march 2002 volume 4 no.1 indi leis a · 2017-10-30 · 2 leisa india • m a r c h 2 0 0 2 leisa...

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LEISAMarch 2002 Volume 4 no. 1

The ‘Livestock Revolution’, intensive industrial livestock production, is spreading fastto the South. In the North, it stands for loss of employment of many small farmers,

environmental pollution, epidemicanimal diseases (such as BSE andswine-plague), unsafe food and ill-treatment of animals. Whatalternatives do small farmers havethat are competitive enough to keep

them in business? In this issue of LEISA Magazine, we have brought out together aselection of articles which deal with improvement of livestock production by moreholistic and ecological management and integration of crops, legumes, grasses, treesand other animal species. These integrated livestock systems seem to be moreproductive and better for the environment and the animals.

The international edition has been conceptualised by the ETC livestock workinggroup. Katrien van’t Hooft, a veterinarian with many years of experience withlivestock farmers in the Andes (see page 10), who works as editor for the ETCCompas Magazine on endogenous development, was the guest editor for this issue.We are very appreciative of all the work she has put in.

In this Indian edition are included alternatives with reference to feed and health care.We are extremely grateful to International Development Research Center (IDRC),Canada for supporting the production and distribution of this Indian edition of LEISAmagazine.

The Editors

Dear Readers

Optimisingclimate-soil-pasture-cattle interactionsin BrazilAna Primavesi and Odo Primavesi

AME Foundation promotes sustainable livelihoods through combining indigenousknowledge and innovative technologies for Low-External-Input natural resourcemanagement. Towards this objective, AME Foundation works with small and marginalfarmers in the semi arid areas of the Deccan Plateau through generating alternatives,enrichment of knowledge base, training, linkage development and sharing experiences.www.amefound.org

ILEIA is the Centre for Research and Information on Low-External-Input and SustainableAgriculture. It seeks to exchange information on LEISA by publishing a quarterlynewsletter, bibliographies, and books. ILEIADOC, the data base of ILEIA’s documentationcentre, is available on diskette and on ILEIA’s Homepage: www.ileia.org. Back issuesof the ILEIA Newsletter are also available on ILEIA’s website.

LEISA is about Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture. It is about the technicaland social options open to farmers who seek to improve productivity and income in anecologically sound way. LEISA is about the optimal use of local resources and naturalprocesses and, if necessary, the safe and efficient use of external inputs. It is about theempowerment of male and female farmers and the communities who seek to buildtheir future on the bases of their own knowledge, skills, values, culture and institutions.LEISA is also about participatory methodologies to strengthen the capacity of farmersand other actors, to improve agriculture and adapt it to changing needs and conditions.LEISA seeks to combine indigenous and scientific knowledge and to influence policyformulation to create a conducive environment for its further development. LEISA is aconcept, an approach and a political message.

LEISA India is published quarterly byAME Foundation in collaboration withILEIA

Address : AME FoundationPO Box 7836,Bangalore - 560 078, IndiaVisitors address : AME Foundation,No. 1583, 17th Main, 2nd Phase, J.P. Nagar, Bangalore - 560 078, IndiaTel: +91-080-659 6780, +91-080-658 2835Fax: +91-080-658 3471E-mail: [email protected]

EDITORIAL TEAM FOR THIS ISSUE

LEISA India

Managing Editor : K.V.S. Prasad

Assistant Editor : T.M. Radha

Editorial Team : C.K. Subramanian C.J. Robens Sudha G Bhat

ADMINISTRATIONM Shobha Maiya

SUBSCRIPTIONSContact: KVS Prasad,AME FoundationNo. 1583, 17th Main, 2nd Phase, J.P. Nagar, Bangalore - 560 078, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]

DESIGN AND LAYOUTS Jayaraj, Chennai

PRINTINGNagaraj & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Chennai

COVER PHOTOHolebasappa, a cattle caretaker, hopesagainst hope for a greener future.Photo : S Jayaraj

LEISA Magazine is produced in 3 editions

LEISA Magazine - Global editionLEISA Revista - Spanish editionLEISA India

The editors have taken every care toensure that the contents of this magazineare as accurate as possible. The authorshave ultimate responsibility, however, forthe content of individual articles.

The editors encourage readers tophotocopy and circulate magazinearticles.

The authors of this article show howcattle farming in Brazil can be optimisedin an ecologically sound way. Theyargue for management practices thatinfluence the interactions between thedifferent aspects of the productionsystem - climate, soil and soil life,vegetation and cattle. Increasing thewater availability for better plantgrowth, introduction of shade trees forenhancing the micro-climate, grazingrotation instead of burning pastures,integration of leguminous forage plantsand elimination of nutrient deficienciesare some of the topics discussed.Towards "green meat" and "green milk"is what, according to the authors,animal production should strive for.

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AZOLLA -A sustainable feedsubstitute forlivestockP. Kamalasanana Pillai,S. Premalatha and S. Rajamony

Describes the biocomposition andproduction of promising feed “Azolla”,which is a floating fern. Highlights itsnutrient value and its positive impacton the growth andyield of livestock.

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CONTENTSVol. 4 no.1, March 2002

4 Livestock production: industrial or integrated?Editorial

6 The ‘Livestock Revolution’ and its impact onsmallholdersLeah Garcés

9 Optimising livestock strategies in Bolivian mixedfarming systemsKatrien van ’t Hooft

11 Optimising climate-soil-pasture-cattle interactionsin BrazilAna Primavesi and Odo Primavesi

13 Integrated systems: the experiences from CIPAV inColombiaEnrique Murgueitio

15 AZOLLA - A sustainable feed substitute forlivestockP. Kamalasanana Pillai, S. Premalatha andS. Rajamony

18 Adaptation of the zero grazing concept by Luofarmers in KenyaNelson A.R. Mango

20 The Cuban experience in integrated crop-livestock-tree farmingFernando Funes-Monzote and Marta Monzote

22 Dutch dairy farmers find own solutions to theirenvironmental problemsWillem van Weperen en Henk Kieft

24 What happens when the river runs dry?Viengsavanh Phimphachanhvongsod, Peter Horneand Werner Stür

26 NGOs role in livestock improvement - A case ofANTHRANitya Ghotge and Sagari Ramdas

27 Para technicians as alternative veterinary servicefor livestock managementM.J. Chandre Gowda and R.K. Samanta

29 The Narayana Reddy ColumnPolyculture of animal husbandryL. Narayana Reddy

30 Sources

32 Websites

34 Books

36 Backyard rabbit rearing: A viable option forresource poor farmersD. Puthira Prathap and K. Narayanan

Themes for the LEISA-India

22

Dutch dairy farmers find ownsolutions to their environmentalproblemsWillem van Weperen en Henk Kieft

Dutch dairy farming in the last fifty years focused on increasing milkproduction through a variety of interventions that included technologydevelopment, effective research-extension-farmer interaction, access to credit,conducive policies etc. However, this development resulted in increasedenvironmental as well as animal health problems. Many animal-related crises inthe recent past has raised consumer concern considerably. Ten years ago, twoenvironmental farmer associations in the Friesian province of the Netherlandsbegan experimenting with environmentally-sound farming practices andintegrated agriculture. Although these experiments raised suspicion within theauthorities, initially, the results are gradually gaining recognition. Now, morethan 120 farmers have taken on the initiative and together with researchers theyhave formed a platform called PMOV to take the initiative further. Thisexperience shows that farmers are able to resolve their own problems and maketheir farming systems sustainable.

Adaptation of the zero grazingconcept by Luo farmers in KenyaNelson A.R. Mango

In 1979, the National Dairy Development Project of Kenya introduced a dairyfarm concept based on zero grazing, with animals kept in stalls and a cut andcarry fodder system. The article describes the main components of this ZGconcept and how the Luo people of Siaya district have adapted it to suit theirspecific conditions. For instance, the Luo farmers do not grow napier grass asrecommended by the NDDP as it is labour intensive; they have found a lesslabour intensive form which is called tumbukisa. Luo farmers have also foundways of adapting the feeding regime suggested by NDDP; instead ofcommercial feed, they have come up with a "home-mix" dairy meal and usebrewer's waste as a supplement. For some farmers who aimed at milkproduction, ZG has become a viable alternative to coffee, sugar and cottongrowing. For others, ZG is a way of re-establishing the balance between cropand livestock production.

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Livestock : industrial or integrated?Editorial

Livestock production is importantfor the majority of farmers indeveloping countries, especially

for small farmers in more marginalconditions where land cannot be used forother purposes. Smallholders keeplivestock for food, fibre, fertilizer, fuel,draught power, as a buffer in case of cropfailure, and also for social and culturalfunctions. Increasingly, livestock is alsoproduced for cash, which is the mainobjective of specialized livestockproduction systems. This type oflivestock production strongly dependson the dynamics of the global markets.

A team of researchers of the InternationalFood Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)and the Food and AgriculturalOrganisation (FAO) produced anextensive report called : “Livestock to2020: The next Food Revolution” (SeeGarces, p.6). “Livestock Revolution”was the term they used to describe theexpected massive increase in livestockproduction in developing countries dueto doubling of the demand for livestockproducts, especially in the North, overthe next 20 years. Like the “GreenRevolution”, this “Livestock Revolution”involves the large-scale transformationand growth of production along the samelines as it has already taken place inmany ‘developed’ countries. What willbe the consequences of thisdevelopment?

Painful experiences in the North teach usthat this development towards ‘factoryfarming’ will put enormous pressure onnatural resources, food safety, animaldiversity and welfare, as well as threatenthe income generating possibilities ofsmall farmers. In reality these systemsare very inefficient and the hidden

environmental and social costs of thelivestock industry are enormous (Garces,p.6). Also, to meet food needs in 2050 itis necessary to increase human foodproduction considerably. But, the“Livestock Revolution” will competestrongly with human food production.Presently, livestock industry alreadyconsumes almost 50 % of world cerealgrain supplies. It is therefore veryimportant to develop livestockproduction systems, which do notdepend on cereal grain. The AnimalWelfare Review in 1998, therefore, raisedthe all-important question: “should thistype of intensive livestock productioncontinue to be encouraged globally orshould alternatives be sought?”

Even without the “LivestockRevolution”, livestock keepers alreadyhave enough ecological problems, forexample, due to overgrazing and burning.Research has developed technologiesmainly for intensive and industrializedlivestock production systems. But,many modern technologies do not fit thereality of low-input livestock systems(van ‘t Hooft p.9)

But what alternatives are available tofarmers? The articles in this issuepresent some useful insights, practicalsuggestions and ways to achieve them.

Enhancing the quality of the wholesystem

To optimise the performance of farming,it is important that management practicesenhance the ecological functioning of the‘web’ of all living organisms within theproduction system by influencing theinteractions between climate, soil,vegetation, animals and farmers(Primavesi and Primavesi, p.11)

Traditional farmers often have mixedsystems in which the production ofcrops, animals and natural resources areintegrated, products are of multiple-use,and a waste products of one sub-systemare used as inputs in other sub-systems.Within this integrated system, dependingon needs, opportunities and risks farmersmay follow different strategies: keepmany different animal species under lowinput management system, or combinethis with the intensive production of onespecific species (van’t Hooft p.9).Traditional systems can be relativelyproductive, while making optimal use ofthe available natural and humanresources. Presently, influenced bymodernization and globalisation, most ofthese traditional systems are loosing theireconomic and social coherence.

The awareness that agro-ecologicalsystems are complex and integrated, andthat the quality of all parts of thesystem, including its social and culturaldimensions, is important to optimize theperformance of the whole system, hasbeen lost in more modern agriculture.Intensive livestock production in TheNetherlands, for example, stronglyfocused on high input / high outputrelations and profit making and forgotabout the environment. Twoenvironmental associations of dairyfarmers, rediscovered the importance ofthe quality of the whole system. Theyfound that the quality of the cow manureinfluences the quality of the soil, which,determines the quality and quantity ofthe pasture and fodder crops, the feed forthe animals, which is important foranimal health and the quality andquantity of their products (see figure 1on p.22). They have developed a new


way of feeding their milk cattle withlower protein and higher fibre contentsby using less concentrates and fertilizers,which reduces nutrient losses whilemaintaining milk production at the samelevel. (van Weperen and Kieft, p.22)

Presently, livestock research appears toshow heightened interest in mixed orintegrated farming systems going by thenumber of conferences that has dealtwith this subject in Latin America, Africaand Southeast Asia (Sources p.30).Agro-ecological research in Colombia andCambodia is working successfully on thedevelopment of integrated farmingsystems, with close integration ofanimals, recycling of all excreta, and theuse of highly productive energy andprotein crops, to improve productivityand sustainability of small holder andcommercial agriculture in the humidtropics (Murgueitio, p.13).

Integration of crops, grasses, treesand animalsMany of the authors stress theimportance of diversification ofagriculture. Van’t Hooft (Pg. 9) explainsthe importance of animal biodiversity insmall-holder agriculture in the Andes.Primavesi and Primavesi (pg.11) reporton the benefits of integration ofleguminous crops and trees in pastures inBrazil. Funes-Monzote and Monzote(p.20) analyse the effects of integratingcrops and trees in dairy farms in Cuba.Viengsavanh et al (p.24) explain how, inLaos, integration of specific grasses, treesand legumes help farmers overcomeseasonal feed shortages for their animals,reduce labour requirements, improveanimal health and performance inextensive systems. Murgueitio (p.13)points at the complementarity betweenruminants, monograstrics like chicken,fish and earthworms, micro-organisms inbiogas digesters, crops, grasses and treesto optimise the benefits of intensiveintegrated systems.

