduces leakage of the funds reaching the poor workers.

Payment made by cash, which gives room for misuse while distribution.

Women’s participation high Men’s participation high.

Social Audit Official Audit

113

Kuttanad area) where the geographical condition was not conducive to take

works under NREGS. They demand revision in the guidelines of NREGS in

such a way that such regions, and people in such regions also benefit.

Convergence of the Scheme

In all the four districts under study, it was reported that convergence

with schemes / works of other departments take place. No district reported of

impossibility or difficulty in convergence. For example, (i) in Wayanad and

Palakkad districts convergences have taken place with departmental activities

of Irrigation, Agriculture, PWD (Highway), and Fisheries; (ii) in Alapuzha

convergence has taken place with Forestry Department; (iii) in Idukki district

convergences are reported of departments of Agriculture and Forestry.

Roles of various functionaries associated with NREGS

The successful implementation of the NREGS to great extent, depends

on active role of various agencies associated with the scheme. We could

identify the indispensable role of Grama Sabha, elected representatives

Kudumbashree and officials in-charge of implementing NREGS. We would

briefly state the role of each of the functionaries.

i) Grama Sabha: Grama Sabha is an important stakeholder of the project. It

recommends the works to be taken up under the project. It conducts social

audit on the implementation of the scheme. In addition, Grama Sabha is used

extensively as a forum for sharing information about the scheme. Hence, it is

essential on the part of the functionaries of the panchayat to ensure the

participation of the rural households in all the Grama Sabha meetings. The

focus group discussion with the various stakeholders revealed that

participation in Grama Sabha meeting has increased with the introduction of

NREGS in the state.

Survey findings reveal that around 93 per cent of the respondents

reported to have participated in the Gram Sabha meeting convened specially

to discuss the matters related to NREGS. District-wise analysis shows that the

participation of members is quite high in Alapuzha with 98.1 percent of the

respondents reported to have participated; followed by Wayanad with 96.3 per

cent; Palakkad with 92.9 per cent; and Idukki (86.3%). (See Table 5.36)

114

Table 5.36: Participation in Grama Sabha Meeting

Number of Respondents Districts Response Palakkad Idukki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Participated 130

(92.9) 138

(86.3) 154

(96.3) 157

(98.1) 579

(93.4)

Not Participated 10

(7.1) 22

(13.8) 6

(3.8) 3

(1.9) 41

(6.6)

Total 140

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 160

(100) 620

(100)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

Mere attendance in such meeting does not result in better outcome.

Participation needs to be active leading to better awareness on various issues

discussed in such meeting. Of the 579 members who participated in the

Grama Sabha meeting, 94 per cent of them were aware of the discussions on

various matters related to the operation of NREGA in their Panchayats.

The members who participated in the Gram Sabha meeting were found

to have discussed various aspects/issues related to NREGS. Prominent

among these aspects / issues include: Selection of worksite (44.5%), increase

in wages (23.7%), on-going work (19.7%), work timing (13.4%), work demand

(10.5%), facilities at the worksite (9.5%) and delay in payment (6.9%), (See

Table 5.37). District wise analysis shows that the respondents are found to

have discussed the rules and regulations of the scheme (Azhapuzha and

Wayanad). It can be seen from the table that the Grama Sabha has served as

a forum to discuss various issues related to the implementation of NREGA

scheme.

ii) Elected Representatives: One big way in which elected representatives

involve themselves is monitoring the execution of the work. This scheme has

made many ward members active because works are taken up in wards as

well. People who questioned the Panchayat Presidents have now started

questioning the ward members also, if a ward member was not active enough

to suggest works in their respective wards under the scheme.

115

Table 5.37: Matters Discussed on NREGS in Grama Sabha

Districts Matters discussed

Palakkad N= 140

Idukki N=160

Wayanad N=160

Alapuzha N=160

Total N=620

Selection of worksite 67

(47.9) 55

(34.4) 66

(41.7) 88

(55.0) 76

(44.5)

Wage increment 15

(10.7) 70

(43.8) 38

(23.8) 24

(15.0) 147

(23.7)

Ongoing Work 37

( 26.4) 31

(19.4) 27

(16.9) 27

(16.9) 122

(19.7)

Work timing - 16

(10.0 ) 33

(20.6) 34

(21.3) 83

(13.4)

Issue of Job Card 3

(2.1) 1

(0.6) 2

(1.3) 2

(1.3) 8

(1.3)

Delay in Payment 21

(15.0) 7

(4.4) 8

( 5.0) 7

(4.4) 43

(6.9)

Medical assistance - 1

(0.6) -

1 (0.6)

2 (0.3)

Worksite measurement 6

(4.3) 6

(3.8) 1

(6.9) -

23 (3.7)

Work demand 10

( 7.1 ) 11

(6.9) 26

(16.3) 18

(11.3) 65

(10.5)

Muster roll maintenance 1

(0.7) 2

(1.3) -

1 (0.6)

4 (0.6)

Problems of working with ADS/CDS/MATE

3 ( 2.1)

- 13

(8.1) 4

(2.6) 20

(3.2)

Worksite Facilities 12

( 8.6) 19

(11.9) 24

(15.0) 4

(2.5) 59

(9.5)

Increase of Employment days in NREGS

10 (7.1)

6 (3.8)

11 (6.9)

4 (2.5)

31 (5.0)

Monitoring of work 2

( 1.4) 4

(2.5) 2

(1.3) 3

(1.3) 11

(1.6)

Purchase of new tools - 2

(1.3 ) 1

(0.6) -

3 (0.5)

Rules and regulations - 1

(0.6) 8

(5.0) 28

(17.5) 37

(6.0)

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent percentage to Number of Respondents

iii) Kudumbashree: Kudumbashree members are involved right from the

stage of registration of community members under NREGS for providing job

cards. They facilitate proper implementation of the scheme standing by the

Village Panchayats. They in fact, serve as a bridge between workers and the

Panchayat functionaries.

iv) NREGS Functionaries: NREGA Staff offer technical and non-technical

assistance, monitoring the worksite, assessment of the work, payment

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facilitation, documentation, supervising the activities undertaken, guiding the

Panchayats wherever needed. All of them act as facilitators in the whole

process for the Panchayats to be able to implement the scheme successfully.

Performance of NREGS as perceived by the Rural Households

We have so far discussed the functioning of the scheme in selected

districts of Kerala with reference to start-up activities, registration, issue of job-

cards, provision of employment and the utilization of the scheme by the rural

households. We have also made an attempt to ascertain the effects of the

scheme on the income, expenditure, savings and migration of the rural

households, benefits accrued to the individual households and to the

panchayat. The functioning of the scheme and the outcome from the scheme

largely depends on the way in which various activities designed under the

scheme are implemented. The beneficiaries are the best judges in judging the

execution of various activities. Hence, we have attempted here to assess the

performance of NREGS as perceived by the beneficiaries with reference to

select variables. They are:

o Process of registration

o Issue of job cards

o Selection of works

o Relevance and usefulness of the work to the village people

o Execution of the work

o Quality of the work executed

o Supervision at the worksite

o Support of government officials

o Facilities at the worksite

o Mode of distribution of wages

o Transparency

o Grievance redressal

o Participation of people

o Benefits occurred to the panchayat

o Benefits to the household

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Each of these variables was rated by the respondents on a five-point

scale ranging from very good to very poor. To quantify the rating, numerical

score is assigned to each of the items in the rating scale as given below:

Rating Score

Very good 5

Good 4

Satisfactory 3

Poor 2

Very poor 1

Based on the responses obtained from the respondents for each

variable under consideration, the average score in respect of each item

district-wise is arrived at and the results are presented in the Table 5.38.

The table indicates that the process of registration was done with

utmost care by the village Panchayat in almost all the four districts. The

aggregate average score is 4.34. Among the four districts the registration

process was carried out in a much better manner in Idukki (4.51) and

Wayanad (4.36) than other two districts. Focused Group Discussions with all

the stakeholders in the Grama Panchayats in all the districts revealed the best

practices adopted in this regard.

o Special Grama sabha meeting for NREGS was convened in each

panchayat and the participation of the people were ensured in all

the districts.

o Training sessions were arranged to make the Kudumbashree

members aware of the essential features of the scheme and they

were motivated to register under the scheme.

o Photographs were taken free of cost. For those residing closer to

the Panchayat office, it was arranged at the Panchayat office and

for those who live far away photographic sessions were arranged in

the respective hamlets.

o Ward level meetings were arranged in each ward under the

leadership of respective ward members.

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o Efforts were also taken to conduct special meetings in SC/ST

colonies to ensure their active participation in the whole

programme.

Table 5.38: Performance of NREGS as perceived by the beneficiaries (District wise Scoring)

Performance Scores Districts

Variables Palakkad Idduki Wayanad Alapuzha Total

Process of registration 4.25 4.51 4.36 4.23 4.34

The issuance of job cards 4.18 4.27 4.35 4.17 4.24

The Selection of Works 3.88 4.46 4.03 3.75 4.03

Relevance and usefulness of the work to the village/people

4.06 4.31 3.93 3.95 4.06

The Execution of Works 3.86 4.21 4.01 3.74 3.96

Quality of the work executed 3.79 4.16 3.96 3.91 3.96

Supervision at the worksite 4.14 4.44 3.93 4.24 4.19

Support of govt. officials 3.81 4.26 4.25 4.29 4.16

Facilities at the worksite 3.44 3.19 3.63 3.81 3.52

Mode of the distribution of wages

3.33 3.91 3.79 3.79 3.72

Transparency 3.78 3.82 3.96 3.59 3.79

Grievance redressal 3.63 3.82 3.75 3.48 3.67

Participation of people 3.99 4.51 4.19 4.34 4.26

Benefits accrued to the Panchayat

3.88 4.43 4.29 4.33 4.24

Benefits to the household 3.72 4.69 4.26 4.43 4.29

Source: NREGA in Kerala - HH Survey

Figures in the parenthesis represent column percentage

With regard to the issue of job-cards, the respondents rated the

performance as very good in all the four districts. The average rating score

ranged between 4.17 and 4.35. This shows that the registration and issue of

job-cards were done to the satisfaction of the primary stakeholders of the

programme.

The selection of works under the scheme by various panchayats has

been rated as very good – the average score being 4.03. District-wise

analysis shows that the respondents in Idukki were found to have rated highly

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the selection of work, compared to other districts. Focused Group Discussions

with the stakeholders in all Grama Panchayats revealed that works to be

taken up were decided by the people in the Grama sabha meeting. Every item

of work was decided based on the consensus arrived at in the meeting.

Regarding relevance and usefulness of the works to the people and to

the village, the respondents rated it as very good. District-wise analysis shows

that respondents in Idukki District are found to have given high rating for this

variable when compared to other districts. It means functionaries in-charge of

NREGS selected only those works which are relevant and useful to the

people.

The execution of work and the quality of work executed has been rated

as ‘good’ in general - the score being 3.96. District-wise analysis indicates

that respondents in Idukki have given a higher score and rating as very good.

The FGDs across the panchayats support these findings. The workers are

quite conscious of the fact that they need to work hard to earn minimum

wages assured under the Act. Hence, they sincerely worked which inturn

resulted in creation of productive assets. The quality of such assets created

has been rated only as ‘good’ which means there is room for improvement.

Supervision at the worksite was, by and large, rated as ‘very good’ by

the respondents in all districts expect the Wayanad district where it was rated

as ‘good’. The FGDs revealed that the scheme has evolved a good system

of supervision at the worksite. The salient features of the system are stated:

o The advisory committee is responsible for: i) screening the

proposals and giving necessary suggestions regarding the work; ii)

purchasing of necessary materials to carry out the work; iii) solving

the problems if any, in the work site; iv) monitoring the ongoing

works; v) redressing the grievances of the workers; and vi) guiding

them to work appropriately.

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o There has been constant monitoring and support from the block

level functionaries. District level functionaries have also visited the

worksites. District, state and central level functionaries have made

visits to the worksites in panchayats in all the four districts.

o Vigilance and Monitoring committee acts as an effective mechanism

to keep track of the works under NREGS. Vigilance and Monitoring

committee - consisting of a ward member, farmers, women

representatives, social worker, representatives of SC/ST and a

retired teacher - play an effective role in supervising the work.

Regarding the facilities at the worksite, the respondents from all the

four districts rated as ‘good’. However, the degree varied, in Idukki and

Palakkad, a sizeable percentage of the people stated that they are satisfied

but still there is scope for improvement in this regard. People in two other

districts felt that it is good but it can be improved keeping the welfare of the

people engaged in NREGS work. The focus group discussion revealed that

shed for dressing, drinking water, toilets, first aid box with necessary

medicines and tools are available at the worksites in all the four districts. In

Alapuzha rain caps and gloves were provided. In some worksites, tea was

served.

Regarding distribution of wages, respondents rated it as ‘good’ in

almost all the districts - the average score being 3.72. It is understood from

the FGD that wages were paid only through bank accounts. In some places

the ADS members who are appointed as mates help the workers in accessing

the money. Incidence of delay in getting wages was reported. The reason as

attributed was delay in processing muster rolls.

Support and guidance of the government officials, especially from BDO

and DPAU is quite essential for the smooth implementation of the scheme.

The respondents rated the support from officials as very good – the average

score being 4.16. District-wise analysis indicates more or less similar ratings

except Palakkad.

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Transparency is another important factor which brings quality to the

implementation of activities by avoiding misutilization and misappropriation of

funds under the scheme. Respondents have given a score of 3.76 for

transparency-rating is good. The responses at the FGD about transparency

and accountability under NREGS in all the four districts under study were

identical and unwavering. They reported that there have been cent percent

transparency and accountability under the scheme.

Grievance redressal is yet another aspect which assures smooth

implementation of the scheme. Grievances arise in respect of timing, the

quantum of work done, work turn out of the other members of the group and

payment of wages. Timely redressal is important to keep the programme

going as envisioned. It was found that in all the four study districts complaints

have been registered. All the grievances have been addressed, sorted out

and settled either at the Panchayat level or through the intervention of the

block level officials. No complaint has taken the shape that could not be

handled locally. The performance of the scheme with reference to grievance

redressal has been rated as ‘good’ – average score being 3.67. District-wise

analysis indicates more or less the similar rating.

With regard to benefits accrued to the Panchayats and to the people,

the respondents rated the performance of the NREGA as “very good” except

in Palakkad indicating multiple benefits accrued to the individual and to the

panchayats.

Conclusion

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is being

implemented in all the 14 districts of Kerala. The scheme has been slowly

and surely taking deeper roots in Kerala with the active participation of a

strong local government having time tested experience in local level planning

and development. The start-up activities initiated at different levels have

helped in launching the scheme smoothly. The level of awareness among the

households about the scheme, its components and its salient features is quite

high, which can be mainly attributed to the efforts taken by functionaries at

different levels to take the scheme to every nook and corner of rural areas.

Though there was some initial inertia in registration, the process of

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registration picked up later, due to special efforts made by the panchayats

and Kudumbasree. All the households registered under the scheme received

the job cards free of cost. There has been delay in issuing job cards due to

lack of staff and internet facilities and non-production of ration cards by the

workers.

The works under the scheme have been selected in special Gram

Sabha meetings convened at the ward level. Works selected are prioritized

based on the felt needs of the public. The functionaries of the Panchayat and

ADS/CDS create an enabling environment for the workers to demand work.

Around 95 per cent of the respondents sought the work. Of them around

three-fifths received dated receipt. Majority of the respondents were able to

get the employment within the stipulated period of 15 days. The average

number of days employed has registered an increasing trend in all the districts

though there are variations among the districts. SC/ST households have

been able to make use of the scheme better. They have high average number

of days employed when compared to others. 14 per cent of the total

households were employed for 100 days. Wayanad leads with 30 per cent of

the households employed for 100 days.

Majority of the respondents were found to have involved in road works

followed by flood control and protection, irrigation canals, land development

and renovation of traditional water bodies. A vast majority of the workers

were able to get work within a radius of 3 km from their residence. Working

hours vary across the districts. The NREGS functionaries have tried their level

best to provide the facilities at the worksite as per the provisions of the Act.

However, majority of the workers felt the facilities were inadequate.

Men and women were able to get the minimum wage prescribed by the

state government. Wages are distributed thro’ banks/post offices. Majority of

the respondents were able to get wages within a period of 15 days. There are

incidents of delay beyond one month. Women earned better wages under

NREGS when compared to wage rates prevailed locally. Wages earned by

men under NREGA are much lower when compared to prevailing wages. The

scheme has discernible impact on the income, expenditure, savings and

migration of the rural households. It has empowered the women in social,

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economic and political fronts. The scheme has also yielded many benefits to

the individual households and panchayats. The functionaries have ensured

that essential components of the scheme such as social audit, grievance

redressal, transparency and accountability are grounded and practiced. The

performance of the scheme as perceived by the rural households in selected

district is found to be ‘very good’, indicating the good work done by

functionaries of the scheme at different levels.

* * * * *

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Chapter - 6

Summary of Findings and Inferences

Introduction

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, the first ever

scheme that guarantee wage employment at an unprecedented scale was

introduced through an Act known as “National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act” notified on September 07, 2005. Implemented in a phased manner, the

programme was launched in 200 districts in February 2006, 130 more districts

in 2007-08 and in 285 districts in April 2008. The budget outlay for the

scheme was Rs.30,000/- crores in 2008-09. Inspite of certain problems and

shortcomings in the implementations of the scheme, the scheme has yielded

discernible benefits to the rural households, which include guaranteed

employment, assured income, equal wages to women, ensuring minimum

wages prescribed, and security of access to livelihood opportunities.

Purpose and objectives of the study

The scheme was introduced in two districts of Kerala in 2006. It was

subsequently launched in the remaining 12 districts. Almost four years have

elapsed since the inception of the scheme. How does the scheme performed

with reference to activities envisaged under the scheme? What are the output

and outcome of the scheme? What are the changes that the scheme has

brought in the lives of the people? What are the problems in implementing the

scheme? These are some of the pertinent questions and prominent issues

which the study attempts to address.