In tropical countries, especially in thehumid zone, there are many crops, andfarming systems that considerably exceedthe productive capacity of grain cereals.Key energy plants for intensiveintegrated systems are: sugarcane,cassava, the palm family (especially theoil and sugar palms). Key protein cropsare: N-fixing legumes (trees and shrubsrather than soy beans) and water plantslike “duckweed” and “floating fern”. Thefeeds derived from these alternativecrops do not lend themselves to“factory” farming systems whichtraditionally use dry feeds, easy to store,transport and mix into “least-cost”rations. The “alternative” feeds, besidesbeing highly nutritious and economical,are best suited under land scarceconditions, fitting well into small scale,diversified and integrated farmingsystems (Pillai et.al., p.15). The role of

animals in these systems will besynergistic rather than as primaryproducers

In more marginal environments it is veryimportant to integrate farm animalsadapted to the local climate and forage(Primavesi and Primavesi, Pg.11).Indigenous animal species are often muchbetter adapted to these conditions.Thriving even at low levels of fodderinputs, their maintenance is ecologicallymore sustainable. While they may not beable to compete with “improved breeds”in regards to milk and meat yields,indigenous animal species fulfill a muchwider range of functions and provide alarger range of products. As is becomingincreasingly clear, they often have scopefor specialty products and can beessential to preserve habitats. Improvedfeeding can double the performance oflocal breeds (see box on p.7). But,according to FAO, one third of theworld’s estimated 4000 livestock andpoultry breeds are in danger ofextinction! ‘Livestock Revolution’ willspeed up the loss of indigenous animaldiversity. Action is therefore urgentlyneeded

In addition, small animals and insectscould have considerable potential toimprove the integrated farming system.Rabbit is an example of small animal,which plays an important role insmallholder production and povertyalleviation (Puthira Prathap andNarayanan, p.36). Earthworms(Murgueitio, p.13) and weaver ants areexamples of very useful insects whichcould strongly enhance the overallproductivity of integrated systems. And,of course, we should not forget the widediversity of micro–organisms in the soiland the animals without whichagriculture would not be possible.

Chain management andweak links

An increasing number of organizationsare working towards livestockdevelopment. NGO interventions inimproving the livelihoods of peopledependant on livestock is increasinglybecoming popular with activities spreadover a range of aspects that includetraining local youth as animal healthworkers, conservation of livestock aswell as fodder species, production ofherbal medicines and dissemination oflocal technologies (Nitya Ghotge andSagari Ramdas, p.26). Alternative meansof reaching the rural masses by buildingcapacities of rural youth through training,as paratechnicians are also beingsuccesfully promoted by KVKs incollaboration with local NGOs (ChandreGowda and Samanta, p.27).

Often there is a weak link in theproduction chain, which could strongly

inhibit the overall performance of thesystem. Strengthening of weak linksmay have unexpected results. Unlike inthe intensive systems in the Netherlands,mentioned earlier, in extensive systems,for example, animals often get too littleproteins or lack specific minerals (e.g.phosphate, calcium, magnesium orcobalt). Integration of leguminous orother protein-rich crops and trees intothe system and feeding of protein-richconcentrates with added minerals couldcontribute a lot to improve animal healthand production (Primavesi andPrimavesi; Viengsavanh et al, and Pillaiet.al).

In Kenya, Luo farmers had a lack ofmanure to fertilise their crops. Byadopting “zero-grazing” they succeededin strengthening the livestock componentof their integrated crop-livestock system,which then brought the whole system toa higher level of production. However,intensification of indigenous farmingsystems, e.g by introduction of zerograzing, has to fit local perceptions,needs and opportunities (Mango p.18).

Integrating researchers, policymakers and educatorsBy following a more holistic, ecologicalapproach many farmers seem to comecloser to their own ‘gut feeling’ of howthey should manage their farm, which isalso more in line with their parentsthought about it (van Weperen and Kieft,p 22). The problem is, however, to getother players such as researchers, policymakers and educators involved in thisapproach to form (inter) nationalnetworks and local platforms for change.Although, increasingly, these players areaware that there is something wrong withthe conventional approach to livestockproduction, they have to make quite achange in attitude and thinking to take adifferent stand. For example, animalscience as taught in Latin AmericanUniversities and farming schools isfocused in reaching the maximumproductivity per animal, limited to theanimal species used in industrializedlivestock keeping, especially cattle, pigsand chicken. The absence of the essentialelements of family-level livestockkeeping and basic principles of integratedecological livestock production in thecurriculum is reflected in the frequentfailures of livestock projects and thenegative impact of livestock productionon the environment.

Although integrated livestock systemshave considerable potential to improvelivestock production, the chances ofsmall farmers competing with industriallivestock production will remain weak aslong as research, policies and educationsystems do not change.

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The ‘LivestockRevolution’ and

its impact onsmallholders

Leah Garcés

Two-thirds of the world’s livestockare found in ‘developing’countries. Most farmers in these

countries practise multiple-purpose,non-intensive methods of animalproduction. Animals are critical for theirlivelihoods, cultures and social status.Many of these animals graze areas notsuitable for crops or scavenge freely,often consuming garbage and harmfulinsects. Small farms that combinelivestock and crops use the landrelatively sustainably: crop residues arefed to animals; manure provides goodfertiliser and fuel; and animal draughtpower reduces the need for fossil fuels.Smallholder livestock production makes asubstantial contribution to the economy.

In India, for example, livestock contrib-utes about 30% of the total farm output,and 80% of livestock products comefrom small farmers with 3-5 animals andless than 2 ha of land (Rangnekar 2001).It is estimated that one-quarter of theworld’s total land area is being used forgrazing livestock, including extensivegrazing systems. A further one-fifth ofthe world’s arable land is used forgrowing cereals to feed livestock. Thismakes livestock production the largestuser of land in the world.

The ‘Livestock Revolution’But livestock production systems inthese countries are changing fast, due tothe so-called ‘Livestock Revolution’. Theglobal demand for meat is expected tomore than double over the next twentyyears, creating an increased demand forcereal feed. Southern countries areexpected to become the main producersof meat and animal products for the restof the world, with increasing dependencyon imported grain. It is expected thatthere will be a shift from livestock beingkept for multiple purposes and localfood supply to animals being raisedunder factory farming conditions forexport. Many small-scale farms will beout-competed and replaced by large-

scale industrial farms (Delgado et al1999).

This Livestock Revolution will providenew opportunities for agriculture in theSouth. But, who will benefit from it,what will be the cost to small farmers,food security, the environment, farmanimal genetic diversity and farm animalwelfare? Compassion in World FarmingTrust (CWFT), a research-based farmanimal welfare organisation thatinvestigates the development of factoryfarming at an international level,recently studied the effects of the rise infactory farming on Southern countries,their farmers and farm animals (Gracés2001; Cox and Varpama 2000). Anoverview of the results is given below.

Small farmers are loosing

The leading agencies working on hungeralleviation admit that rural small farmersare being pushed out of business byfactory farming. Farmers in the UK, USand Europe have already experienced thepainful consequences of the so-called‘vertical integration’ of livestockproduction, in which specialisedenterprises such as feedlot farms, animalfeed traders, and meat packers, all mergeunder one giant company. This leavesvery limited market opportunities forsmall, independent farmers, many ofwhom have been forced to leave thebusiness altogether. According to the USDepartment of Agriculture, there were5.7 million farms in the USA, in 1950.Today, the number has decreased toabout 2 million farms.

This same pattern is quickly taking holdin Southern countries. Brazil’s poultryindustry is a good example. Between1970 and 1991, Brazil’s poultry industrygrew from small backyard farmers to amulti-national mechanised industry,becoming almost entirely verticallyintegrated. Originally, small familyfarmers were given day-old chicks bymajor companies and were paid to raise

them. Sadia is an example of a family-owned company, which employed14,000 smallholder farmers to raisechickens on their mixed farms with aclear benefit to these farming families.The chickens were brought back to Sadia,who processed and distributed them toconsumers.

Unfortunately, this system began tochange four or five years ago, due tofinancial troubles of family ownedcompanies, such as Sadia, which weretaken over by financial interest groupsand foreign companies. Now, Sadia israising, providing feed for, and process-ing its own chickens in large productionunits. Certainly, most of the 14,000mixed farmers, who once raised chickensfor the Sadia industry, do not benefitfrom this new ‘development’ initiative.

Harm to import-dependentdeveloping countriesThere are many examples that supportthe view that the introduction ofindustrial livestock rearing not onlyharms the individual small-scale farmerbut also the developing countries as awhole. As a consequence of industriallivestock rearing, these countries havebecome more import-dependent. Grains,tractors, fuel, fertilisers and specialanimal units and processors are requiredfor intensive livestock rearing, none ofwhich a developing country starts out bymaking itself.

Over the last decade, Asia has begun toimport large amounts of grain to feed itsindustrially-produced farm animals.Likewise, machinery, oil and productionunits are being imported and subsidisedby the government. The Asian economiccrisis of 1999, that raised prices ofimported feeds and depressed urbandemand, proofed that being an import-laden economy can be disastrous andunsustainable.

Threat to food securityA World Poultry study (Gueye 2001)done in sub-Saharan Africa indicates theimportance of family-level poultry

The rise of factory farming in Southern countries, as seen here oflaying hens kept in battery cages in Thailand, is provingdetrimental to food security, the environment and animal welfare.

Phot

o :

CIW

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rearing for food security, povertyalleviation, environmental health andgenetic diversity. While the one or twobreeds of broiler chicken used forchicken meat in factory farms aregenerally imported, 85% of ruralfamilies keep several species and breedsof poultry of indigenous types. Theproducts of these local breeds are oftenpreferred to those from exotic breeds bylocal consumers. Furthermore, the localbreeds are better adapted to localdiseases, pests and climate. Poultry areusually raised in extensive systems,while some families specialise in semi-extensive and small-scale intensivepoultry systems.

In extensive production (backyard)systems, birds are reared with little land,labour or capital, can be accessed byeven the poorest social communities inrural areas, and are of great importancefor women, especially in female-headedhouseholds. The study indicated that anaverage flock of 5 chickens enabled awoman in Central Tanzania to earn anadditional US$38 per year or a 9.5%increase in income. Poultry raising hascontributed to the ‘greater empowermentof women by improving their financialstatus, if socio-cultural and religiousenvironments allow it'. As such, the lossof family farming to industrial farmingcould seriously affect women andchildren.

Effects on the environmentFactory farming was developed inEurope with the aim of ending foodshortages after the 2nd World War. Scienceand technology were promoted, farmerswere given subsidies to encourageproduction increases, and consumerswere given cheaper food. But, thesepolicies of production at all costs can nolonger be supported. As far back as 1997,the chief of the FAO's Asian PacificRegional Office declared that it was timeto move away from the 'Green Revolu-tion' livestock model, as the environmen-tal problems of this approach werealready obvious.

Industrial animal farming has proved tohave detrimental effects on the environ-ment both in the short and the long term(Haan et al. 1998). For example, theproduction of cereals for the livestockindustry often takes place far away fromwhere the animals are raised. This isleading to depletion of soil fertilitywhere cereals are produced, andpollution at the other end of the tradingspectrum where cereals are used foranimal feed. Soya and maize are majorproducts of the US supplied to industrialanimal farms around the world. Suchmonoculture systems, though stronglypromoted by governments, have

unintended consequences for soil andwater quality. Thirty percent of the totalcropland in the United States is noweroding at excessive rates, according tothe Soil and Water Conservation Society(http://www.swcs.org/).

Globally, farm animals produce 13billion tonnes of waste per annum(Turner 1999). Animals on industrialfarms consume high-protein feeds andproduce waste that is extremelyenvironmentally damaging. Industrialanimal farming contributes 5-10% of thetotal of greenhouse gases in the world,accelerating climate change. Moreover,large amounts of water and fossil energyare required to grow, process andtransport industrial farm animal feed andtreat the animal waste (Pimentel etal.1997).

Loss of genetic diversityThe FAO (2001) reports that the greatestthreat to the world’s domestic animaldiversity is the export of specialisedbreeds of farm animals from developedto developing countries. Crossbreedingwith and eventual replacement of localbreeds has resulted in a situation thataround 1,350 domestic animal breeds(30% of all domestic breeds) are at riskof extinction. Every week, two breeds offarm animals disappear.

One of the greatest misjudgements of the‘Livestock Revolution’ is to deny theimportance of genetic diversity for foodsecurity. For example, in 1996, some942,000 inseminations have been carriedout in the Netherlands alone, with semenfrom a single Holstein Friesian bull,named Sunny Boy. In that period theDutch dairy sector averaged 1.7 millionmilking cows! (Compas Magazine,Oct.1999, p.26.) Semen of this bull wasalso used in many other countries.

Nearly 12,000 years of domesticationand breeding under different environ-ments have resulted in some 4000 breedsof farm animals. The genetic diversity ofthese breeds has made it possible forhumans to thrive in all corners of theglobe, facing a range of environmentalchallenges including varied climates,diseases, parasites and pests. Unlikeimported industrial breeds, local farmanimals in given environments havedeveloped resistance or adaptations tothese challenges.

For example, in Rajasthan, India, non-industrial breeds of farm animals havebenefited human food security even in aharsh desert climate, where temperaturescan rise to 50ºC. This region counts 7local breeds of cattle, 8 breeds of sheep,4 breeds of goats, as well as camel andhorse breeds. Through these local breedsRajasthan significantly contributes to thenational milk and wool output. Marginallands can contribute to food securityonly by working with farm animalsadapted to the local climatic conditions(Rathore et al. 2001).

Government interventions in Rajasthanhave focused on ‘improving’ localbreeds by crossbreeding them withexotic breeds from other climates. Notsurprisingly, the crossbreeding of localsheep with exotic sheep has failed toachieve any improved yield, mainly dueto high mortality and problems with feedsupply. In the case of cattle, thegovernment has realised the detrimentaleffects of crossbreeding, and in 1998revised its policy to protect and improvelocal breeds.

Negative impact on farm animalwelfareAnother negative impact of industrialfarming is its impact on farm animal

Measures to benefit the poor to better compete with thelivestock industry (LID 1999)

• Access to credit (to allow for the purchase of animals);• Access to appropriate (community based) animal health services and simple

preventive measures such as vaccinations and improved hygiene;• Secure grazing rights and access to water;• Access to markets;• Trade policies and frameworks that allow smallholders and pastoralists to

compete with industrial animal production. For example: support to coopera-tives, levying taxes from animal producers based on their ecological and socialimpacts;

• Improve feeding to increase the performance of local breeds (Haan et al 1998);• Support livestock production based on local resources (feeds, breeds, indig-

enous knowledge and institutions) and integrated farming systems;• Stop subsidising intensive animal production in the North and the South;• Stop export of subsidised products of the livestock industry to developing

countries.