The primary objective of the study is to analyse the functioning of

NREGS encompassing all its essential aspects. The specific objectives are to:

i) analyse the extent to which the scheme has guaranteed employment and

livelihood to different sections of rural households; ii) assess the quality of

assets created and their likely impact on agrarian economy; iii) ascertain the

impact of the scheme on the socio-economic conditions of the people; iv)

asses the limitations and constraint faced by the functionaries in implementing

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the scheme; and v) identify the problems faced by the various participants in

the scheme.

Methods

The study employed a mix of methods to address the objectives laid

down. A comprehensive household survey using pre-tested interview

schedule was conducted among the rural households. Qualitative methods

such as focus group discussion, case study and interview with key informants

were used to supplement and complement the data and information collected

through survey.

Sampling

Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select the sample for the

study. Four districts viz., Palakkad, Wayanad, Idukki and Alapuzha were

chosen based on extensive discussion with the officials at the State level. The

criteria followed to select the districts were: i) geographical location; ii) period

of implementation; and iii) performance of the district. Two blocks were

chosen from each panchayat. The criteria adopted were: i) performance of the

block; ii) concentration of SC/ST households; and iii) concentration of

agricultural labourers. From each block, four panchayats were selected,

(except one where there are only three panchayats). From each panchayat,

20 respondents (beneficiaries) were chosen at random. The sample for the

study includes four districts, eight blocks, 31 panchayats and 620

beneficiaries.

Profile of Kerala State and selected districts

Kerala is a small State constituting 1.18 percent of total landmass of

the country. The State has three distinct regions viz., eastern high lands,

central midlands and western coastal lands. The average annual rainfall is

3107 mm. Kerala is endowed with rich natural resources and is known as

‘Gods own country’. The State has 14 districts, 63 taluks and 999 panchayats.

The State has a population of 3.18 crores - the density of population being

819 people per sq.km. Around three-fourths of the population live in rural

areas. Tribals constitute 1.84 percent of the total population. Their

concentration could be found in Wayanad, Palakkad and Idukki. The

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proportion of people in working age group is 63.4 percent. The state has the

highest literacy rate, the lowest IMR and MMR and the highest life expectancy

in the country. The poverty ratio is low with 15 percent. A good proportion of

its population is confined to agriculture and agro-based industries. More than

half of the labour force of the age group of 15-29 is unemployed.

Palakkad is one of the largest districts in Kerala. It has 5 Taluks, 90

panchayats with 144 villages. Population density of the district is 584 persons

per sq. km. It has a sex ratio of 1066. Literacy level is quite high with 84.35

percent. It is one of the main rice producing regions in Kerala. It has fairly well

developed industrial sector with 1975 factories. The worker participation rate

is 36.11 percent. The per capita income is Rs.18,031/-. BPL household

constitutes 52.13 percent of the households in the District.

Wayanad, known as ‘Green Paradise’, has a rich forest cover. It has

three taluks, 25 panchayats with 48 villages. The density of population is 369

persons per sq. km., which is much lower than the State average. Wayanad

has the highest concentration of tribals, constituting 17.1 percent of the total

population of the district. The worker participation rate is 39.53 percent. The

per capita income is Rs.34,123/-. The BPL households account for 49.87

percent of the total households.

Idukki, marked by undulating hills and valleys, is the second largest

district of Kerala. The district has four taluks, 51 panchayats with 64 villages.

It has the least population density of 259 persons per sq. km. among the 14

districts of Kerala. It has a high concentration of ST households. Many of the

ST population are working as agricultural labour in tea and cardamom

estates. Worker participation rate is 39.71 percent. Poverty ratio is 15 percent.

The recent agriculture crisis has resulted in increased risk of more households

falling into poverty.

Alapuzha, district lies in the eastern coastal plains of the State. The

district has 6 taluks having 75 panchayats with 91 villages. The density of

population is the highest in the state with 1489 persons per sq. km. The SC

population constitutes 9.45 percent of the total population. The district is

densely covered with waterways. The economy of the district primarily

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depends on agriculture and fisheries. More than 20 percent of the total area is

water logged. It is a backward district with low per capita income. The worker

participation rate is 34.30 percent.

Socio-economic profile of the respondents

The sample households numbering 620 has a total population of 2592

with an average size of family of 4.18. The female population constitutes

50.42 per cent indicating slightly high sex ratio. Two-third of population among

the sample population is in the productive age group of 19-60 years. 4.5 per

cent of the population is disabled.

Around 30 per cent of the sample households belong to SC/ST; SC

alone accounts for 12 per cent; and the rest are from other communities.

The literacy rate is around 92 per cent. The sample households in

Alapuzha have the highest literacy with 99 per cent followed by Wayanad with

94 per cent.

Around 90 percent of the sample households have own houses.

Majority of them (79%) live in asbestos / tin / tiled roof houses. Around 10 per

cent live in IAY houses. Around four-fifth of the houses are electrified. 83 per

cent have access to safe drinking water and have toilet facilities.

The working population constitutes 64 per cent of the total population.

The main source of livelihood is agriculture labour (31.2%) followed by

NREGS (16.5%) and farming (11.4%). NREGS as the main source of

livelihood is quite high (29%) in Wayanad when compared to other districts.

NREGS has emerged as the major subsidiary occupation for two-thirds of the

working population.

Around two-fifth of the households possess some kind of livestock. The

human-animal population ratio is very low (1:01) and it is reported to be

improving after the introduction of NREGS.

Around 20 per cent of the households do not own any household

assets. 50 pre cent own cellphone and television; one-third of the sample

households have LPG connection.

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Around one-third of the sample households have an annual income of

less than Rs.24,000/-, indicating prevalence of poverty. The incidence of

poverty in terms of income was high in Alapuzha followed by Palakkad, Idukki

and Wayanad. The expenditure pattern reveals that a large amount was spent

on food followed by education, clothing, medical expenses and servicing of

debts.

The main sources of borrowing for the sample households are SHGs

and formal institutional sources such as cooperatives and commercial banks.

Money lenders are found to be marginalized. Households have borrowed for

investment and consumption purposes at a normal rate of interest.

The incidence of migration could be observed in all the districts; but it

was comparatively high in Palakkad. The main reasons are lack of

employment during the off-season, education of children; and better wages.

To sum up, the sample households hail from poor to moderate socio-

economic background

Performance of NREGS

With more than a decade long experience in local planning and

development, the state of Kerala has been in a unique position of taking the

full responsibility of the implementation of NREGS. The government has

consciously made use of the Scheme not only to provide secured livelihood

opportunities to the rural poor but also to strengthen the resource

regeneration in forest areas, river basins and watershed areas as the state

has very little public lands.

Implemented in three phases, the scheme is now in operation in all the

fourteen districts. Number of households registered under the scheme

recorded seven-fold increase over a period of four years. The percentage of

households employed has shot up from 11.3 lakh to 43 lakh – roughly around

four fold increase. Person-days employed witnessed a fifteen fold increase

from 11.30 lakh in 2006-07 to 155.87 lakh in 2008-09. Of the total persons-

days, 80 percent was constituted by women person-days, indicating high

participation of women in the scheme. The scheme has been picking up

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slowly, steadily and surely in the State of Kerala though there were some

initial apprehensions about the feasibility of the scheme.

Start-up activities and awareness about the scheme

The government initiated several start-up activities to spread the salient

features of the Act and the Scheme among the public. The core activities are:

i) training the various functionaries of the scheme at different levels,

ii) organizing meeting among the stakeholders in different settings to ensure

that the “last are put first” under the scheme, iii) organizing exclusive Gram

Sabha meeting on NREGS, iv) involving various types of community based

organizations and formal institutions like co-operatives, v) employing a wide

spectrum of audio-visual methods and techniques to popularize and

propagate the essential elements of the scheme.

Panchayats, SHGs, friends and relatives and neighbours are found to

be the key sources of awareness – ofcourse the government playing the role

of a facilitator behind the curtain. Other main sources of awareness include

print and electronic media. A very high level of awareness could be noticed

among the sample households about the essential features of the Act and the

Scheme such as: 100 days of guaranteed employment, equal wages for men

and women, minimum wage rate, payment within a fortnight, role of Gram

Sabha, worksite facilities and medical assistances at the worksite and so on.

Registration and issue of job cards

Every household should get registered with the panchayat to get

employment under the scheme. Measures taken to get the people registered

are: i) distribution of applications for registration at the doorsteps of

beneficiaries; ii) constitution of special team to quicken the process of

registration among the tribals; and iii) convening ward level meeting and

special meeting in SC/ST colonies.

The respondents were found to have registered under the scheme in

different spells. There were certain initial hurdles in registration. They are: i)

the nature and type of work undertaken under the scheme was a restricting

factor for some; ii) lack of awareness in some villages; and iii) better off

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households who would sustain without the employment assured under this

scheme did not come forward.

All the households registered under the scheme were issued job cards

free of cost. Around 50 per cent of the sample respondents were able to get

the job card within a period of 15 days. It took more than 15 days in the case

of remaining respondents indicating the delay in issuing of job cards. The

main reasons for the delay are: i) failure on the part of the households to

provide the required documents; ii) lack of adequate staff and internet facilities

with the panchayats; and iii) scattered location of houses resulting in poor

communication in certain parts of the districts.

Job cards are computerized. The process of issuing job cards has

been made easy. No fee is found to have been charged for job cards. The job

cards are with the workers. They are insisted to bring the job cards to the

worksite

Identification of Works

The works to be taken-up under the scheme in each panchayat have

been discussed and decided in Gram Sabha meetings. Ward-wise meeting

convened by the panchayat has greatly helped in incorporating the ‘voice’ of

the people in selecting the works. Area Development Society was found to

have played an important role in facilitating the people and panchayats in the

selection of works. The works identified are prioritized by the panchayat.

Priority differs from district to district as each district is found to distinctively

differ in geographic conditions.

The panchayats do come across certain problems in identifying the

works. Prominent among them include: i) boundary dispute in the selected

worksites; ii) suggestion of works by the people, which do not fall under the

purview of the Act; and iii) inability of the panchayats to strictly adhere to the

guidelines as the works could not be identified as per the provisions of the

Act.

Demand for employment

All the households registered under the scheme did not participate.

There are inter-district variations. For instance, in Idukki, 50 per cent of the

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registered households participated while in Palakkad 55 per cent of the

registered workers participated in NREGS. However, of the 620 sample

respondents of the study, 95 per cent reported they got employment under the

scheme. Whenever registered households demanded employment, they

should be given a dated receipt. 57 per cent of the sample respondents got

the dated receipt. District-wise analysis shows that majority of the

respondents got dated receipts in Alapuzha, while in Idukki, less than 25

percent of the respondents got it.

Each job seeker should be given job within 15 days from the date of

receipt of application. Majority of respondents (71.2%) got job within the

prescribed period. Wayand leads among the districts with average time lag of

12 days followed by Idukki with 21 days. One-third of the respondents

reported to have experienced delay. Of them four per cent got unemployment

allowances.

Execution of Work

The work under the scheme have been executed through a well

defined process which include; i) identification of work, ii) preparation of

people’s estimates by engineers, iii) project initiation meeting, iv) citizen

information board, v) provision of implements, vi) arrangement of worksite

facilities, vii) maintenance of muster rolls, viii) maintenance of worksite diary

by mate, ix) implementation of work, and x) documenting the work executed.

The various steps in the process have been meticulously followed in all the

selected panchayats.

Average number of days employed

The average number of days employed per households has increased

from 23.6 days in 2006-07 to 61.5 days in 2008-09 in Wayanad. In Palakkad

the average number of days employed per household has increased from

12.8 days to 53.2 days during the same period. Both these districts, where the

scheme was introduced first, performed relatively well. The progress has been

slow in Alapuzha and Idukki.

The SC/ST households were found to have made use of the scheme,

better when compared to other communities. The average number of days

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employed per SC/ST households was higher than the other communities in

Wayanad, Idukki and Alapuzha.

The number of households employed for 100 days in a year has

registered an upward trend. Wayand leads with 30 per cent of the households

employed for 100 days, followed by Palakkad with 20 per cent in 2008-09.

The other two districts are late starters. Their progress is slow in this regard.

Participation in various items of work

The major items of work in which the respondents found to have

participated include, road connectivity (56.4%), flood control and protection

work (35.5%), irrigation canals (26.6%), renovation of traditional water bodies

(22.6%) and water conservation and water harvesting (19.4%). However, inter

district variations are observed in this regard. In Idukki and Wayand, majority

of the respondents are found to have participated in the works related to road

connectivity. In Alapuzha majority have participated in flood control and

protection work and cleaning of irrigation canals. In Palakkad, the participation

was found to be high in renovation of traditional water bodies.

The distance between the place of resident and worksite as reported

by majority of the respondents was less than 1 km. It hardly exceeds the

permissible limit of 5 km. A vast majority of the respondents (95%) have been

able to reach the worksite by walk. Very few used other modes of transport.

The work as reported by a vast majority of respondents commences at

8 am and closes at 5.00 pm with a short lunch break. The timing is not

suitable to households in Alapuzha. They are accustomed to starting and

closing the work early (6.30 am to 1.30 pm) due to hot weather during the

afternoon.

The basic facilities as stipulated in Act are made available in the

worksite. However workers are not satisfied with the facilities. In certain

districts viz., Idukki, Alapuzha and Palakkad, the facilities required by the

workers at the worksite include, shade for dressing and resting, first-aid box,

supply of tools, toilet facilities and drinking water. Around one-third of them

suggested tea and snacks can be provided at the worksite free of cost.

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Majority of the respondents (75%) did not face any problem at the

worksite. The rest did face some problems which include: i) tools are not

good, ii) snakebite at the worksite and iii) difficulty in continuously working in

water bodies. Women have come across certain specific problems. They are:

i) They are not able to strictly follow time schedule; ii) a few are not

accustomed to physical work; iii) tools are too heavy to carry; and iv) toilet

facilities are not made available in certain worksites.

Payment of wages

Muster rolls are maintained by the mates at the worksite. The mates,

who are drawn from Kudumbasree are well trained in all the essential aspects

of NREGA. Wages are paid after measuring the work. Overseer/engineer

assisted by mates measure the quality of work. They visit the worksite and

measure the work usually after completion of the muster rolls. The wages are

distributed through banks/post offices.

The NREGA workers are to be paid minimum wage prescribed under

the Act. 98.4 per cent of the respondents were aware of the minimum wage

fixed by the state government. District-wise analysis indicates that all the

respondents in Wayand and Alapuzha are aware of the minimum wage. The

respondents are also aware of the mode of fixation of wage under the

scheme. High level of awareness can be attributed to meticulous planning and

execution of start-up activities, training, involvement of Kudumbashree and

high level of literacy rate.

99.4 per cent of the respondents reported that they received wage rate

of Rs.125/-per day which shows that all of them were assured of minimum

wages prescribed by the state. All the respondents received wages in ‘full’. No

incidence of under payment and non-payment was reported.

Wages are to be paid within a period of 15 days from the date of

completion of work. Little less than two-third of the respondents have received

wages within 15 days. The rest got wages only after 15 days. Wayand has the

lowest time lag of 12.57 days, between date of completion of work and receipt

of wage, followed by Alppuzha with 20.86 days. The reasons for the delayed

payment as reported in the focus group discussion are: i) lack of staff; ii) delay

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in providing muster rolls; iii) delay in measurement and iv) lack of monitoring

by panchayat.

Wages earned by men under NREGA was much lower when compared

to wages earned elsewhere. The average wage difference was Rs.74/-. In

certain districts like Alapuzha wages in the market for men is double the

wages under NREGA. However, for women the wages under NREGA was

better. The average difference was as high as Rs.38 in Palakkad.

Impact of NREGA

There has been substantial change in the household income after the

introduction of NREGA. The change in the average income was found to be

much higher in Idukki with Rs.2601/- followed by Alapuzha with Rs.2093/-.

NREGA has impacted on the expenditure of households. Majority of

the respondents reported that their family expenses increased in proportion to

the increase in family income. Increase in family expenditure was high in

Idukki (Rs.2369/-). The average increase in family expenditure for all the

districts put together is Rs.1172/-.

The wages earned under NREGA was spent on a variety of purposes

such as household activities, education, buying of assets, purchase of food

grain, hospital expenses, payment of old debts and so on. Majority of the

respondents (47.9%) reported that they spent the NREGA wages for

household activities, education (33.5%), purchase of food grains (30.3%) and

medical expenses (22.6%).

The scheme has impact on savings too. Around 45 per cent of the

households have savings of less than Rs.1250/-. The average savings per

household was Rs.563/-.

There has been increase in the livestock population after the

implementation the scheme. The increase is marginal as reported by the

respondents.

The scheme has empowered the women in social and economic

domains. Participation of women in large number in the scheme and in the

Grama Sabha meeting, the wages earned by them under the scheme, their

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connectivity to the external world through NREGS especially with banks,

government functionaries and local government etc., have improved their

status in the family and community. The women felt a ‘change’ in their status

after the introduction of the scheme.

The scheme has helped in bringing down the level and intensity of

migration as reported by one-fifth of the respondents. The effects of decrease

in migration was found high in Idukki (42.5%) followed by Palakkad (17.1%)

and Wayanad (16.3%).

Box 6.1: NREGA enhanced the credibility of the poor

Mercy Joseph Pantrandil, a resident of Edathuva Gram Panchayat is a beneficiary of AAP (Anthyodaya Anna Poorna) scheme. Her family comprises of her mother- in-law, husband and two children. Before the introduction of the scheme in Allapey District, the family had to depend only on the income earned by Mercy’s husband Mr. P.Joseph, who is an agricultural labourer. As Mercy’s mother-in-law is a heart patient, a major part of the income had to be spent to meet her medical expenses. The NREGA was introduced in her area in the year 2008. In the beginning, Mercy was reluctant to register and work under NREGS, as she is not used to the type of works taken up in Kuttanadu area of Kerala. Even her friends discouraged her from taking up such works. But, she was convinced of the benefits of the scheme; registered herself under the scheme; and started working. She said that she could pick up the work so fast and she started benefiting from the scheme. The wages she earned under the scheme has been spent on meeting the medical expenses of her mother-in-law and the day-to-day household expenses. Besides, she also bought 4gms of gold and bought a goat. She could also utilize a part of the wage she got from the scheme to construct the kitchen. Mercy said that, everyone is now willing to lend money as her debt servicing capacity has increased due to the improved income through NREGS.