German NGO Forum Environment and Development,Am Michaelshof 8-10, D-53177 Bonn. Fax: +49 (0)228-359096;E-mail: [email protected] ; http://www.forumue.de


welfare. As recognised by the Treaty ofAmsterdam, farm animals are livingcreatures capable of feeling pain andsuffering. Industrial animal farmingoften closely confines the animalsindoors, without light and with little orno exercise. This inhibits the naturalbehaviour of animals, and is known tocreate aggression, stress and injuries inanimals. Industrial animal farming alsocarries out standard practices ofmutilation: the hen is debeaked, so thatshe can no longer peck her cage mate,and the pig is tail-docked, so that hisbored pen mates can no longer bite its tail.

The surroundings of industrial animalfarms can be dirty and poorly ventilated,leading to poor animal health. Moreover,selected breeding for large muscles andfast growth, especially in pigs andchickens raised for meat, leads to legproblems, cardiovascular inadequacy,increased risk of mortality and poorwelfare.

Learning from the mistakes ofthe NorthIn superficial economic calculations,industrial animal farming is consideredthe cheapest and most productive formof animal production. But, thesecalculations do not include the ‘totalcosts’ of this production system.Industrial animal production looks viableonly when selected aspects of theproduction – consumption system isviewed. In reality, the hidden costs ofindustrial animal production for futuregenerations are enormous. It is thereforevery important that policy decisionmakers examine questions such as: Is itacceptable to cause job losses by puttingsmall-scale farmers in poverty strickenpopulations out of business? Is itacceptable to cause ecologicaldegradation, environmental pollution,climate change and increased ozone layer

depletion? Is it acceptable to causeunnecessary pain and suffering to farmanimals?

The UK, for example, has been struck bydiseases such as foot and mouth diseaseand mad cow disease (BSE) that hasbrought the industrial animal farmingsystem under serious questioning by thepublic. Food poisoning connected witheating animal products is also higherthan it has ever been in the UK, leavingconsumers to doubt the safety ofindustrial animal products. More andmore consumers are turning away fromthe products of industrial animal farmingtowards the products of more sustainablesystems such as organic and free-range.The governments in Europe are nowbeginning to recognise this situation andthe value of more quality-drivenlivestock production. The Netherlandsgovernment, for example, has recentlybegun to subsidise organic pig produc-tion by 30%. An editorial comment inWorld Animal Review in 1998 raised anall-important question: “Should this typeof livestock production continue to beencouraged globally, or should alterna-tives be sought?"

Policy makers must now support moresustainable and humane forms of animalfarming and realise that industrial animalfarming holds no future for Southern andNorthern countries alike.

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Leah Garcés, Compassion in WorldFarming Trust, Charles House, 5A CharlesStreet, Petersfield, Hampshire, GU32 3EH,UK. Phone: +44 (0)1730 268863; Fax:+44 (0)1730 260791. E-mail:[email protected] ; Web site: http://www.ciwf.co.uk.

References- Cox J and Varpama S, 2000. The‘Livestock Revolution’ development ordestruction? A report into factory

farming in ‘developing countries’.Compassion in World Farming.

- Delgado C, Rosegrant M, Steinfeld H,Ehui S, and Courbois C, 1999. Livestockto 2020. The next food revolution.Food, Agriculture and the EnvironmentDiscussion Paper 28. IFPRI, FAO andILCA.

- FAO In: Reuters,19 Sept. 2001.Biodiversity shrinks as farm breedsdie out. http://enn.com/news/wire-stories/2001/09/09182001/reu_farm_45000.asp.

- Gueye EF, 2001. Marketing of familypoultry products in Africa to beimproved. World Poultry. Volume 17, No. 5.

- Haan C de, Steinfeld H and Blackburn H,1998. Livestock & the environment:Finding a balance. FAO, World Bank,USAID.

- LID 1999. Livestock in povertyfocused development. Livestock indevelopment, Crewkerne, UK.

- Pimentel D et al, 1997. Water re-sources: agriculture, the environ-ment, and society. An assessment ofthe status of water resources.BioScience Vol. 47 No. 2

- Rangnekar DV, 2001. Livestockproduction in rural systems andexpected impacts of free trade. In:Vision 2020: Food security from thegrassroots perspective. Forum Umwelt undEntwicklung, Bonn, Germany.

- Rathore, Singh H and Kohler-Rollefson I,2001. Indigenous institutions formanaging livestock genetic diversityin Rajasthan (India). In: Experiences infarmer’s biodiversity management. ForumUmwelt und Entwicklung, Bonn, Germany.

- Turner J, 1999. Factory Farming &The Environment. A Report by Compas-sion in World Farming Trust.

For a complete version of the report andthe references therein, please contactCompassion in World Farming Trust.

Local breeds of farm animals, such as these cattle in the Gambia, are better adapted to their environment than breeds imported for factory farming.

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Optimising livestockstrategies in Bolivianmixed farmingsystems

Katrien van ’t Hooft

Most smallholders in ruralBolivian communities havedeveloped mixed systems, in

which the production of crops and therearing of animals are combined withincome-generating off-farm activities.The strategies vary a great deal from onefamily to another, and also within afamily, depending on the time of theyear, the age of the family members, orexternal circumstances. It has beencalculated that 90% of rural families incentral and south Bolivia earn more than50% of their income through non-agrarianactivities. (Jimenez Sardon, 1984)

Principle of diversificationThe strategy used by rural families tocounteract risks and optimise opportuni-ties under changing and adversecircumstances is to diversify theiractivities. (Valdivia and Jetté, 1996).This principle of diversification alsoforms the basis of family-level livestockkeeping in Bolivia, as in most parts ofLatin America.

Each family has control over a couple ofsmall plots of land, which are often ondifferent ecological floors and fromwhich they produce a variety of crops,thus minimising the considerableweather-related risks, and guaranteeingself-sufficiency for the family. Theanimals reared are poultry, guinea pigs,sheep, goats, pigs, cows, donkeys,llamas, alpacas and rabbits, andsometimes, depending on ecologicalcircumstances, carp and bees. Womenbear most of the responsibilities inanimal care. Animals are an importantpart of the agricultural system and theculture of peasant families. Animalraising is embedded in Andean culturalvalues, such as solidarity and reciprocity,community organisation, and respect forPachamama – or Mother Earth. Ruralfamilies perform, therefore, numerousrituals and festivals related to livestockthroughout the agricultural cycle. Thesubject of livestock rearing by families isalso closely connected to those ofbiodiversity, environment, gender,poverty and migration.

Livestock research and educationDespite massive investment in livestockresearch, the benefits to marginalisedcommunities, where livestock isespecially important to livelihoods hasbeen very poor. In Latin America, aselsewhere, technologies were developedmainly for intensive and industrialisedlivestock production systems, assumingthat the same technologies could be usedto improve all livestock systems. Thisassumption turned out to be invalid. Infact, most modern technologies do not fitthe reality of the low-input livestocksystem, while they have also enabledcommercial producers to displace thesmaller and less specialised producers.

Animal science as taught in LatinAmerican universities and farmingschools does not take into account thecomplexity of the context in which ruralfamilies rear livestock. Rather, attentionis focused on reaching the maximumproductivity per animal, limited toanimal species used in industrialisedlivestock keeping, especially cattle, pigsand chicken. The absence of essentialelements of family-level livestockkeeping in the curriculum is reflected inthe frequent failures of livestockprojects.

Failure of livestock projectsStimulating livestock keeping at familylevel is an objective of many livestockprojects. It is at this level, though, thatfailures are most frequent and have harshconsequences. An analysis (Blackburnet al, 1992) of different livestockprojects revealed that many wereinadequately adapted to the social,economical and cultural reality of thefamilies belonging to the target popula-tion. The projects intend to change thepeople’s system of production, usuallyfrom a diversified low-input system to aspecialised one, directed to a monetarymarket, without consideration of thesocial implications and risks that theseactions pose to rural families. Many ofthese projects have not been preceded bya thorough analysis of the reality of thefamilies, like their ways of seeing theworld (or cosmovision), their survivalstrategies, the rationale behind theirdifferent productive systems, the role ofanimals within this reality and the way

the families perceive projects. Moreover,a lot of information on the outcome ofprojects is shelved as work reviews,poorly accessible to students and otherinterested people. Thus, the samemistakes are repeated.

Two basic strategiesA wide array of livestock keepingstrategies can be observed among ruralfamilies. Basic elements of thesestrategies are the use of various animalspecies, the flexibility to change fromone species to the other, and the low-external-input nature of the managementsystem. Most families base theirlivestock keeping on diversifiedhusbandry practices: poultry and pigsscavenge around and do not require majorlabour or capital input, and cuy (guineapig) are kept in the kitchen, fed onleftovers. Though there is high mortalityamongst these animals, their output isproduced against very low cost. Inaddition, one species, like for examplemilk cattle, may be managed under amore specialised system, requiringrelatively high levels of capital andlabour input, and depending on marketsales. The logic behind this more‘specialised’ livestock system is quitedifferent to that of the ‘diversified’livestock system.

Though all divisions are artificial andnever reflect reality in all its complexity,we can use this division in the mainstrategies of family-level livestockkeeping: diversified and morespecialised management of animals(Table, next page). They have to beconsidered as the two extremes of acontinuum, with many variations inbetween. It is helpful, however, tounderstand the basic idea and logicbehind each of these livestock keepingsystems, in order to find ways tooptimise each of them.

Different ways for optimisingIn general terms, under the conditions ofdiversified livestock keeping, it is notpossible to increase profits by reducingthe costs of production, because thesecosts are minimal. It is also not possibleto aim for a major increase of productiv-ity per animal, as that would require alarge investment of cash and labour,

Also for pigeons, there is a place on diversified Andean farms.

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which goes against the basic principle ofthis strategy. The best way of optimisingdiversified livestock keeping, withoutveering away from its principles, is toreduce the mortality rate of the animals.Under normal circumstances, themortality rate in diversified livestockkeeping can vary from 40% to 80%. Thisis due to a variety of reasons, such asinfectious diseases; theft, accidents andpredators; food and water shortages; lackof shelter; internal and external parasites;lack of care during special moments suchas parturition and disease; and inbreed-ing. The relative importance of each ofthese variables differs according to theanimal species and the circumstances.

In more specialised livestock keeping themortality rates are generally much lowerthan in diversified keeping, because ofthe extra attention given to feeding andcare of the animals. The way to optimise

specialised livestock keeping is byreducing the costs of production andincreasing the profit margin per animal.This may imply, for example, improvingfeeding strategies throughout the year, orcross-breeding with exotic breeds. Asthis is also the basis of industrialisedlivestock keeping, plenty of documenta-tion about these technologies is avail-able. Stimulating the cooperation andorganisation amongst families thatproduce a specific species can be a majorstarting point, to improve marketing andinfrastructure, for example.

Niche for poverty alleviationThe measures taken to reduce themortality rate in diversified livestockkeeping should be based on the strate-gies, the practices and the knowledge ofrural families, especially of women.These measures should be cheap andrequire little additional labour; theincome earned in the short term as aresult of these measures should begreater than the costs necessary toimplement the change. Under theseconditions, the measures can combinetraditional practices with strategies ofmodern veterinary medicine, and includethe training of community-based animalhealth workers.

Various projects have shown that it isindeed possible to reduce mortality ratesunder these circumstances, i.e. low-costvaccinations against specific diseasessuch as Newcastle disease in chicken orhog cholera in pigs; protection of chicksfrom predators by confining them duringthe first 2-3 weeks of their lives;strategic parasite control in llamas andalpacas; selection and exchange of stockof indigenous breeds; and specificactions to counteract the worst effects offood shortages, such as supplyingmineral salts and supporting traditionalforms of feed supplements during thecritical periods. Special attention and

simple infrastructure during and afterparturition, can drastically reduce thenumber of piglets crushed to death bythe sow.

There is, however, a lack of knowledgegeneration, extension materials, researchand education in this field, as mostlivestock development initiatives haveaimed at changing the diversifiedsystems into more specialised ones.Optimising the diversified system offamily level livestock keeping within it’sown context, and without changing thelogic it is based on, is an under-utilisedniche for poverty reduction. It implies amajor challenge for projects, as well asfor research and education in thelivestock field.

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Katrien van ’t Hooft, ETC - COMPAS, POBox 64, 3830 AB Leusden,The Netherlands. [email protected]

More information in “Gracias a losanimales: la crianza pecuaria familiar enAmérica latina con estudios de caso de losvalles y el Altiplano de Bolivia”. Edited byAgruco, Cochabamba, Bolivia. Forthcom-ing. Katrien van’t Hooft, editor.

References

- Blackburn H., and de Haan. C. (editors),1992. Livestock developmentprojects – past present and future.Proceedings of an informal meeting ofdonor representatives involved inlivestock development, organised byUSAID and the World Bank, Paris, FranceDecember 1992

- Jimenez Sardon G. 1984. Genderrelationships within the peasanthouseholds. En: Género en institucionesde desarrollo rural andino, Consejo Andinode Manejo Ecológico (CAME)

- Valdavia Score C. and Jetté C., 1996.Peasant households in semi-arid San José:confronting risk through diversificationstrategies. SR-CSRP technical report series,IBTA 181/technical report49/SR-CRSP47

CHARACTERISTICS

LABOUR

RISK FOR FAMILYFUNCTION OF THE ANIMALS

PRINCIPLES

MANAGEMENT

TYPE OF HEALTH CARE

FLEXIBILITY

DIVERSIFIED LIVESTOCK KEEPINGMainly women and children - combined with migrationLow, because of the different species usedMultiple: to be consumed by the family, to be sold, as a way ofsaving and reducing risks, to produce organic fertiliser andmedicines, for cultural and spiritual reasons.The number of animals most important. Reduced investmentand low output of traditional products (meat, milk, eggs, wool,fur), combined with the use of other products, like manure,bones, horns, blood, bladder.

The animals are kept in many different ways. Temporaryfood shortages and disease risks are part of the system.Based on local practices and medicine (ethnoveterinarymedicine), sometimes complemented with selected 'modern'practices. Veterinary care includes rituals and localpractitioners.