Benefits of NREGA

NREGS has brought in several benefits to the households. Important

among them as perceived by the households are: improved family income

(23.2%); improved household expenses (24.5%), guaranteed employment

(10.8%), payment of children education fee (11.6%), improved family status

(9.4%) and so on. The members participated in the FGD across the

panchayats invariably expressed the fact that the scheme has guaranteed

employment with an annual income of Rs.12,500/-.

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Box 6.2: NREGA Lends a Helping Hand to the Victim of Agrarian Crisis

Prasanna Gopi of Poothady Panchayat in Wayanad district will never forget 5th

August 2005. It was the day when her son Prajeesh joined 11th standard and her husband

Mr. Thadathil Gopi committed suicide. Gopi used to work as an agricultural labourer on a daily wage basis to earn his living. The agrarian crisis in Wayanad area gave a rude shock to his livelihood source. As a result he borrowed from private bank and local money lenders. He could not service his debts resulting in soaring of interest charges. He committed suicide as many did so in Wayanad area. Prasanna lost the only bread winner of her family. She struggled very hard to find work to support her family consisting of two sons. It was at that juncture NREGA was launched in Wayanad. She came to know about the scheme through the panchayat and registered herself under the scheme. She has been very active participant in the scheme. She worked for 100 days in 2007-08 and also in 2008-09. She is quite happy now. She has assured employment. Her sons are attending school. She could bear the educational expenditure of her sons. She does not have any problem in meeting day to day expenses. In fact she has started saving some amount of money out of the wages earned under NREGA.

Box 6.3: “I need not go with empty stomach with the introduction of NREGA”

Vallyammal (39 years old), wife of Ranganathan (46 years old) belongs to Puthur Panchayat of Attappady block, Palakkad district. Vallyammal’s family consists of her husband Ranganathan, who is an agricultural labourer, their daughter Krishnaveni, who is studying in higher secondary and their son Sreenath who is in middle school. They have one and a half acres of dry land which is not amenable for cultivation. Before the introduction of the NREGA, Ranganathan, the head of the family was the only bread- winner and they find it really hard to make both the ends meet with meager and erratic income. Vallyammal has a strong conviction that a scheme like NREGA is a boon to families like theirs. After the introduction of the scheme, she got 100 days of employment every year under the scheme. She is happy that she could make use of the provision of the scheme to the fullest extent. The works in which she participated includes, construction of rain pit, retaining wall, check dam, and renovation of traditional water bodies like ponds and river. She got a minimum wage of Rs.125 per day and earned RS.12, 500/- per annum. She could get an amount of Rs.37,500/- over a period of 3 years. She said that she made use of the money mostly to meet the household expenses and educational needs of her children. Vallyammal reported that she had to go with an empty stomach in order to provide food to her children, before the introduction of the scheme. It is now a thing of the past and all the members of the family are assured of food. She had completed 42 days of employment in the current financial year (up to September 2009) and she is confident that she could find 100 days of employment by the end of the financial year.

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Box 6.4: Water-body retained

Kolukkapara (Ward no.4) of Kozhinjampara Grama Panchayat is a remote village. Majority of the households are engaged in agriculture and agriculture labor. The village has experienced water scarcity both in agriculture and domestic purpose.The village has a traditional tank (Thenakulam) which is almost silted. There is a Vinayakar temple adjacent to the pond. The pond was a source of water for domestic and agricultural purposes. The people of Kolukkapara identified desilting of Thenakulam as one of the items of work that could be taken up under NREGS. The subject was discussed in Grama Sabha and it was included in the schedule of work.The work was taken up on 1

st Oct. 2008 and completed

on 17th Dec 2008. The size of desilted pond is 100m x 82m x 5m. 141 laborers worked for

45 days, of whom130 were women and 11 were men. Of the total workers 29 of them belonged to SC. The pond was desilted; follow-up activities such as construction of retaining wall, steps etc. were taken up and completed. The panchayat has taken up the task of cleaning the channels and pond on a regular basis. Around 100 families got benefited in the form of water for cultivation, water for domestic use and cattle. People felt that the pond would not have been desilted but for NREGS.

Box 6.5: NREGS Empowered Socially Marginalized Woman

Mrs. Omana, aged 57, has studied up to 8th standard. She has 3 daughters. She

owns a house provided under IAY. She is an agricultural laborer and a member of Kudumbashri. Her husband fell down and subsequently affected mentally. She came to know about NREGS in 2008 thro’ panchayat and government officials. She registered herself; received job card and applied for work. She got work within the stipulated period and worked for 24 days in 2008 – ’09 and 36 days in the 2009 – ’10 (up to Oct. 15

th 2009). She has participated in works such as cleaning either side of road,

cleaning of drainage, desilting of river etc. She has spent the wages earned on purchasing of food grains and milk, payment of electricity bills and meeting medical bills. She has also started repaying the old debts. She said that the scheme is very relevant in remote areas as it not only provides assured employment, but also empower socially marginalized women like her.

The scheme has also brought benefit to panchayats. The benefits as

reported by respondents and reiterated in the focus group discussions

include: maintenance of road, renovation irrigation canal and channel,

creation and renovation of water bodies like tanks, ponds and wells, rainwater

harvesting, improved water resources and so on.

The works taken up by the panchayats have brought may changes.

The road works carried out enabled the panchayats to develop better

connectivity between villages and urban centres. The soil and water

conservation activities helped in recharging the ground water which in turn

resulted in improved irrigation facilities. The clearance of drainage channels

helped easy flow of water and in draining the excess rain water.

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The respondents reported that there is appreciable change in the

relationship among the NREGS workers. (See Box 6.6). Improved relationship

is a sign of creation of social capital in the villages which in turn would help to

have better access to other sources of capital.

Box 6.6: NREGA facilitated socialisation

Rasheed (34 years) is from Thavinhal Grama Panchayat of Wayanad district. He is mentally ill. His family comprises of his father, mother, wife, sister and niece. Before the introduction of NREGA, Rasheed’s main source of livelihood was cattle rearing and he could always be seen with a herd of cattle. His father became sick and was bed – ridden. The health of his mother too was deteriorating. The entire family was depended on Rasheed’s income. There was no other choice for Rasheed than to take up a better work which would earn him more money. When NREGS was introduced in Thavinhal Panchayat, Rasheed registered under the scheme and started working under the scheme. The scheme provided a great deal of opportunity to socialize with others which has brought the changes in him. His illness too diminished gradually. At present, he is a family man works enthusiastically and earns a livelihood for the whole family through NREGA.

Social Audit

Social audit has been conducted in all the four districts. Social audit

teams consisting of 12 members have been formed in all the panchayats as

per the guidelines of NREGS. The teams are found to have perused the

records, interacted with beneficiaries and functionaries, visited the worksites

and monitored the works, crosschecked the muster rolls, wages received for

each work and completed all the works essential to complete the process of

social audit. The team has prepared and submitted the social audit report to

Grama Sabha for approval. The approved reports have been submitted to

appropriate authorities.

Grievance redressal

Complaints raised are solved then and there. No complaints has taken

shape out of proportion to be able to solve locally. The toll free number

available for making complaints about mismanagement of the programme on

individual grievance is not known to many of the respondents. As a result,

none of them could use the toll-free number meant for grievance redressal.

Convergence

Convergence of schemes of different departments could be observed.

Convergence has taken place with departmental activities of irrigation,

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agriculture, highway and fisheries in Wayanad and Palakkad districts.

Convergence with Forest department has taken place in Alapuzha.

Convergence is reported of Department of Agriculture and Department of

Forestry in Idukki District.

Roles of various functionaries

Grama Sabha has played a very active role in initiating and

implementing various activities under the NREGS. Participation in Grama

Sabha meeting was quite high and the members actively participated in

deliberations related to NREGS works such as selection of worksite, payment

of wages, monitoring of on-going works, work timing, measurement of

worksite and so on. Elected representatives involve themselves in monitoring

the works undertaken and execution of the work. Kudumbasree members get

involved at different stages of NREGS. They serve as a bridge between the

workers and the panchayat. NREGA staff offer technical and non-technical

assistance and act as facilitators in the whole process for the panchayat to be

able to implement the scheme successfully.

Performance of the scheme as perceived by the respondents

The performance of the scheme with reference to variables such as

‘process of registration’, issues of job-card, selection of work-site, relevance of

the works selected, supervision at the work-site, support of government

officials, participation of people, benefits accrued to the panchayat and to

households have been rated as ‘very good’ by the respondents. However, the

performance of the scheme with reference to aspects such as execution of

work, quality of work executed, facilities at the worksite, mode of distribution

of wages, transparency and grievance redressal has been rated as ‘good’

indicating the scope for improvement. There are however, inter-district

variations in the performance as perceived by the respondents.

Conclusion

The study carried out in Kerala has its focus on assessing the

performance of the NREGS in Kerala. The study has covered a sample of 620

respondents selected at random in 31 panchayats, spread over 8 blocks in 4

districts. The study has employed a mix of methods in order to gather both

140

quantitative and qualitative data and information that would help objectively

analyse the performance of the scheme in the state. The scheme has been

implemented in three phases - two districts in first phase, two districts in

second phase and the rest in the third phase. Kerala with its pioneering

experience in local planning and development has been able to effectively

ground all the essential activities specified under the NREGA. The scheme

has reached the right category of households. The start up activities designed

and carried out in various panchayats have generated high degree of

awareness among the people resulting in their active participation. All the

registered households were issued job cards. Right type of works have been

identified inspite of differing geographical conditions across the districts.