High, it is easy so shift from one species to another

SPECIALISED LIVESTOCK KEEPINGUsually the whole family, including menHigh, dependence on (external) conditions related to one species

Mainly for income generation

Main focus on production level per animal. Large investment ofmoney and labour to sell traditional products. Specialisedkeeping of one species is often combined with diversifiedkeeping of other species.

The animals are kept in a relatively uniform way, directed atoptimal conditions throughout the year.

Based on 'modern western' practices by field workers andveterinarians, complemented with selected ethnoveterinarypractices of the owners. Limited consultation of localpractitioners

Low, due to high individual value of the animal and thespecialised knowledge and network required

Diversifying their livestock activities, a strategy used by ruralfamilies to counteract risks and optimise opportunities under

changing and adverse circumstances.

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Table 1: Characteristics of the two basic livestock keeping strategies


Optimising climate-soil-pasture-cattleinteractions in Brazil

Ana Primavesi and Odo Primavesi

In nature, nothing functions inisolation; everything depends on theother factors present. In animal

production, to optimise the performanceof cattle, it is very important thatmanagement practices try to enhance theecological functioning of the web of livingorganisms within the production system- climate, soil and soil life, vegetation andcattle - by influencing their interactions.In this article we look at some of theseinteractions and how, in Brazil, they canbe optimised in an ecologically soundway.

Adapting pasture to the soil andcattle to the pastureCattle breeding is a very expensiveactivity when the breed is selected first,then the pasture suited to that breed andfinally the soil is corrected with lime andfertiliser to make the pasture grow. Thisorder has to be reversed. The pasture hasto be adapted to the soil and the cattle tothe pasture, and all of it has to fit theclimate. In the tropical climatic zone,European breeds should be used only forcrossbreeding with zebu cattle. It is notthe most productive breed that will givethe best performance, but the breed thatadapts best to the existing ecologicalconditions, climate, soil and pasture.

Increasing water availability forplant growthForage yields depend strongly on theavailability of water. Especially in the

dry areas of Brazil, improving perme-ability and the storage capacity of thesoil can increase water availability.Covering soils with vegetation and itsresidues allows for better infiltration ofrain water, improves the soil structure,and thereby increases its air and watercirculation and storage capacitynecessary for plant metabolism andefficient plant nutrition. In a well-structured soil, roots are able to explorea larger soil volume for more water andnutrients. Plants can, therefore, developbetter and faster and will be less affectedby drought. Integrating deep-rootingcrops and trees into the pasture systemwill further increase the production ofbiomass and the overall performance ofthe system.

Plants absorb water from the soil andtranspire it. When the air is saturatedwith water vapour, plants cannottranspire any more. But when the windcarries it away, they absorb more waterfrom the soil and transpire more waterinto the air, thus drying up the soil. InBrazil, in one year, wind can carry awayan equivalent of 750 mm of the totalrainwater. Planting of shrubs and trees aswindbreaks can strongly reduce thetranspiration of pastures and henceincrease the available water for plantgrowth.

Enhancing micro-climate forcomfortWhen the surface temperature of tropicalsoils is higher than 33° C, plants cannot

absorb water and nutrients any more.Deep rooting trees can act as airhumidity and temperature regulators,pumping water from the subsoil, andreleasing it through transpiration.Therefore the shade of trees is coolerthan for example, the shade of a dry leafroof.

An animal is not a machine into whichforage is put in and milk and meat comesout. It is a living being that needs to becomfortable to produce well. Shade treesprovide comfort to cattle. In the colderseason it is 3 to 4° C warmer under thetrees and in the hot season it is 3 to 4° Ccooler. Pastures with at least 50 shadetrees/ha allow a yield increase of 15 to30% milk and around 20% meat. It is notonly the quantity of fodder quantity orthe energy consumed or the digestibilityof the forage that matters; it is also thecomfort that makes cattle produce well.

In Brazil, there is an increasing tendencyto establish wind shelters and smallshade forests to avoid water losses bywind and to improve animal comfort. Inextensive systems with cerrado(savannah) vegetation, the bushes andtrees provide additional advantages, likethe supply of forage and increase ofbiodiversity of forage species. Thisallows for better animal weight mainte-nance and even an increase, compared tomonoculture grassland, also in the dryseason. When new pastures are opened,with maintenance of bush and tree stripsof the original “cerrado” vegetation, thegrass grows faster and the productivity ishigher, due to wind protection. EmbrapaAgrobiology, the Brazilian research centreon agrobiology, near Rio de Janeiro, has

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developed an easy way to establishlegume trees even on very degradedpastures, by inoculating the seedlingswith Rhizobia and Micorhizae and addinga little phosphorus to the substrate.Organic matter production and accumula-tion in these soils is surprisingly fast.This works well as a pre-treatment forestablishing forage plants

Grazing rotation instead of fireThe division of pastures into smallersub-units for grazing rotation isfundamental to prevent grassland beingdestroyed by cattle. In native grassland,cattle always first eat the plants it likesmost. The plants that are not eaten getold, hard and are not tasty. The eatenplants sprout again and are grazed onanother time. This goes on until thesepalatable plants disappear. But the lessappreciated plants continue to grow andmultiply and with time the entire pasturegets hard, rough and has little nutritivevalue. Then the ranchers set fire to thepasture. Many plants die, and only thosethat can protect their growing pointsagainst fire survive. Thus the pasturebecomes worse and the forage volumesmaller. Eight consecutive years ofburning, with one fire per year, isenough to decrease plant production to25% of the initial. As only the hard, lesspalatable plants that cattle eat only whenvery tender are left, farmers burn thepastures up to five times per year. Thusall organic matter that nourishes soilmicro-organisms is burned out, resultingin their death. The soil compacts, waterruns off and the vegetation gets scantier.

All perennial plants need a rest period torecover the reserves in their roots, whichare needed for re-sprouting. Forageplants and weeds recover their rootreserves only when they bloom. Grassesneed to bloom and form seeds once ayear. This makes pastures more resistantto droughts and low temperatures andwarrants vigorous re-sprouting. Rancherssay: “rest for a pasture is as good asirrigation”. Forages cannot always begrazed when it is best for the cattle.Sometimes they have to rest to recovertheir forces. In Brazil, rotative grazing isgetting more common under better-controlled conditions, using electrifiedfences, sometimes powered by solarenergy.

Integrating leguminous forageplantsIn Brazil, 70% of the pastures are ofBrachiaria (decumbens, brizantha orruziziensis), and 80% of the cattle areimproved Bos indicus, this is zebu,mainly of the Nelore breed. Brachiaria isan African grass with very activeMicorrhizae fungi on it roots which give

it a high degree of adaptation, productiv-ity and efficiency of phosphorusabsorption and use. The main problem isthat it is planted in monocultures. Inmore fertile soils, Cynodon dactylon cv.Coastcross and Tifton , and differentcultivars of Panicum maximum (Tanza-nia, Tobiatan) and Pennisetumpurpureum (Elephant grass) are used.

Grass-legume mixtures are rare becausethe tropical grasses are very aggressivewhen supplied with nitrogen. Pasturewith soybean rotation is more common.After 3 to 4 years of Brachiariabrizantha, soybean is direct seeded intothe desiccated pasture. The nitrogeninput by soybean improves the growthof Brachiaria grass, allowing an increaseof the stocking rate from the nationalmean of 0.5 Animal Units (AU)/ha up to3 AU/ha. Nitrogen-fixing legume shrubsand trees like Cajanus cajan or Leucaenaleucocephala and other fast growingspecies are introduced in semi-inten-sively managed pastures for protein richforage.

Eliminate nutrient deficiencies

Tropical grasses have a very highbiomass production potential, but need agood water and mineral supply. Butcerrado soils, for example are acidic andpoor, especially in calcium, magnesium,phosphorus and potassium. The majornitrogen sources are nitrogen-fixingleguminous plants, cattle manure andsynthetic nitrogen fertilisers. Small dosesof phosphorus (35 to 42 kg/ha P

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needed to guarantee the development offorages. Phosphorous-deficient,decumbent grasses like Brachiaria, don’tform stolons, have a shortened vegetativecycle, bloom early and produce littlebiomass.

Cattle also need phosphorus. Insufficientphosphorus in the pasture lowers milkand meat production and makes cowssick. It happens specially when pastureshave old, dry forage, or when the soil iscompacted by overgrazing and forageroots cannot penetrate the surface layerof the soil. It can be completely avoidedby applying phosphate fertiliser orgiving cattle mineral salts.

There also can be other nutrientdeficiencies, which affect animal health,like that of calcium causing a kind of“grassland tetany”. This can occurespecially in Brachiaria humidiculapastures, but also in young, vigorouslysprouting grasses or in very compactedsoils.

Magnesium-deficient zebu cattle are verynervous and aggressive and the heifers donot develop well. Cobalt, extremelydeficient in the Amazon region, is the

mineral which is most lacking in Braziliangrassland. Young animals are meagre,gloomy, without appetite but gnawing attree barks; they loose the hair from theirtails and have a scrubby hide. In all casesmineral salts are very important tocompensate for the mineral deficienciesand to keep the animals healthy.

Parasites and diseasesOne of the biggest problems in tropicalcattle breeding is parasites, mainlyworms, ticks and bots. The horn flybecomes an increasing problem in flogstreated against parasites with injectableIvemectin. This is because the beetle thateats the larvae of the fly in the cattleexcrements is also killed. With rotationalgrazing and a pasture with 20-25 %legumes, the worm problem can bepractically controlled. Tick attacks aremostly seen in European cattle that havea thinner hide. Zebu cattle are rarelyaffected. The problem of bots can beresolved by selecting the bot-resistantanimals and selling the affected ones.Normally, “sweepers” (animals with norespect for fences, grazing anywhere)never have bots.

Towards “green meat” and “greenmilk”To prevent ‘global climate change’ by‘greenhouse gases’, it is important toreduce methane emission by cattle. Thisobliges farmers to speed up animalproduction per unit area and to reducethe slaughter age to get a lower ratio ofkg methane/kg animal protein (meat).The use of grains for animal feed has tobe reduced as well, giving priority tohuman consumption. This then increasesthe dependence on forage. But, as grasscellulose is the main source of methaneemission, management practices thatcontribute to an increase of forage yieldper unit area and maintain stocking ratewithout weight losses, all year long, areneeded. Profitability, competitivenessand sustainability of the productionsystem will be thus increased whilstreducing the negative impact on theenvironment.

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Ana Primavesi, Fazenda Ecologica, POBox36, 18730-000 Itaí, SP, Brazil.

Email: [email protected]

Odo Primavesi, Embrapa Southeast Cattle, POBox 339, 13560-970 Sao Carlos, SP, Brazil.Email: [email protected]

References

- Primavesi A, 1998. Manejo ecológicode pastagens. Nobel, São Paulo, Brazil.

- Primavesi A, 1989. Manejo ecológicode solo. Nobel, São Paulo, [email protected]


Integrated systems: the experiencesfrom CIPAV in Colombia

Enrique Murgueitio

In Colombia, inefficient extensivecattle ranching by 10% rich farmersoccupies 40 million ha, 90% of

agricultural lands. The 90% poorsubsistence farmers have access only toabout 10% of the land and must producein an increasingly intensive way. Farmingunits smaller than 20 ha cover only 13%of the land but comprise 74% of farms.Permanent crops such as coffee, oil palmand sugar cane occupy 3 million ha andshort-cycle crops, mainly cereals andtubers, around 2 million ha.

Since 1986, the Centre for Research onSustainable Farming Systems (CIPAV)has worked in the south-west ofColombia, conducting participatoryresearch studies with peasant farmersand entrepreneurial producers ondifferent aspects of integrated systems.In recognition of the development andimplementation of these systems in thehumid rural areas of Colombia, CIPAVwas awarded the ecological prize “BluePlanet Award” in 1995. Presently, muchof the progress made in generating,validating and applying new know-howregarding these systems has beenconcentrated on issues such asagroforestry and silvopastoral systems,environmental adaptation of livestock,management of micro watersheds, waterdecontamination and production ofhealthy food products. In this article theauthor provides an outline of the basicmodels.

The drawing provides an overview of thedifferent components of an integrated

system as developed by CIPAV.

The basic components of the peasantsystemsThe small-scale integrated systems thathave been developed with peasantfarmers use highly productive annualcrops, multipurpose trees and waterplants as sources of biomass to providefeed for cattle and other animal species,food and fuel. The systems consist ofseveral subsystems that can be intro-duced separately or as an integratedfarm. These subsystems are: biomassproduction (crops), ruminants,monogastrics (poultry, fish, earthworms),water decontamination and biogas (seeFigure p.26). This basic model isdeveloped for small-scale farms but hasbeen adapted to large-scale as well.

The system can be either based on a cropor on residues and by-products ofprocessed tropical crops. Sugar caneplanted at high density, oil palm, coconutpalm, plantain, banana or cassava are afew examples of crops that can be used.In the case of sugar cane, the juice is fedas a complete replacement of cereals topigs and ducks and supplemented withfresh water fern Azolla filiculoides andwhole soybean grain. Local fodder treespecies like Gliricidia sepium,Trichanthera gigantea, Erythrina fusca,Erythrina peoppigiana, Erythrina edulis,Thitonia diversifolia, Morus alba,Leucaena leucocephala, Moringaoleifera, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius orGuazuma ulmifolia are used dependingon which adapts better to the localconditions. The tree foliage is harvested

and the leaves are used as a source ofprotein to supplement sugar cane topsfor feeding cattle. Trees are also used assources of fruits, shade and nitrogen.Animals are partially stall-kept, allowingfor easy recycling of their excreta byvermicomposting or through a biogasdigester to provide fuel. Biodigesters arepart of the treatment for decontaminationof waste water from washing animalenclosures and coffee beans. Theproductivity of these intensive integratedfarming systems is 3 - 10 times higherthan of traditional farming systems. Thesystem can be implemented gradually ata pace convenient for each farmer. Fewfarmers set up the whole system at once.Resources required are mainly man-power, manure and plants.

The “Productive Decontamina-tion” subsystemThis subsystem consists of a plastic-bagbiodigester of continuous flow (water andorganic residues enter and escapecontinually at a constant rate), aquaticplant channels, fishponds and associatedcrops. Waste water goes into thebiodigester to produce biogas fromorganic waste. The effluent is directedthrough zigzag channels with aquaticplants where suspended solids, phospho-rus, nitrogen and heavy metals areremoved by bacteria and the plant rootsystems. The channels have differentspecies of plants that vary in their degreeof efficiency to decontaminate (Azollafiliculoides, Azolla sp., Lemna minor,Eichornia crassipes, Salvinia natans).


Aquatic plants and sediments from thechannels are used to fertilise forage andfruit crops. Finally, the water can also besent into a fishpond where planktonutilises the remaining minerals in thewater to produce biomass to feed fish.Fish are produced in a system ofmultiple association of species(Prochidolus reticulatus, Cyprinus carpioand Colossoma macropomum). Pressedstalk and stems are also used as fuel. Inthis integrated system waste products areminimised and the local resources areefficiently used. Fuel production is anadded benefit for the family and theenvironment. In small farming unitsbiogas is used for cooking whileentrepreneurial farms use it for warmingpiglets or generating electrical power ininternal combustion engines.

Components of the commercialsystemsIn the larger-scale commercial systems,the biomass subsystem is divided intofour components (sugar cane,silvopasture, grassland and aquaticplants). The cattle are of a dual-purposetype for both milk and meat production.The silvopastoral subsystem consists ofgrass (Cynodon nlemfuensis, Panicummaximum or any other Gramineae),associated with a legume tree likeLeucaena leucocephala or Erythrinafusca (10,000 or more plants/ha).Grazing on these pastures allows theanimals to freely browse on the foddertrees, which regenerate naturally.Grazing is rotational and pastures arefertilised with manure and effluent fromthe biodigester. Calves are kept under a

restricted suckling regime supplementedwith sugar cane tops, grass, urea-molasses blocks and a mixture of treefoliage and palm oil. Commercial feed hasbeen completely replaced with excellentbiological results. These systemseliminate the costs of nitrogenfertilisation, allow an increase in thenumber of animals per unit area up to 5animals/ha (national average: 0.5/ha) andincrease milk production above 12,000 l/yr. Given the fact that the system isenvironmentally friendly and highlyproductive, some areas of land can befreed for conservation.

Diversification in the use of sugar canehas resulted in the production of certifiedorganic panela (dark sugar loafs) forexport using animal manure as fertiliserand substituting herbicides with hairsheep and manual weed control. Sugarcane has also been used in steer fattening(stalks and tops) combined with treeforages such as Gliricidia sepium plantedin densities between 10,000 and 20,000trees/ha.

In commercial swine production, wateris decontaminated using biodigesters thatallow 20-25% reduction in the cost ofelectric power by using a mixture ofbiogas and fossil fuel (diesel or gasoline)in internal combustion engines.

The use of tractors for low-weightcartage is restricted through the use ofanimal draught, mainly buffaloes andmules, with a 50% reduction in the costof these activities and environmental(emission reduction) and social (employ-ment generation) benefits, whilemaintaining efficiency.

The approach is spreading in thehumid tropicsThe CIPAV system is ideal for the humidtropics in Central and South America andSoutheast Asia, where biomass produc-tion is not a limiting factor but conserva-tion of natural resources and theenvironment is a priority. For the last 10years these systems have been tested,adapted and adopted (either all or someof the components) by small farmers indifferent climatic conditions in Colombia.Currently this technology is beingtransferred and adapted to the Philip-pines, Cambodia, Vietnam, El Salvador,Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago underFAO assisted projects.

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Enrique Murgueitio, ExecutiveDirector of the Research Centre onSustainable Farming Systems – CIPAV,Carrera 2 Oeste # 11-54, Cali, Colombia,Phone: +57(2) 8930931;Fax: +57(2) 8935535 Cali, [email protected]. Web site: http://www.cipav.org.co

References:- Murgueitio ER, 1998. Mixed farmingproduction systems: a sustainablesolution for livestock production inLatin America. On: http://www.cipav.org.co- Murgueitio ER, 2001. Participatoryresearch on integrated silvopastoralsystems: experiences of CIPAV inColombia. LEISA Revista deAgroecologia Volume 16, No. 4 (Spanish).

CIPAV has produced many how to dopublications, available in Spanish only.

Native tree species for silvopastoral systems

Currently, CIPAV is working with local communities in thecentral and western Andes of Colombia on the integration ofnative tree species in silvopastoral systems. Two examples ofresearch on such trees are:

1. Nacedero Trichanthera gigantea

This species, native to the northern Andes, is traditionallyused by rural indigenous and small farmer communities inColombia and Venezuela. Its main uses are related to itsmedicinal properties and to increasing spring water. Thewater-attracting capacity has been mentioned by differentauthors but has not yet been proved through formal scientificmethods. Researchers from CIPAV learned from the farmershow to use this species as a fodder plant. Since thenparticipatory research has allowed for considerable gain ofknowledge related to this species. Some important productsand results of this research are:

• Intensive cultivation in protein banks in more than 20departments in Colombia and 12 countries in CentralAmerica, the Caribbean, Venezuela and Southeast Asia

• Fast asexual propagation techniques

• Germoplasm collection in Colombia and Venezuela

• Inclusion in most Andean micro-watershed reforestationprojects in Colombia

• Commercial products for natural medicine

2. Arboloco Montanoa quadrangularis

This is a tree species from the Andes of Colombia andVenezuela that grows fast in unforested habitats. For morethan a century this species has been used for construction ofhouses and buildings, animal enclosures, coffee-drying sheds,corrals, furniture, fences etc. Its white pith is used inhandcrafts.Work done by CIPAV with this tree relates mostly to phenology,regeneration, growth, rehabilitation of degraded pastures,plantations and agroforestry systems. Young farmers trained toconduct rigorous periodic observations participate as co-researchers. In less than 5 years and with a limited budget thesestudies have benefited small farmers and institutions in the formof:

• Guidelines for the restoration of deforested micro-watersheds

• Plantations for the rehabilitation of degraded pastures

• Low-cost technology for establishing habitat corridors, livefences and tree-lines for erosion control.

The results of these research programmes have been presented in the electronic conference on‘Agroforestry for animal production in Latin America’ organised and run by FAO and CIPAV (see http://www.cipav.org.co).


The demand for milk and meat hasbeen increasing and animalhusbandry, as a profitable

occupation, is expanding. However,there is a substantial decline in fodderproduction, owing to the decreasing areaunder forest and grasslands. The fodderavailability from various crops has alsodecreased largely due to the introductionof high yielding dwarf varieties.

The shortage of fodder is, therefore,being compensated with commercial feed,resulting in increased cost of productionof meat and milk. Moreover, ascommercial feed is mixed with urea andother artificial milk boosters, it has adeleterious effect on the quality of milkproduced and the longevity of thelivestock, which in turn leads todegenerative diseases like cancer andcoronary ailments in human beings.

Search for an alternative took us to awonderful plant, “Azolla”, which holdsthe promise as a sustainable feedsubstitute for livestock.

Importance of Azolla

Azolla is very rich in proteins, essentialamino acids, vitamins (vitamin A, vitaminB12, Beta Carotene), growth promoterintermediaries and minerals like calcium,phosphorous, potassium, ferrous,copper, magnesium etc. Azolla, on a dryweight basis, is constituted of 25-35%

AZOLLA – A sustainable feedsubstitute for livestock

Dr. P. Kamalasanana Pillai, S. Premalatha and S. Rajamony

protein content, 10-15% mineral contentand 7-10%, a combination of aminoacids, bio-active substances and bio-polymers. Carbohydrate and oil contentin Azolla is very low. Thus the bio-composition of Azolla, makes it one ofthe most economic and efficient feedsubstitutes for livestock. Moreover,Azolla can be easily digested bylivestock, owing to its high protein andlow lignin content.

Trials were carried out by NaturalResources Development Project(NARDEP), Vivekananda Kendra, withAzolla as a feed substitute in Tamil Naduand Kerala. Trials on dairy animalsshowed an overall increase of milk yieldby 15–20% when 1.5–2 Kg of Azollawas combined with regular feed. 15–20% of commercial feed, especially oilcake, can be replaced with the samequantity of Azolla on dry weight basis,without affecting milk production. Itwas also found that Azolla feedingimproves the quality of milk and thehealth and longevity of livestock.

Feeding Azolla to poultry birds improvesthe weight of broiler chicken andincreases the egg production of layers.Azolla can also be fed to sheep, goat, pigand rabbit as feed substitute. In China,cultivation of Azolla along with paddyand fish is said to have increased the riceproduction by 20% and fish productionby 30%. Trials conducted on Azolla asfish feed substitute are also encouraging.

NARDEP method of Azollaproduction

Natural Resources Development Project(NARDEP) has been working on Azollafor the last 3 - 4 years, finding itspotential as a feed substitute andexploring cost effective methods for themass multiplication of Azolla in farmers’homesteads.

In NARDEP method, an artificial waterbody is made, preferably under the shadeof a tree, with the help of a silpaulinesheet. A pit of the size of 2M X 2M X0.2M is dug as a first step. This pit is

covered with plastic gunnies to preventthe roots of the nearby trees piercing thesilpauline sheet, which is spread over theplastic gunnies. About 10 – 15 kgs ofsieved fertile soil is uniformly spreadover the silpauline sheet. Slurry made of2-kg cow dung and 30 gms of SuperPhosphate in 10 litres water, is pouredonto the sheet. More water is poured tomake the water level reach about 10 cm.About 500 gms to 1kg of fresh and pureculture of Azolla is inoculated in the pit.Azolla will rapidly grow and fill the pitwithin 10-15 days and about 500 gms –600 gms of Azolla can be harvested dailythereafter. A mixture of 20 gms of SuperPhosphate and about 1 kg of cow dungshould be added once in 5 days. This isdone to keep the Azolla in rapidmultiplication phase and to maintain thedaily yield of 500 gm./pit. Micronutrientmix containing magnesium, iron, copper,sulphur etc., can also be added at weeklyintervals to enhance the mineral contentof Azolla. In this method the cost ofproduction of Azolla is less than 65 ps./kg (See Table III)

What is Azolla?

Azolla is a floating fern and belongsto the family of Azollaceae. The fernAzolla, hosts a symbiotic blue greenalgae anabaena azollae, which isresponsible for the fixation andassimilation of atmospheric nitrogen.Azolla, in turn, provides the carbonsource and favorable environment forthe growth and development of theBGA symbiont. In Azolla, the endo-symbiont, the BGA is even carriedthrough the sexual reproductivephase, perhaps the only one of thiskind in the plant kingdom. It is thisunique symbiotic relationship, whichmakes Azolla, a wonderful plant.

Cultural Practices forOptimum Bio-mass

1. It is important to keep Azolla atthe rapid multiplication growthphase with the minimum doublingtime.

2. Periodic application of cow-dungslurry, super phosphate and othermacro and micronutrients exceptnitrogen, prevents plants fromreaching sporulation stage.

3. The temperature should beretained below 250C. In case thetemperature goes up, the lightintensity should be maintainedbelow 40 klux by providing shade.

4. Biomass should be removed everyday or on alternate days to avoidover crowding

5. PH should be tested periodicallyand should be maintained between5.5 and 7.


Table I. Comparision of Biomass and protein content of Azollawith different species

Annual Dry Matter ProteinProduction Content Content

Sl. Item of MT MTNo Biomass

MT

1. Hybrid Napier 250 50 4

2. Kolakattai Grass 40 8 0.8

3. Lucerne 80 16 3.2

4. Cowpea 35 7 1.4

5. Subabul 80 16 3.2

6. Sorghum 40 3.2 0.6

7. Jowar 35 3 0.6

8. Azolla 730 56 20

Precautions

1. A shady place, preferably under a tree, with sufficient sunlight should bechosen for the Azolla production unit. A place of direct sunlight should beavoided.

2. All corners of the pit should be of the same level so that the water level can bemaintained uniformly.

3. Azolla biomass @ 300 gms – 350 gms /sq.meter / should be removed daily toavoid over crowding and for keeping the fern at rapid multiplication phase.

4. Suitable nutrients should be supplied, as and when, nutrient deficiency isnoticed.

5. Plant protection measures against pests and diseases should be taken as andwhen required,

6. About 5 kg bed soil should be replaced with fresh soil , once in 30 days, toavoid nitrogen build up and prevent micro-nutrient deficiency.

7. 25 to 30% water also needs to be replaced with fresh water, once in 10 days,to prevent nitrogen build up in the bed.

8. Replacement of water and soil should be followed by fresh inoculation ofAzolla, at least once in six months.

9. A fresh bed has to be prepared and inoculated with pure culture of Azolla,when contaminated by pest and diseases.

Azolla plant can be easily manipulated(special manipulation technique has beendeveloped to enhance a particular mineralor amino acid content in Azolla) tosynthesize more quantities of desiredsecondary metabolities. These include,amino acids, vitamins, anthocyanines andeven mineral compounds derived throughproper manipulation with nutrients andenvironmental factors. Adding therespective salts in the medium canincrease the much needed iron, copperand calcium content of Azolla biomass.

Though there is no large-scale incidenceof pests and diseases in Silpauline basedproduction system, the pest and diseaseproblems have been noticed duringintensive cultivation. The pest attack can

be controlled by the application ofFurodan @ 10 gram / sq.meter. Similarly,treating Azolla with Bavestine 2%solution can control most of the fungaldiseases. In case of severe pest attack,the entire bed should be cleaned and afresh bed may be laid out in a differentlocation. Biomass collected from fieldapplied with pesticide should not beused as a feed for livestock. It is betterto have a fresh inoculation after everypesticide / fungicide application.

Using Azolla as livestock feed

Azolla should be harvested with a plastictray having holes of 1 sq.cm mesh size todrain the water. The tray along withAzolla should be kept in a bucket, halffilled with water. Azolla should bewashed to get rid of the cow dung smell.Washing also helps in separating thesmall plantlets which drain out of thetray. The plantlets along with water inthe bucket can be poured back in to the

Yield of Azolla 730 MT / Hectare @ of 200 gm./sq.m/day

Azolla Plant


Table II. Result of Feeding Trials Conducted For Poultry

Sl. Age of 100% 50% Feed + 75% Feed + 100% Feed +No. birds Feed 16% Azolla 12.5 % Azolla 5 % Azolla

in Weight

1. 7 155 120 120 149

2. 8 193 151 149 188

3. 9 234 179 181 245

4. 10 278 201 252 335

5. 11 320 231 312 398

6. 12 373 264 416 480

7. 13 433 309 454 544

8. 14 494 344 518 614

Table III. Economics of Azolla production

S.No Particulars Amount(Rs.)