Works have been executed in a methodical and systematic manner.

There is a marked improvement in the average number of days

employed per household and the number of households employed for 100

days. Works are provided within a radius of 5 km. Basic facilities are made

available at the worksite though they are inadequate. Wages are paid in full

through banks and post offices. There has been no report of delay in payment

of wages. Wages for men under NREGA is less than prevailing wage rates.

Wages for women under NREGA is higher than the prevailing wage rates.

Though it is too early to expect the impact of the scheme, evidences clearly

indicate that the scheme has impacted on the income, expenditure pattern,

savings, migration, assets, status of women and social relationship. The

scheme has also brought in benefits to the households as well as to the

community. The respondents have rated the functioning of the scheme with

reference to select variables as ‘very good’ which is a sign of good work done

by the various functionaries of the scheme.

* * * * *

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Chapter - 7

Recommendations

We present here a set of recommendations based on the inferences

drawn from indepth qualitative and quantitative analysis and dialogue with

various stakeholders of NREGA.

• 100 days of employment per adult member of rural household should be

guaranteed instead of 100 days per rural household. This would help

improve the income level of households who primarily depend on NREGS

for their livelihood.

• A major complaint about NREGS is that it affects the agricultural

operations especially during the peak season. Hence, NREGS work may

be temporarily suspended during the peak season to facilitate the smooth

operation of agricultural activities. In fact, such arrangements have been

informally made in some of the panchayats visited by the study team.

• Land improvement and soil conservation works in private agricultural lands

and construction of farm ponds in the lands of small farmers may be taken

up in the larger interests of enhancing agricultural production in various

regions. Such kinds of work may be taken up with matching financial

contributions of the land owners.

• Panchayats should be allowed to take up works involving material cost

(even if it exceeds the prescribed limit) as one cannot always find

labor-intensive works in certain pockets of districts and the state.

• We have at present a blanket-type of guidelines uniformly applied in all the

states and regions. Evidences from the field have clearly indicated the

problems in adhering to the guidelines especially when it comes to the

selection of worksites and adhering to the limit prescribed for the material

cost. It is, therefore, recommended that the panchayats may be permitted

to prepare region-specific employment plans without deviating much from

the twin objectives of employment guarantee and sustainable natural

resource management.

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• Minimum wages, especially in a state like Kerala, need to be revised

upward. Men’s participation is restricted due to low wages under NREGA.

The wages for women under NREGA, in certain districts (Alapuzha), is

much closer to the prevailing wages. Hence, there is a strong ‘case’

towards revision of minimum wages prescribed and also wages paid under

NREGA.

• Though NREGA is labour-intensive work with emphasis on physical

labour, certain items of work like water and soil conservation require

skilled lobourers. Provision should be made to temporarily employ skilled

labourers. This may necessitate payment of higher wages to such

labourers.

• The Act does not permit re-intervention in an area where the works have

already been taken up and completed. This rule may not be applied

uniformly in all the regions. For instance, flood control and protection work

needs to be taken up annually in the water logged areas like Kuttanad in

Alapuzha district. Hence, it is recommended that provision of one time

intervention need to be revised and the panchayats should be allowed to

re-intervene based on the nature of work ( e.g. removal of ‘Pola’- a type of

waterweed)

• Delegation of responsibilities, works and the required authority from the

block to the panchayats may be seriously thought of to avoid procedural

delays. For instance, the responsibility of worksite measurement may be

given to the panchayat administration. The officials from the block may

supervise the work done as often as possible and thereby can quicken the

process of payment of wages.

• The Act guarantees ‘the right to work’. Hence, the ‘demand for work’ will

be there for ever. Hence, there is a need for staff exclusively to look after

the works taken up under the NREGA. The staff who are currently working

under the scheme may be made permanent. Taking in to account the

quantum of work done in each panchayat, we may have to revise the

organizational structure and make necessary modification. The

organizational structure as proposed during the FGD is given below.

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Proposed Organizational Structure

Existing Proposed

President (1) President

Secretary (1) Secretary

A.E. (1) A.E. (2)

Overseer (1) Overseer (2)

Accountant -cum Accountant-cum Computer Operator (1) Computer Operator (2)

Driver with vehicle

• Certain districts have prepared a district perspective plan under NREGS.

The perspective plan is prepared with a long-term vision and mission. The

purpose of the perspective plan is to ensure sustainable employment

opportunity through sustainable development of natural resources such as

soil, water, forests etc. Panchayats are not aware of the perspective plan.

Panchayat may be facilitated to prepare a perspective plan keeping in

view the NREGA guidelines.

• The panchayats should provide tools and implements required by the

labourers. They should be user-friendly and should be maintained well and

be kept in a state of efficiency.

• The working hours should be modified keeping in view the difficulties

expressed by the women. The revised working hours as proposed is 8.30

a.m. to 04.00 p.m.

• BSNL net connection should be made available in all the panchayats to

have better e-connectivity for sharing information on NREGS with

authorities at various levels.

• Taking into account the amount of work taken-up in a given block, a

separate vehicle may be provided for facilitating and monitoring.

* * * * *

146

Performance of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in Kerala An Appraisal

(Study sponsored by Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India. Funded by UNDP New Delhi)

Household Interview Schedule

1. Identification

1.1. Name of the respondent 1.2. Community SC/ST/Others

1.3. Village 1.4. Block

1.5. Panchayat 1.6. District

2. Socio-economic Profile

2.1 Family Details

S. No Code

Name Age in yrs

Sex

if Disabled;

type Education

Main occupation

Subsidiary occupation

Relationship with HH head

SHG Membership

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

FD1

FD2

FD3

FD4

FD5

FD6

FD7

FD8

FD9

FD10

Column 2: 1 - Male; 2 - Female Column 3: 1 - Visual; 2 - Hearing/and/ or speech; 3 - Orthopaedic; 4 - Mentally ill; 5 - Mentally retarded; 6 - Cerebral Palsy; Column 4: 1 - illiterate; 2 - Informal education; 3 - Primary; 4 - Middle; 5 - Secondary; 6 - Higher Secondary; 7 - Graduate; 8 - Professional; 99 - not applicable [not of school going age] Column 5 & 6: 999 - Not Applicable; 1 - Housewife; 2 - Retired/old age; 3 - farmer;/Tiller; 4 - Agriculture labour; 5 - Skilled labour /e.g. carpenter, plumber, driver, mason, etc; 6 - Unskilled labour / e.g. construction

labourer, loader, house help, caretaker; watchman, etc; 7 - Traditional Artisan; 8 - Services e.g. barber; milkman, dhobi; cobbler; etc; 9 - Petty shop; 10 - Vendor; 11 - Business;(e.g., shop - owner); 12 - Collection of NTFP; MFP; 13 - Government service; 14 - Private service; 15 - Others _________________________

Column 7: 1 - Head; 2 - Spouse of head; 3 - Mother; 4 - Father; 5 - Son; 6 - Daughter; 7 - Daughter-in-law; 8 - Son-in-law; 9 - Grand son; 10 - Grand daughter; 11 - Grand mother; 12 - Grand father; 13 - Brother; 14 - Sister; 15 - Sister

in law; 16 - Brother in law; 17 - Relatives; 18 - Other specify: _____________________ Column 8: 1 - Yes; 2 - No

147

2.2 Housing Details

Description Choice Response

1. Ownership of house 1 - Own; 2 - Rented; 3 - Others (specify)

2. If ‘Own’, is it given by

Government?

1 - Yes; 2 - No

If ‘no’ GOTO Q No. 4

3. If ‘Rented’, what is the rent In Rs.

4. Type of Structure 1 - Hut 2 - IAY, 3 - Asbestos/Tiled/Tin Roof; 4 - Concrete

5. Do you have electricity connection? 1 - Yes; 2 - No

6. What is the source of drinking

water?

1 - Water tap in the household premises;

2 - Public stand post; 3 - Hand pump;

4 - Open well; 5 - Pond; 6 - River;

7 - Any other ________________

7. Do you have a latrine in your

house?

1 - Yes; 2 - No 3 - using community toilet

2.3 Income

What is your monthly HH income?

Sources of income Unit.(Period) 1 - Monthly; 2 - Quarterly; 3 - Half yearly; 4 - Annual

Income (Rs.) Total [not to be filled in]

1 2 3 4

1. Agricultural Income

2. Salary; Wage work of all family members

(including services, crafts, etc.)

3. Income from Livestock

4. Income from Petty Shop (Small Business)

if any

5. Remittance from wards/ relatives

6. Govt. assistance (OAP, Disability

Assistance, etc.) NSAP

7. NREGA

8. Others (specify)

NSAP: National Social Security Assistance Programme

148

2.4 Expenditure

What is your monthly HH expenditure? Mention the amount against each item.