1. Cost of 120 gauge Silpauline 2.8M X 1.8M(Production in 1 sq.meter / day is 300 grams )Cost of 4 units Silpauline is Rs. 80 X 5 400.00

2. Labour Charges For Bed Preparation 100.00

3. *Cow-dung 1 X 4 = 4 Kg Rs. 2 X 73 146.00

4. Superphosphate 25 X 4 = 200g X 73 = 1400 gms 7.50

5. Magnesium Sulphate 1 kg 4.00

6. Micro-nutrients 73 X 5 = 365 grams 15.00

7. Cost of inoculation material 200 X 8 = 1,600 gms 5.00

TOTAL COST OF PRODUCTION (Rs) 677.50

Total Production 350 days in 4 units 1050

(4 kg/day for 350 days for one year ) Kgs/annum

Unit Cost of Production (Rs/kg) (Rs. 677/1050) 0.65/kg

(Note: * Application of cow-dung and Super phosphate once in 5 days,.i.e., 73times in a year)

original bed. Fresh Azolla thus collectedshould be mixed with commercial feed in1:1 ratio to feed livestock. For poultry,Azolla as such can be fed, both for layersand broilers. However, it is advisable tomix Azolla in regular feed in 1:1 ratio atthe beginning, for one week. After afortnight of feeding on Azolla mixed withregular feed, livestock may be directlyfed with Azolla, with out the addition ofregular feed material.

Nutrient content and its impact ongrowth

The nutrient constitution of Azolla isfound to be almost similar to that ofcommercial poultry feed, except that theprotein content is high and calciumcontent is slightly low. Feeding trialscarried out on poultry with differentcombinations of commercial feed andAzolla, showed that 20–25% of

commercial feed could be replaced bysupplementing it with fresh Azolla indiet. Birds with 75% of the regular feedand 12.5% in the form of Azolla, weighedalmost equal to the birds with 100%regular feed (Table II). The birdsreceiving normal feed with 5% extra, inthe form of Azolla, grew faster than thebirds with 100% feed alone. 10–12%increase in the total body weight wasalso observed. The trials on broilerchicken showed a substantial increase intheir body weight. The number of eggslaid per bird and quality of eggs (theyellow yolk portion of egg being moreprominent and yellowish) was also betterthan those of the control birds.

There was a substantial improvement inthe quantity, as well as, quality of milkproduced, when dairy cattle were fedwith Azolla combined with commercialfeed along with an improvement in the

health of the cattle. The increase in themilk yield was to the tune of 10–15%,which went up to 20%, during summermonths from February to May. It isfound that the increase in the quantity ofthe milk produced on the base of nutrientwas higher than the quantity of Azollafed. Hence, it is assumed that more thanthe carbohydrate, protein content andother components, like carotinoids, bio-polymers, probiotics etc., may becontributing to the over all increase in theproduction of milk.

Conclusion

Azolla can be used as an ideal feedsubstitute for cattle, fish, pig andpoultry, apart from its utility as a bio-fertilizer for wetland paddy. It ispopular and cultivated widely in othercountries like China, Vietnam, andPhilippines etc., and is yet to be takenup in India, in a big way. The productiontechnology has to be standardized to thediverse and different agro-climatic zonesof the country, to enable its widerspread.

Dairy farmers of South Kerala andKanyakumari district have taken up thelow cost production technologydeveloped by NARDEP as part of theproject funded by Department of Bio-technology (Government of India). It ishoped that in the coming days, Azollatechnology will be taken up in a big wayby the dairy farmers, especially, by thosewho experience land scarce conditions forfodder production.

�

Acknowledgement :

We acknowledge with thanks the financial

assistance received from department of

Bio-technology (Government of India) for

carrying out the research on the

propagation of BGA and Azolla in

NARDEP, Vivekananda Kendra,

Kanyakumari.


Adaptation of the zero grazingconcept by Luo farmers in Kenya

Nelson A.R. Mango

The National Dairy DevelopmentProject (NDDP) of Kenya wasimplemented by the Kenyan and

Dutch governments with the main aim ofincreasing milk production for themarket. In 1979, the NDDP introduced adairy farm concept based on zerograzing (ZG) which involves confiningof dairy cattle in a stall and the develop-ment of a cut and carry fodder system.When the project ended in 1999, it hadcovered a total of 25 districts throughoutthe country and over 10,000 farmerswere involved in either ZG or semi -ZGdairy farming. Many of the Luo farmersof Siaya district embraced the project asthey were attracted to the additionalbenefit of ZG, namely replenishment ofsoil fertility for crop production.However, they introduced a number ofadaptations to the ZG concept to fittheir needs and opportunities. The ZGconcept and the adaptations made arediscussed below.

The zero grazing conceptThe research component of NDDPproduced a technology package thataimed at addressing the constraints ofsmallholder dairy farming in Kenya: lackof grazing land, low productivity of dairycows, low quality of fodder, prevalenceof diseases and lack of financial means(Valk, 1990; Muma 1994). The packageconsists of several components:

Housing (the zero-grazing unit): Fig.1shows the floor plan of a ZG unitbuilding as proposed by the NDDP. Inthe ZG system, the cows are kept insideall year round to prevent tick-bornediseases and other health hazards.

The introduction of improved dairy cattlebreeds. The NDDP recommended thatfarmers stock their units with high milk

Farmers saw many possibilities in the “zero grazing” approach.

yielding graded dairy cows. Gradedcows, in this case, were not pure breeds,but animals with more than 50% ‘exoticblood’. Exotics used for obtaining gradedcattle were Jersey, Ayrshire, Guernsey,Friesian and Sahiwal.

Breeding and fertility: Farmers wereadvised to maintain the dairy breeds byupgrading their stock through artificialinsemination using semen from a dairybull.

The production of high-yielding fodderon-farm. In a ZG system all feed isbrought to the animals, as they are notallowed to graze outside. Napier grass isthe main fodder crop that the projectrecommended to the farmers. Its re-growth after cutting is rapid andestablishment is relatively easy.

Utilisation of farmyard manure andartificial fertilisers to maintain soilfertility. To replenish soil fertility, NDDPrecommended that farmers return allmanure to the napier plot every 2 to 3days. Farmers were also advised toapply 4 bags (@ 50 kg) of compoundNPK fertiliser (20-10-10) per acre peryear.

Feeding: The project advised thefarmers to plant 0.75 - 1 acre ofnapier grass per mature cow andher offspring, and to cut it whenapproximately 60-90 cm long.Commercial dairy meal was to begiven as the main proteinconcentrate supplement to thecows at milking time, the quantitydepending on the production ofthe cow. Mineral salt lick was tobe offered to the animals ad lib inthe mineral box.

Introduction of the ZG concept toLuo farmersInitially, dairy production with gradedcows was developed in Kenya on large-scale European farms during the colonialperiod. Since the 1950s, it spread toAfrican smallholdings as well. In Siaya,the first graded cows arrived in the early‘50s. But, being settled pastoralists, theLuo people still highly valued its ownbreed of African Zebu cattle, whichplayed an important cultural role, forexample in wedding and funeral ceremo-nies. Free ranging animals were essentialin providing manure for crop production.By bringing in nutrients and organicmatter from a wider area to the croppedfields, soil fertility can be replenished.Being more expensive and needing morecare, graded dairy cattle could not beused to perform these functions. Assuch, the Luo people did not acceptthese animals.

When the NDDP was launched in Siayain 1987, farmers were actively seekingsolutions for the problems they werefacing: reduced land sizes, low incomes,loss of soil fertility leading to poor cropyields and market failures of cash cropslike coffee, cotton and sugar. Someinnovative farmers had already startedwith ZG, particularly after seeing itsbenefits in the neighbouring districtswhere it had been introduced muchearlier. The Luo people were gettingmore integrated into the money economyand cash crop production. Theirceremonies were changing as well astheir opinion about graded cows. Now,most farmers have adopted the ZGconcept, because they were able to adaptit to their needs and opportunities.

Phot

o : W

illem

van

Wep

eren

Fig.1 Floor plan of zero grazing unit


Production of napier grassMost ZG dairy farmers have an averageof 2 to 3 cows, 1 or 2 heifers and 1 calf.Some have a young or full grown bull.The majority of farmers have only 0.4-0.6 acres of napier per cow and heroffspring. Farmers do not find this aproblem as they always supplementnapier grass with crop residues such asmaize stalks, sweet potato vines, bananaleaves and stems, and molasses.

During times of scarcity, farmers areforced to feed the African Zebu cattle onthe napier grass as well. This lowers theamount of napier grass that is availablefor the dairy cows. Then they harvest thenapier grass even below 60cm in height.During times of plenty (wet seasons), thenapier grass is allowed to overgrow as alot of labour is required in the otherareas of the farm. Farmers then cutnapier grass only to feed the high-gradedairy cattle and not the African Zebu.

Replacing commercial concentratesMost farmers use commercial dairymeal. They feed dairy meal to the cowsat milking time at a rate of 2 kg per dayor depending on productivity. Somefarmers reduce this rate of dairy mealprovision due to the availability of ampleroughage. Several farmers in the districthave come up with ‘home-mix’ dairymeal. Farmers who use this home-mixstate that they get twice as much milk forthe same amount of commercial dairymeal, which is sometimes adulteratedwith sawdust. A typical composition of a100 kg of home-mix dairy meal is 40 kgsunflower cake, 40 kg maize grain, 10 kgsorghum, 5 kg soya beans and 5 kg driedcassava chips. The mixture is dried andmilled.

Some farmers have embarked on usingbrewer’s waste (machicha) as a proteinsupplement. Farmers get their brewer’swaste from Kenya Brewers Limitedsome 40 km from Kisumu town. Theyfind brewer’s waste cheap to buy eventhough its transportation is costly.Farmers mention that the use of brewer’swaste as a feeding supplement, ad lib,increases the milk production by 7 litresper day.

Other additional sources of protein arefodder legumes. Some farmers grow theirnapier grass mixed with Desmodiumspp.. Apart from increasing the proteincontent of the feed, it also fixes nitrogenin the soil. Also, fodder trees likeLeucaena spp., Calliandra spp., andSesbania spp., are used to increase theprotein content of the diet.

Use of manure and artificialfertilisersMost farmers in Siaya do not applyfertiliser to their napier. Those who do,

apply an average of 39 kg per acre pergrowing season instead of the recom-mended 100 kg. Figures on the amount ofmanure that is returned to the napier plotin Siaya are also much below therecommended amounts. A bag of fertiliseris quite an investment, which mostfarmers prefer to use on cash crops, foodcrops or vegetable crops instead of onthe napier grass. Fertilisers are also notreadily available everywhere in thedistrict. There is an apparent competitionfor manure between the napier grass andcash crops, especially vegetables.Farmers with sufficient manure fromtheir ZG units have expanded farming bygrowing high-value crops like vegetables(kale, cabbage and onions). Somefarmers prefer applying the manure totheir maize crops.

Farmer innovation in napierproductionA group of farmers are now using a newmethod to grow napier known astumbukisa. This method is a response tothe high labour input required by thenormal method of growing napierrecommended by the NDDP at a spacingof 3 feet by 2 feet. With tumbukisa,farmers dig holes of 3 feet by 3 feet and 4feet deep; they mix the topsoil with threewheelbarrows of compost manure fromthe dairy unit and use the mixture to fillthe hole. About 10 cane sets are plantedon top of the filled hole in a concentricmanner. Top dressing with slurry is doneevery six months instead of 2 to 3 days.This method is labour intensive toestablish, but requires far less labour tomaintain as slurry application in onlydone twice a year. Since the holes arespaced 2 feet apart, some farmers plantsweet potatoes in between.

As applying slurry to the napier plotsmanually is labour intensive, somefarmers have constructed furrowchannels, that take the slurry by gravityfrom the unit into the napier plots, maize

and vegetable fields. Some farmers justremove the dung manually from the unitand heap it somewhere to decomposeand form farmyard manure.

ConclusionSome farmers in Siaya adopted ZG withthe aim of commercialising milkproduction. As a result of the project,they set up the Yala Dairy Co-operativeSociety for marketing their milk. Thesociety also advances credit to itsmembers to expand dairy farming. Thesefarmers see ZG as an alternative tocoffee, sugar and cotton that are now lesssuccessful in the area. ZG provides themanother way to generate money forhousehold requirements and to pay fortheir children’s education.

Others adopted ZG in the first place toobtain manure for crop production. Bybuying nutrients as feed (napier grass,concentrates or other sources of protein)from outside the farm, the losses ofnutrients due to soil erosion and exportof products to the market, can becompensated. ZG makes it possible tostill keep cattle where land is scarce.These farmers see ZG as a way of re-establishing the balance betweenlivestock and crop production, whichwas largely lost due to reduction in thenumbers of African Zebu cattle.

�

Nelson A.R. Mango, Ph.D student,Department of Rural Development Sociology,Wageningen University and Research. E-mail:[email protected] [email protected]

References :

- Muma M, 1994. Farmers’ criteria forassessing zero grazing innovation indairy production. Case studies ofNDDP implementation in Kakamegaand Vihiga Districts, Kenya. Unpub-lished MSc thesis. Wageningen AgriculturalUniversity. - Valk Y van der, 1990.Review report of the DEAF surveysduring 1988, Naivasha, Ministry ofLivestock Development.

Farmers accepted the “zero grazing” approach but only after adapting it to their own situation.

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o : W

illem

van

Wep

eren


The Cuban experience in integratedcrop-livestock-tree farming

Fernando Funes-monzote and Marta Monzote

For nearly 25 years agriculture inCuba strongly depended on tradewith socialist countries in Europe

and the Far East. A few export products(sugar cane, citrus, coffee and tobacco)were exchanged for, among others,modern inputs to sustain the farming andranching activities.

In 1990, this advantageous tradingsystem collapsed. As trade was blockedalso with the USA and other Westerncountries, import of inputs was notpossible anymore. The ensuing eco-nomic crisis demonstrated the vulner-ability of agriculture strongly dependenton imported external inputs. Butagriculture in Cuba proved to beunsustainable, also due to the ecologicaland environmental problems it hadcreated: soil degradation, deforestation,water pollution and loss of biologicaldiversity.

The challenge to transform agricul-tureThis crisis challenged Cuban farmersand the government to transform theirexport-oriented, large-scale, specialisedproduction systems into diversified,integrated, self-sufficient, small-scalesystems. Agricultural research started toexperiment, among others, with localcattle and the development of integratedsystems and management practices, andmore sustainable feeding methods.Conversion of ranching systems intointegrated crop-livestock-tree systems toreverse the economic and environmentalcrisis and to provide income and foodsecurity for producers was the focus,with efficiency as a key factor forsuccess.

In 1994, the Cuban Grass and ForageResearch Institute started a project to

study, develop and promote integratedsmall and medium-scale crop-livestock-tree systems. The work included researchon 14 experimental farms and a largeoutreach programme in the provinces ofHavana, Sancti Spiritus, Camaguey andLas Tunas based on participatoryextension for spreading the lessons(Monzote and Funes-Monzote, 2000).

Six years later, the project has shownthat integrated crop-livestock-treesystems can be sustainable, efficient andproductive alternatives to specialised,external-input dependent dairy farming.Researchers and farmers show thatcombining the components into aconsistent whole brings better results interms of total production, energyefficiency, recycling of organic matterand the use of available natural re-sources.

The experimental farmsThe project converted 14 ranches intointegrated farms. These farms cover awide range of soils (alfisoles, mollisolesand inseptisoles) and climates (1000 to1400 mm rainfall, nearly 80% during the

rainy season). These rainfed farms,ranging from 1 to 20 ha. in size, had notused agrochemicals or imported animalfeed in the four years before the projectbegan. Eight of them were specialisedranching systems dedicated to pastureand milk production.

Each experimental integrated farm hasits own unique combination of crops,livestock and trees (with 25 to 50% ofcrops integrated in the livestock system)which suits the local conditions: soils,topography, climate, natural vegetation,wildlife and farmer preference. Eachfarm has a crop production sub-system(areas of arable crops, perennial cropsand vegetable garden) and an animalproduction sub-system (forest ranchland, pastures with a mixture ofgramineous and leguminous species,fodder banks with e.g. Pennisetum, sugarcane, protein banks with leguminousfodder crops and trees such as glycine,kudzu, leucaena, and areas for smallanimals). Medicinal plants and fruit treesare distributed throughout the farms.

Each farm manager defined the processof redesigning the farm. Self-sufficiencyin food, fodder and organic fertilisers,high production of biomass, diversifica-tion and integration were the leadingprinciples. Strategies like the use of cropresidues for animal feeding, functionalbiodiversity, reforestation of grazingareas, recycling of manure, compostingof organic waste, soil regeneration andconservation were followed.

Evaluation of performanceSpider web diagrams (figure 1) wereused to show the results of a largenumber of tests used to interpret theperformance of the farms. Eightagroecological indicators were selectedto evaluate the performance andsustainability of the integrated crop-livestock-tree systems. In milkspecialised systems in Cuba the averageyield is about 1 to 1.5 tons of milk perha. Some of the integrated farmsachieved 3 tons of milk and 6.1 tons interms of total food production from cropand livestock (Tabel 1).

Diversification of productionThe biodiversity in the redesigned farmshad increased considerably in the threeyears. The number of trees per hectarehad increased by 26 – 50% a year and theaverage number of food crops had

Indicator Range*

1 Milk production (tons/hectare) 1-3

2 Food production (tons/hectare) 1-9-6-1

3 Reforestation level (number of trees/hectare) 53-277

4 Diversity of wildlife (total number of species) 46-78

5 Food products (Number of edible products) 11-20

6 Production of organic fertilisers (tons/hectare) 1-2-8

7 Intensity of work (hours/day/hectare) 0.8-4.5

8 Energy efficiency (calories produced / calories invested) 4-5-10.6

* as a mean result of the 14 farms during six year

..... 1st year after the redesign processstarted

- - - - 2nd year____ 3rd year

Figure 1.Evaluation of afarm through

weightedindicators (%satisfaction)

represented in aspider web

Table 1: Scores of the sustainability indicators in the experimental farms


increased from 14 to 17 to 20. The totalbiodiversity of wildlife had increasedfrom 46 to 78 species per hectare, inaddition to the increase in the diversityof soil life.

Reforestation is an essential activity inthe transformation to integrated systems.But securing the survival of planted tressis a complex task on farms withlivestock. Therefore, for each sub-systemseveral strategies (see Table 2) weredefined:

Organic fertilisersA crucial question is where to obtain theorganic matter and nutrients. One optionis to import them from another farm,which is usually the case in market-oriented organic production. The otheroption is to produce them on-farm. Inthis respect, Jeavons (1991) dismissesthe former and stresses that organicfertilisers must be produced on the farmitself, recycling nutrients and maintainingthe fertility of the soil by propermanagement. In balancing nutrient flows,long-term, nutrient losses by soil erosion,leaching, etc. have to be minimised andexport of nutrients to the market has tobe compensated by import of nutrients,e.g. as fertiliser or feed. The advantage ofhaving cattle is that they produceconsiderable quantities of manure, whichmakes recycling of nutrients and organicmatter easier.

The evaluation showed that it is possibleto produce enough good quality organicfertiliser from the by-products availablein the farms to fertilise both the ranchand crop areas at a rate of 2 - 6 tons perha., depending on the design of the farm.

In addition, worm humus is produced insmaller quantities and green manurecrops at a large scale. In this way thedegraded soils are being regenerated intobiologically active and nutrient- richsoils. Nevertheless, there may be a nettoutflow of nutrients, which has to becompensated for on the long-term.

Multiple croppingDesigns for multiple cropping systemswere made that are well adapted to thelocal conditions and with crops com-monly used in Cuba: cassava, beans,groundnuts, soy beans, sesame, maize,sorghum, squash, melon, tomatoes,

cucumbers and vigna,mucuna and canavaliaetc. (as green manure)(see Figure 2). Thesesystems resulted in highland use rates (LUR),proving the vast potentialof multiple cropping forintensive land use.

Biomass productionand energy efficiencyThe evaluation revealedthe high productivity ofthese farms. The totalbiomass production was3-9 tons of dry matter/hectare/year, of which 1-3 tons/hectare/year relates to the livestock system andthe rest to crops, which correspondswith 3,000 - 10,000 Mcal/hectare ofprotein. The number of persons that canlive from each farm varied from 4 - 10persons and the sources of protein andenergy are diverse (see Table 3). Thisshows the potential of integrated farmsto produce a complete diet, food securityfor the family and a market surplus.

The energy balance of 4 - 10 caloriesproduced for each calorie invested,shows the biological benefit andefficiency of these systems. In conven-tional livestock systems applied in Cubaduring the ’70s and ’80s, this is normallyin the order of 5 calories invested for 1calorie produced (Funes-Monzote,1998).

Final commentsThis study showed the high potential interms of production, sustainability andenvironmental care of integrated crop-livestock-tree farming built onagroecological principles. The practicalevaluation methodology based onselected sustainability indicators isappropriate for further defining ofstrategies, planning and research. Theredesigned farms attracted a lot ofattention from farmers, technicians,researchers and teachers; they providedtraining opportunities and led to theadoption of the approach by otherfarmers.

The agroecological concepts stimulate thecreativity and enthusiasm of farmers,which leads to better decision making andperformance of the farm. By incorporat-

Table 2. Reforestation strategies

Reforestation

Crop productionsub-system• Around the

fields• Within the

cropping land(in strips)

Animal production sub-system• Within the pastureland

(with protection)• Forest patches

(segregation)• Fences (hedges)• Use of species that are

not palatable for cattle

ing crops and trees in their farmingsystem, ranchers can become self-sufficient in food products and increasethe amount of by-products available foranimal feed and income. Recycling ofmanure, green manure crops and treeshelp to take care of the environment,whilst adding value to the productionunit.

Promotion of crop-livestock-treeintegration is important to change thefarming mentality and to develop moreefficient production practices based onthe optimal use of locally-availableresources and a fair and sustainablebalance between nature and humanbeings.

�

Fernando Funes Monzote and MartaMonzote Fernández, researchers ofIntegrated Agroecological Systems. Pastureand Forage Research Institute – MINAG,Apartado 4029, C.P. 10400 Havana,CUBA. Fax: +53-7-2099881; E-mail:mgahona(ip.etecsa.cu

References

- Funes- Monzote, F. (1998). Sistemas deproducción integrados ganadería –agricultura con bases agroecológicas.Análisisy situación perspectiva parala ganadería cubana. MSc. Thesis, Inter-national University of Andalucia, 150 pp.

- Funes Monzote F & Monzote M, 2000.Results of Integrated Crop-Livestock-Forestry Systems with agroecological basesfor the development of Cuban Agriculture.13th IFOAM International ScientificConference. Basel, Switzerland. p. 426.

- Funes Monzote F, 2001. Integraciónganadería – agricultura con basesagroecológicas. Plantas y animales enarmonía con la naturaleza y elhombre. Asociación Nacional deAgricultores Pequeños, La Habana. 2ndEdition. 83 pp.

- Jeavons J, 1991. Cultivo biointensivode alimentos (bio-intensive cultivationof food products). California: EcologyAction.

This article has been published in Spanishin LEISA Boletín de ILEIA Vol.16, No.4.

Table 3. Number of persons sus-tained on the monitored farms

Indicators Range*

• People fed per hectare 4-10

• Sources of energy 4-9

• Sources of vegetal protein 3-10

• Sources of animal protein 5-12

* as mean result of the 14 farms during six years

Figure 2. Sequence of rain-fed crops for 2 years


Dutch dairy farmers find own solutions totheir environmental problems

Willem van Weperen en Henk Kieft

Farmer experimentation andinnovation and farmer-researcherplatforms for the development of

low external input and sustainableagriculture are very successful not onlyin tropical countries. Also in theNetherlands, there are remarkableinitiatives of farmers to developalternatives to the unsustainableconventional dairy production model.Ten years ago, two environmentalassociations of dairy farmers, VEL andVANLA in the province Friesland, in thenorth of the Netherlands, started toexperiment with nature and landscapemanagement and integrated agriculture.Now, after several years of successfulexperimentation with environmentally-sound farming practices, this initiative isbeing taken up by several hundreds ofdairy farmers in different parts of thecountry.

Fifty years of dairy developmentIn the ‘60s, the average Dutch dairy cowproduced 4000 kg milk per year. In2001, this was about 8500 kg. Theaverage yearly increase of about 100 kgmilk per cow was possible due to verysuccessful technology development,enhanced by effective research-extension-farmer interaction, access tocredit, and a conducive policy environ-ment. Artificial Insemination andeffective breeding policies increased thepotential milk yield of dairy animals tolevels that our grandfathers did not evendream of. Other important innovationswere: the shift from rope-tied to free-roaming stables with sleeping cubiclesand a much better ventilation system;disease control through effective

vaccination; very high fertiliser applica-tion levels which boosted grass yields;mechanisation of fodder production;improved fodder conservation techniquesand the introduction of fodder maize.The availability of ample high qualityroughage, supplemented with high levelsof protein-rich concentrates, made itpossible to fully exploit the improvedgenetic potential of the dairy cows. Butalso, the low prices of these high qualityfertilisers and concentrates were essentialin achieving high milk production.

Increasing environmental problemsThe recommended fertiliser applicationfor pastures has gone up to 400 kgnitrogen (N) /ha. Presently, annual grassproduction on pasture land is 10-12,000kg dry matter/ha. in 5-6 cuts. The lowprice and high status of mineralfertilisers made cow manure lose itsimportance and was used only as anextra, over and above the recommendedfertiliser application. Until recently, thenitrogen present in manure was not evenconsidered in calculations.

These high fertiliser applicationsincreasingly led to serious environmentalproblems: leaching of nitrates from thetopsoil to the groundwater negativelyaffecting the quality of the drinkingwater and high levels of ammoniaemission from the cows negativelyaffecting the quality of nature in thesurroundings of the farm. In the ‘80s,the Ministry of Agriculture had tointroduce a series of ‘restrictive’measures for dairy farmers to meet theenvironmental targets set by theEuropean Union. Broadcasting manure

on pasture land was banned and insteadit was made compulsory to inject themanure as slurry into the soil during thegrowing season.

In the early ‘90s, a mineral bookkeepingsystem for dairy farmers was introducedand was tested as a voluntary manage-ment tool. Through simple accounting ofmineral input and output at farm gatelevel, nutrient losses within the farmingsystem were made evident. Ideally,inputs (concentrates and fertilisers)balance with the outputs (milk and meat)in terms of nutrients. However, losses ofnitrogen occur in the cow and in the soil.This bookkeeping revealed that losses ofN/ha in the conventional dairy systemhad become very high and hence Nefficiency very low (<18% at cow leveland <30% at soil level). See figure 1.

Animal health problems andconsumer concernThe high-input farming system led notonly to environmental pollution but alsoto animal diseases:

• very high protein levels in the rationscausing digestion problems andmalfunctioning of the liver;

• high incidence of mastitis;

• animals becoming susceptible tohoof diseases;

• prolonged calving intervals due tofertility problems.

These health problems are increasingveterinary costs and decreasing milkproduction.

Consumers are showing increasedconcern with the (perceived) lack ofanimal welfare related to intensiveproduction, and with human health in

Figure 1. Nitrogen efficiency of Drenthe project farmers expressed in kg N/ha/year (ideal)

Concentrate47–273

Efficiency of dairy cow13-21% (25%)

Milk and meat67-110

Manure195-533

Fertilisers108-260

Mineral losses128-269

Soil efficiency30-60% (75%)

Roughage182-434

80%


relation to cow-diseases like Mad CowDisease (BSE). They have begunchallenging the so-called “license toproduce” of farmers. The Foot andMouth Disease crisis of last yearaggravated this feeling and exposed thevulnerability of the modern livestockproduction systems.