Particular

Unit.(Period) 1 - Monthly; 2 - Quarterly; 3 - Half yearly; 4 - Annual

Amount Spent Total [not to be filled in]

1 2 3 4

Consumption Expenses

1. Food

2. Fuel and electricity

3. Education

4. Tobacco, Alcohol, gambling

5. Entertainment

6. Cosmetics, Toiletries, etc.

7. Clothing

8. Medical: Medicines/ Doctor

9. Transport

10. Festivals, religious ceremonies

11. House maintenance

12. Interest on loans, debts, etc.

13. Others (Specify)

2.5 ASSETS

1. Land

Description Options Response 1. Do you own land? 1 - Yes; 2 - No

If ‘No’, GOTO Q No. 3

2. If ‘Yes’, specify the extent of land do you possess?

1. Dry

2. Wet

3. Farm Land (Garden)

(In Acres)

4. Housing

3. Have you purchased / taken on lease any land during last 1 year? 1 - Yes; 2 - No

4. If ‘Yes’, specify the extent of land purchased/ taken on lease? Specify in Acres

149

2.6 Livestock

S. No Livestock Number Total Value Income derived 1 2 3 4

1 He buffalo

2 She buffalo

3 Cow

4 Bullock

5 Goat

6 Sheep

7 Pigs

8 Poultry

9 Donkey

10 Others Specify

2.7 Household Assets

S. No Asset Yes/ No S No. Asset Yes/ No 1 Grinder 8 Cart 2 LPG Connection 9 Cycle 3 Television 10 Two Wheeler 4 Air conditioner 11 Three Wheeler 5 Fans 12 Tractor 6 Personal Computer 13 Tiller 7 Cell Phone 14 Others Specify

2.8 LOANS

1. Do you or your family member have an account in any bank?

1 - Yes; 2 - No If No, GOTO Q No.3

2. Have you taken any loan in last one year? 1 - Yes; 2 - No

3. If ‘Yes’, give details.

Last one year

From Whom No. of

Times Purpose

Loan

amount

Interest

rate

Mode of

repayment

Any

repayments

in Rs

How did

you mange

to get loan

Current

out-

standing

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Code: Column 3: 1 - Construction of house; 2 - Purchase of land; 3 - Purchase of household assets; 4 - Purchase of food grains; 5 -

Marriage of daughter/ son/brother;/sister; 6 - Medical treatment; 7 - Repayment of old loan; 8 - Death Ceremony; 9 - Other social ceremony; 10 - Education; 11 - Celebration of festivals; 12 - Others ______________

Column 6: 1 - Installment; 2 - Lumpsum; 3 - Any other specify ________________ Column 8: 1 - Mortgage immovable property; 2 - Mortgage assets; 3 - Promissory note; 4 - Through a guarantor; 5 - SHG membership; 6 - Any other specify ______________________

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2.9 Migration

1. Has any member of the family migrated? If yes How many members? Specify the reason

1 – Yes; 2 – No

2. If ‘yes’ specify the reasons for migration?

3. for what duration

4. Where do they migrate normally?

Code: For Row 2: 1 - Seeking employment in lean season; 2 - better wage earning; 3 - Better amenities; 4 - Children education; 5 - Others ___________ For Row 3: 1 - <2 Month; 2 - 2-4 Months; 3 - 4-6 Months; 4 - 6-12 Months; 5 - Above 12 months 2.10 Social Participation of the Members

Particulars Office Bearer Member only

1. Local Panchayat

2. Caste Association

3. Youth Association

4. Local Cooperatives

5. NGOs

6. SHGs

7. SHG Federation

8. Temple committees

9. Others

i)

ii)

iii)

3. Participation in NREGA

3.1 Awareness about NREGA

3.1.1 How do you come to know about NREGA in your area?

i) News papers

ii) Radio

iii) Television

iv) NGO Representative

v) Panchayat

vi) Govt. officials

vii) SHG

viii) Friends / Relatives / Neighbours

ix) Any other specify

151

3.1.2 Are you aware of the important provisions of NREGA? Yes / No

3.1.3 If yes, Specify

Provisions RS RAP

i) 100 days per households

ii) Minimum wage

iii) Knowledge about correct minimum wage

iv) Equal wages for men and women

v) Work within a radius of 5 km.

vi) Universal Act

vii) Role of Grama Sabha

viii) No labour displacing machinery

ix) Eligibility for unemployment allowance

x) Compensation for delayed payment

xi) Medical assistance for injury in the worksite

xii) Worksite facilities

xiii) Exgratia payment for death and disability

xiv) Right to payment within a fortnight

RS: Response Spontaneous RAP: Response after probe

3.2 Registration

3.2.1 Have you registered under NREGA? Yes / No

3.2.2 If yes, give details

i) When did you register?

ii) Have you received job card? Yes / No

iii) What was the time lag between date of registration and receipt of job card?

iv) Have you faced any problem? Yes / No

v) If yes, specify the problems

vi) Have you spent any amount for receiving job card? Yes / No

vii) If yes, specify the amount.

viii) Who bears the cost of photography

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3.2.3 Mention the other members in your family who registered under the programme.

3.2.4 What are the steps taken by the panchayat to complete the process of issue of job cards?

3.3 Employment

3.3.1 When was the scheme introduced in your panchayat?

3.3.2 What are the various items of works undertaken in your panchayat?

3.3.3 How the works were selected?

3.3.4 Did you participate in the Grama Sabha meeting? Yes / No

3.3.5 If yes, was there any discussion on any matters related to NREGA? Yes / No

3.3.6 If yes, specify

3.3.7 Have you sought employment under the scheme? Yes / No

3.3.8 If yes, were you given ‘dated receipt’ by the panchayat? Yes / No

3.3.9 What is the time-lag between date of application and the provision of employment?

3.3.10 Was there any delay beyond 15 days in getting employment Yes / No

3.3.11 If yes were you given unemployment allowance? Yes / No

3.3.12 If yes what is the amount received?

3.3.13 For how many days have you got employed? (year-wise)

No. of days employed S.no Year

Self Family members

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

3.3.14 Specify the various items of work in which you participated?

3.3.15 What is the distance from the residence to the place of work?

Minimum km. ________ Maximum km. ___________

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3.3.16 Were you given TA if the worksite was beyond the distance of 5 km? Yes / No

3.3.17 If ‘yes’ what was the TA received?

3.3.18 What is the mode of transport used by you to reach the place of work?

3.3.19 What is the transport cost incurred?

Minimum Rs. ________ Maximum Rs. ___________

3.3.20 Who bore the transport cost?

3.3.21 What is the working hour?

3.3.22 What are the facilities made available at the worksite?

3.3.23 Are they adequate? Yes / No

3.3.24 If ‘no’ what more facilities are required?

3.3.25 How would you rate the quality of the work executed?

Very Good / Good / Average / Poor / Very Poor

3.3.26 Who provides the tools for the work in the worksite? Panchayat / Self /Kudumbasree/

Area Development Society

3.3.27 If ‘self’, are the tools of your own or hired?

3.3.28 If ‘hired’ what is the rent paid by you for the tools?

3.3.29 Are the tools worker friendly? Yes / No

3.3.30 If yes how?

3.3.31 Have you faced any problems in the worksite? Yes / No

3.3.32 If ‘yes’ give details

3.4 Wages

3.4.1 What is the minimum wage rate fixed in your state?

3.4.2 Do you know the mode of fixation of wage for the work done by the workers under NREGA? Yes / No

3.4.3 If ‘yes’ specify.

3.4.4 What is the wage earned by you under the scheme?

Minimum Rs. :

Maximum Rs. :

Average Rs. :

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3.4.5 How is your wage paid? By cash / through bank / through panchayat office /thro’ post office

3.4.6 If the wage is paid through bank / post office, was there any problem in withdrawing the cash from the bank/post office Yes / No

3.4.7 If ‘yes’ specify the problems.

3.4.8 What is the time-lag between date of completion of work and receipt of wages?

3.4.9 Was there any delay in payment of wages? Yes / No

3.4.10 If ‘yes’ specify the

i) extent of delay

ii) reasons attributed for the delay

3.4.11 Were you able to get the wages in ‘full’? Yes / No

3.4.12 If ‘no’ why?

3.4.13 Is the muster roll read out when wages are paid? Yes/No

3.4.14 What is the difference between wages under NREGA and the prevailing wages for other than NREGA work?

Normal NREGA Men Rs. :

Women Rs. :

3.4.15 What is the effect of NREGA on the wage structures in the market?

Decreased / increased from Rs. _____ to Rs. _____ for men.

Decreased / increased from Rs. _____ to Rs. _____ for women.

3.5 Effects of NREGA

3.5.1 How did you spend the wages earned under NREGA?

3.5.2 What according to you are the benefits of NREGA to your family?

3.5.3 What are the benefits of the scheme for the panchayat as such?

3.5.4 What are the changes that the scheme has brought into your panchayat?

3.5.5 Did you migrate to other areas in search of job before the introduction of the scheme? Yes / No

3.5.6 If ‘yes’ specify:

i) Where did you go?

ii) What was the duration?

3.5.7 What is the level and intensity of migration after the introduction of the scheme?

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3.5.8 Do you find any change in the relationship among the households after the introduction of the scheme? Yes/No

3.5.9 If ‘yes’ specify the nature and intensity of relationship.

3.5.10 What according to you are the impacts of the scheme on the following?

i) Livestock

ii) Income

iii) Expenditure

iv) Liability

v) Savings

vi) Empowerment of Women

4. PERFORMANCE OF THE NREGA

Given below are the key criteria related to the functions of NREGA. Rate them on a five point scale.

Criteria

Very Good 5

Good 4

Satisfactory 3

Poor 2

Very Poor 1

4.1 Process of Registration

4.2 Issue of job cards

4.3 Selection of works

4.4 Execution of works

4.5 Supervision at the worksite

4.6 Facilities at the worksite

4.7 Mode of distribution of wages

4.8 Quality of the work executed

4.9 Relevance and usefulness of work to the village / people

4.10 Transparency

4.11 Grievance redressal

4.12 Participation of people

4.13 Support of govt. officials

4.14 Benefits occurred to the panchayat

4.15 Benefits occurred to the households

Date & Time of Interview Name & Signature of the Volunteer

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Focus Group Discussion with panchayat functionaries

District : Block :

Panchayat: Venue :

Date : Number of participants:

Checklist

1. Start-up activities

1.1. What are the various start-up (IEC) activities undertaken by the panchayat to generate

awareness about NREGS among the households? Who get involved in IEC activities?

1.2. How are such activities received by the households?

1.3. What are the effects of start-up activities?

1.4. What is the amount of funding received towards start-up activities? How was it spent?

Were you able to fully utilize the fund for the activities? If ‘no’ why?

1.5. Did you convene exclusive Grama Sabha meeting on NREGS? If so what was the

response to the meeting? What were the decisions taken in the meeting?

2. Launching of the scheme

2.1. When was the programme launched in your panchayat?

2.2. Are you aware of the key provisions and procedures of the Act? If so specify.

2.3. Did the President, ward members of the panchayat attend the orientation training on

NREGA? Yes / No. If ‘yes’ what is the content and quality of the training?

2.4. What was the initial response of the people to NREGA?

3. Registration and issue of job cards

3.1. What are the efforts made by the panchayat for registering the rural households under

the scheme?

3.2. What is the role of Kudumbasree in registration and issue of job cards?

3.3. Have all the rural households got registered under the scheme? If ‘no’ why?

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3.4. Are employment seekers able to register freely and easily for job cards?

3.5. Is the data bank available about the registered candidates? If so how is it prepared and

maintained?

3.6. How are the job cards generated? (manually/ computerbased)

3.7. Who is in-charge of issue of job cards?

3.8. What is the time gap between registration and issue of job card?

3.9. Did you charge any amount for registration and issue of job card?

3.10. Who has the possession of job cards?

3.11. Did you come across any problem in registering and issuing job cards? Yes/No. If ‘yes’

specify?

3.12. What are your suggestions to overcome such problems?

4. Identification of work

4.1. Was the Grama Sabha convened to select the work? If ‘no’ why?

4.2. Who identifies the work? Do they follow the guidelines to select the work? Do they

estimate the quantum and value of work? If yes how do they estimate?

4.3. Have you got an approved shelf of projects of atleast five works with technical and

financial estimates ready to start when employment demand is received?

4.4. What kinds of works have been given priority?

4.5. What are the approved works on public display in the panchayat?

4.6. Have your come across any problems in identifying the work? Yes/No

If you what are they add to in do you overcome such problem

5. Demand for employment

5.1. Do the job seekers submit application for employment? Yes/ No. If ‘no’ why?

5.2. Are the applications given in writing? If ‘so’ are receipts given? Are receipts dated?

Who is responsible for providing dated receipts in the Grama Panchayat?

5.3. Is there any delay in provision of employment? If ‘yes’ give details.

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5.4. Are there any instances of provision of unemployment allowance? If ‘yes’ give details.

5.5. Have any special efforts been made to create demand among SC/ST? If ‘yes’ give

details.

6. Execution

6.1. Have all the registered households participated in the scheme? If ‘no’ what are the

factors hindering participation of the households?

6.2. Describe the step-by-step process followed in execution of NREGS work. (Please note

whether respondents are able to list the following key steps

i) Identification of work.

ii) Preparation of people’s estimate by engineers

iii) Project initiation meeting.

iv) Citizen information board

v) Provision of implements.

vi) Worksite facilities ( drinking water, first aid box, crèche, provision of shade, toilet )

vii) Maintenance of muster roll

viii) Maintenance of worksite diary by the mate.

ix) Inspection of work.

x) Photography of the activities (project initiation meeting; before execution , during

execution, after execution)

6.3. Is there any mismatch between the demand for work and the availability of work?

What are the steps taken by the panchayat to fill the gap between demand and supply?

6.4. How is the muster roll generated? Are muster rolls properly maintained?

6.5. Were there any incidents when workers without job-cards working on worksites? If

‘yes’ why?

6.6. How and when the measurement of work is done? Is the measurement delayed beyond

14 days? If so why?

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6.7. Have engineers/overseers visited the worksite? If so how often? Are works-in-progress

technically supported on a regular basis? Yes / No. If ‘no’ why?

6.8. What is the average number of days employed in a year? Are there variations across the

households in terms of number of days employed with reference to caste, gender,

occupation, family size, age etc.? If ‘Yes’ what are the reasons?

6.9. Are you able to provide employment continuously for 14 days? If no why? What is the

percentage of disabled employed under the scheme? What type of work is allotted to

them? What are the problems faced by them under the scheme?

6.10. What are the facilities made available at the worksite? Are they adequate? If not what

more facilities are required?

7. Payment of wages

7.1. Does all the workers possess savings bank account?

7.2. What is the average amount of wage paid per day per labour? Does it vary from group

to group? If ‘yes’ specify the reason?

7.3. Are the workers able to earn the notified wage for agriculture labourers?

7.4. Are the workers earning the full task rate notified in the schedule of rates? If ‘no’ what

are the reasons?

7.5. Is the task rate earned equal to minimum wages? If no specify the reasons.

7.6. Is there any variation in the wages earned across the households? Is so what are the

reasons?

7.7. What is the system followed in distribution of wages? Have the households expressed

any problems in getting wages? If so what are the problems?

7.8. What is the time lag between work completion and payment of wages?

7.9. Women got employed in large number under the scheme. What are the problems faced

by them in the worksite? What steps have been taken to overcome such problems?

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8. Impact

8.1. What is the impact of the programme on the rural households with special reference

to:

i) Livelihood

ii) Income

iii) Assets

iv) Expenditure

v) Savings

vi) Liability

vii) Migration

viii) Social capital

ix) Empowerment of women

8.2. How do people spend their wages?

8.3. What is the level and intensity of migration after the introduction of the scheme?

8.4. Has the scheme resulted in creation of allied livelihood on the foundation of water

security?

8.5. What is the quality of the work? Have the works undertaken helped in developing

productive assets? Have they helped in conserving soil, water and other natural

resources?

9. Staff and Training

9.1. Do you have any advisory group for effective planning implementation and monitoring

of the programme? If so give details of:

i) how is it constituted

ii) Composition of the advisory group

iii) Roles and responsibilities of the advisory group

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9.2. Have the functionaries such as accountant-cum-computer operator, Panchayat

Secretary, President and Ward members been trained in planning and implementing

the scheme? If so give details of:

i) Nature of training

ii) Content of training

iii) Duration of training

iv) Participants of training

v) Effectiveness of training

vi) Problems in imparting training

9.3. Have you introduced the system of online monitoring? If ‘yes’. Gives details of:

i) The items of work monitored.

ii) Effectiveness of online monitoring

iii) Problems in online monitoring.

10. Records

10.1. What are the various books, registers maintained? Are they maintained as per the provisions of the Act? 10.2 What are the problems in maintaining the books and registers?

11. Monitoring

11.1. Have the works been inspected by block / state functionaries? If ‘yes’ how often? Have

they recorded their observations? If so what is the nature and content of observation?

11.2. Have you constituted vigilance and monitoring committee? Who are the members?

What are their roles and responsibilities? How do they function? Have they been

trained? If so specify the nature and content of the training?

11.3. Does the VMC monitor and certify the completion of work?

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12. Social Audit

12.1. Has social audit of all work been done? Who did the social audit? What is the process

followed in social audit? What was the outcome of social audit?

13. Grievance Redressal

13.1. Do you maintain the complaint register? How many complaints are received? What is

the nature of the complaints? How complaints are disposed?

13.2. You have toll free helplines? Are people aware of it? How many complaints have you

received thro’ Toll free helplines? How many of them are disposed? Were there any

problems in disposing grievances thro’ online? If so give details.

14. General

14.1. Is the organizational structure to implement the scheme adequate? Does it require

modification / change? What is support infrastructure available to implement the

scheme?

14.2. What is the mechanism evolved and adopted to ensure transparency and

accountability under the scheme? What is the degree of transparency and

accountability found in the scheme?

14.3. How do you differentiate NREGA scheme from earlier schemes for such as SGRY

14.4. Is the relevant scheme to your area If so How?

14.5. What are the various issues in converging the activities of various departments (e.g

forest, Irrigation, Agriculture) with NREGA work?

14.6. Explain the role of

i) Elected representatives

ii) Kudumbasree

iii) Officials in NREGA (panchayat, Block& district – Technical & Non Technical)

14.7. What in the next step envisaged at the local level for better implementation.