Two environmental associationsstart the processTen years ago, the two environmentalfarmer associations in Friesland werefounded by farmers to regain control overtheir own future. They argued that bydevelopment of integrated agriculture,pollution control by conscious use ofagrochemicals and plastics, and themanagement of nature and the manysmall-scale natural landscape elements(hedges, bunds, pools, etc.) on andbetween their farms, they could greatlyimprove the quality of their environment.These measures, they said, should notnecessarily decrease their production andincome, while certified quality products,landscape management and income fromagro-tourism could provide newopportunities.

The philosophy of these dairy farmers,based on their ‘gut feeling’ and experiencewith the production system of theirfathers, is that many relationships existbetween the various components of thefarming system, and that these relation-ships should be considered in allmanagement decisions. For example, theway they feed their cows affects thequality of the manure. The quality of themanure affects the quality of the soil.The quality and fertility of the soilaffects the quality of the pasture andfodder crops and hence the feed, which inturn affects the health of the animals andthe quality and quantity of the products.All parts of the system as well as thewhole are important! The quality andquantity of the dairy products (milk andmeat) are improved by optimising the(biological) quality of all the differentaspects (manure, soil, pasture, feed,animals, products) and the quality of thewhole system. In conventional dairyproduction, the concept of systemquality was lost because of the focus onthe development of a high input - highoutput system. Through refocusing onquality, the system develops in thedirection of a low input - high outputsystem.

The farmers found that by reducing theamount of protein and increasing theamount of crude fibre (roughage) in thefeed of their animals, the quality of themanure is much better than the slurryproduced by conventional dairy farmers.They argue that this type of manure(with higher C/N ratio and relatively richin organic N) is more beneficial to soil lifeand therefore more efficient in produc-tion of biomass. Consequently,N emission to the environment will bereduced. Broadcasting manure with these

qualities is also less detrimental to theenvironment.

The approach builds, as much aspossible, on farmers’ knowledge andecological regulating mechanisms found innature. The farmers consider theirexperiences as added value to theconventional scientific knowledge as theyalso use practices and methodologies notaccepted by conventional agriculturalscience.

Apart from system quality, the farmersalso work on adapted animal breeding,new opportunities to diversify the localrural economy such as agro-tourism, andfarmer cooperation to enhance processesof change.

The PMOV platform – taking itfurtherIn the last 3 years, this initiative has beentaken up other farmers and together withsome researchers they have founded thePMOV platform to promote ‘eco-technological’ farming. Presently, theplatform constitutes about 120 experi-menting dairy farmers, two formalexperimental research farms comparingintegrated and organic agriculture and thetwo environmental associations ofFrisian dairy farmers.

The network felt strongly that a linkshould be built with university researchfor two major reasons. The farmers, whorely on their own observations andincidental measurements, wished to getmore insight into what ecologicalprocesses actually take place in theirfarming systems. Secondly, they wantedpolicy makers to understand theirexploratory efforts and promisingresults, and adapt legislation towardsobjective-oriented regulations instead ofinstrumental ones. “Politicians shouldtell us what they want, but we willdecide ourselves how to do it!”. Initially,the Ministry of Agriculture was veryreluctant to cooperate. The farmers wereperceived as those trying to escapeenvironmental legislation. Only withgreat difficulty could the farmersnegotiate some legal space for theirexperiments which did not conform toDutch law for manure application. Afterseveral years of good results somerecognition for the value of theseexperiments is emerging, and money fromthe government has been allocated tofacilitate further experimentation by alarger number of farmers also in otherparts of the country. Also in 2002, agrant is expected from formal DairyResearch to formulate a joint monitoringproject to assess PMOV farm results andcompare these with conventional farms.‘Joint’ here means that farmers andscientists together design the project.Interest also exists to better understandthe dynamics and decision-making logicof experimenting farmers, to make thesharing of their experiences to otherinterested farmers cost efficient. Thesefarmers do not only perceive themselvesas entrepreneurs, but also and often even

more so, as ‘stewards of complexagroecosystems’. They often feel theneed to regain their ‘license to produce’within society at large.

Preliminary resultsThe results of the practical experiencesindicate that it is possible to maintain themilk yield with lower costs due tosubstantial reduction in mineral fertilisersupply and concentrate feeding. Thevalues of nitrate losses into the groundwater and ammonia losses into the airwere clearly below the set EU-targets.The health status of cattle on manyPMOV farms has improved, addingsignificantly to cost reduction. Thebiological quality of milk, manure andsoils is presently being assessed.

Beside these technical results, thefarmers strongly value the benefits fromimproved social relations and collabora-tion within the working groups and theircommunities. As farming now is more inline with their intuition, farmers feel lessstressed as well.

The techniques, ideas and experiences ofthe farmers and the two experimentalresearch farms are shared through farmer-to farmer meetings, newsletters, seminarsand info-markets, lectures and excur-sions, farmer study-clubs and educationalmaterial.

The experiences show that these farmersare well able to resolve their ownproblems and make their farmingsystems sustainable to a large extent.Within the norms set by society, farmersshould have professional freedom to findtheir own solutions adapted to localconditions.

�

Willem van Weperen en Henk Kieft,ETC Ecoculture, PO Box 64, 3830 ABLeusden, The Netherlands. Phone: +31 334326000; Fax: +31 33 4940791; Email:[email protected] ; Internet:www.etcint.org

Management guidelines for dairyproductionBased on the long years of experienceof the farmers and the experimentscarried out on the experimentalresearch farms, the platform formulatedsome new management ‘guidelines’ forkeeping dairy cattle in a moresustainable way:1. Reduce the percentage of crude

protein in the diet (from 18% toaround 16 or 15%) and increase thecrude fibre content;

2. Try to keep the OEB (RumenProtein Balance) at zero;

3. Try to increase the C/N ratio ofmanure from 7 to around 10;

4. Feed concentrates to a maximum of25 kg per 100 kg of milk;

5. Reduce the fertiliser applications onpasture stepwise with about 30 kg N/ha/year. Try to get it down until it is inbalance with the permitted yearlylosses (180 kg N/ha/year);

6. Distribute larger portions of the manureapplications to the 1st and 2nd cut.Stop manure and fertiliser applicationsentirely after mid July.


What happens when the river runs dry?Viengsavanh Phimphachanhvongsod, Peter Horne and Werner Stür

Lao people say, “When the river isin flood, the fish eat the ants.When the river runs dry, the ants

eat the fish”. For many of the 80% of theLao population who are rural, this sayingencapsulates their deep connection withseasonal change and cycles of shortageand surplus. Shifting cultivation, thedominant farming system in the northernmountainous regions of Laos, issusceptible to the vagaries of climate,soils and steep slopes. In Xieng Khouangprovince, for example, where shiftingcultivation is widespread, upland riceyields are among the lowest in thecountry (<1.2 t/ha), the average house-hold size (6.5 – 8.1) is the highest in thecountry, female literacy rates are amongthe lowest in the country and 6 of the 7districts have nett negative food balances(Sisouphanthong and Taillard, 2000).

The most pressing problem facingfarmers in these areas is declining riceyields, due largely to declining soilfertility and increasing weed problems.Both of these are the result of shorterfallow periods (which averaged 12 yearsin 1981-2 but have fallen as low as 3-4years in the more-intensively farmedareas). In the recent past, farmers wereable to overcome occasional disasters intheir rice crops by gathering forestproducts and hunting wild animals forhome consumption and sale. Thesecoping mechanisms have, however,rapidly diminished in the last 20 years,resulting in newly emerging poverty.

So, how do farmers cope with thisincreasingly vulnerable farming system?Many strategies are emerging dependingon local and household opportunities.Some are robust strategies and are likelyto persist, such as diversifying farmactivities to reduce reliance on uplandrice and concentrating labour andmanure on the smaller areas of morefertile fields. Other strategies are short-term coping mechanisms that havedeveloped in the absence of betteralternatives, such as selling labour andgrowing cash crops in the hope thattraders will come to buy them. But, themost widespread strategy, which isbecoming increasingly important, is toraise animals. Livestock are the easiestway for most upland farmers toaccumulate capital, (delivering a highreturn per unit of labour input) and theycan be sold in a market environmentwhere there is constant demand andstable prices (unlike most crops).Typically, the better-off farmers willhave 5-10 cattle and buffalo whereasnearly all farmers raise small animals(chickens, pigs, ducks or goats).

The link between livestock andreducing povertyA study by the State Planning Commit-tee (SPC) in 2001 asked farmers acrossLaos to define poverty, identify itscauses and prioritise the ways theywould like to overcome poverty.Livestock emerged as the primaryindicator of wealth, livestock diseaseranked second as a cause of poverty, andlivestock acquisition ranked second as a

solution to poverty. This was particu-larly so among the ethnic groups whichinhabit the remote mountain areas.Among the poor, women were, onaverage, worse off than men. The raisingof small livestock is typically women’swork. At certain times of the year(especially at the start of the wet season)they spend 30-50% of their working timecollecting feed for pigs. These smallanimals are particularly susceptible tocatastrophic disease epidemics and,when disease strikes, “the loss to thefamily is every bit as traumatic as thecollapse of a bank in which all of one’ssavings were held”.

The need for new options in small-holder livestock production

The strong emphasis placed bysmallholder farmers on livestock as a“stepping-stone” out of poverty hasencouraged government and non-government organisations throughout thecountry to work on improvingsmallholder livestock systems. In anearlier article in LEISA Magazine (Vol.16,No.3, pp.26-27) we described researchthat is being done with farmers in thenorthern mountainous regions of Laos toidentify forages (both grasses andlegumes) that can help minimise some ofthe livestock feeding problems. In thisfirst year, working with 222 farmers in18 villages, the most promising foragetechnologies that have emerged are thosewhich:

• help farmers overcome seasonal feedshortages (such as the grass Panicummaximum “Simuang” for cut-and-


carry feeding of cattle and buffalowhen they are sick, working orpenned)

• help reduce labour requirements inlooking after animals (such as thelegume Stylosanthes guianensisCIAT184 which can be grown nearpens as a source of high quality feedfor pigs) and,

• can provide feed at particular timesof year when traditional feedresources are in short supply (suchas Brachiaria brizantha “Marandu”for providing green feed to cattle andbuffalo in the dry season)

The most promising varieties forSoutheast Asia and their potentialimpacts on smallholder farmers (basedon field experiences of over 5 years)have been described in two books thatare available in English and five regionallanguages (Horne and Stür, 1999, Stürand Horne, in press).

Forages will, however, only ever be onecomponent of livestock feed resourcesand, especially for small animals, newsupplementary feed resources areneeded. To provide an energy source fortheir pigs, for example, Hmong womenin the remote district of Nonghet growmaize. They have two traditionalvarieties but neither satisfies their needs.We are now expanding our work inpartnership with such farmers to evaluateand develop other feed resources(especially new legume, maize and sweetpotato varieties) to help them diversifytheir livestock feed resource base.

In the study by SPC about 70% of thevillages surveyed identified livestockdisease as an urgent and high priorityproblem. Epidemic diseases (particularlyfowl cholera and Newcastle disease inchicken, swine fever in pigs and theparasite Toxocara vitulorum in buffalocalves) can cause annual losses of 80%or more. Haemorrhagic septicaemiaresults in occasional major losses ofcattle. Two complementary approachesare being developed to deal with thesedisease problems. The first is to build anational network of Village VeterinaryWorkers who are linked to district

offices, which can supply them withveterinary medicines. This is a strategythat will have longer-term impacts but isdependent on the development of asupply chain that can deliver good-quality vaccines and veterinary chemi-cals to remote areas. In the shorter term,some organisations are working withfarmers to develop livestock manage-ment and simple medication strategiesthat do not eradicate these diseases butlimit the impact.

Where is this leading?Working with upland farmers in Laos toimprove livestock health, feeding andmanagement strategies is likely to havemajor positive impacts on poverty in theshort to medium term. Research anddevelopment like this is not, however, an“end-game” in which a solution isdeveloped for a problem and that’s theend of the story. For every solution thereare new opportunities, problems andissues. In 25 years time, many farmerswe are working with now may no longerkeep livestock, but they have usedlivestock to build capital to allow themto take the risk of moving into newenterprises. The key to sustainabledevelopment in this context is thementoring of groups of people atcommunity, district and province-levelwho have the experience, skills,confidence and mandate to worktogether to resolve new problems (ortake advantage of new opportunities) asthey arise. In this sense, the process ofresearch and development is as impor-tant as the technologies that aredeveloped.

It is common for district officers to maketrips to villages only when they areasked to collect data or when there is atechnology package to be ‘extended’,often through the development of modelfarms. These unrelated village visits andthe lack of adoption of ‘tech-packs’ byfarmers develops an expectation amongdistrict officers that ‘we cannot make adifference’. The general trend towardsgenuine participatory research that ishappening throughout the world offersan alternative that empowers districtofficers to see that they can make a

difference. We are assisting four districtsin Laos to implement a new process inwhich the district officers, their institu-tions and farmers work through a seriesof steps in an annual process to findsolutions to their livestock problems andcapitalise on emerging opportunities (seeFigure 1). Details of each step in theprocess are described in more detail in abook that will be published later thisyear (Horne and Stür, in prep). The keyto the process is to encourage districtofficers to experiment and adapt theapproaches to suit their needs. Workingwith farmers as active partners will be alearning experience for all concerned.

So what happens when “the river runsdry”? Poverty in Laos is not endemicand not generally synonymous withhunger, but farmers are susceptible to anincreasingly risky environment.Livestock are an important insuranceagainst calamity when “the river runsdry”. Developing new technical optionswith farmers in a process that buildslinkages and confidence between farmersand development workers is helping tobuild resilience into their farmingsystems.

�

Viengsavanh Phimphachanhvongsod,National Agriculture and ForestryResearch Institute, PO Box 811, Vientiane,Laos. Email: [email protected] Horne, CIAT-Lao Forages andLivestock Systems Project, PO Box 6766,Vientiane, Laos. Email: [email protected] Stür, 22 Seventh Ave, Windsor, QLDAustralia. Email: [email protected]

References

- Horne PM and Stür WW, 1999. Developingforage technologies with smallholderfarmers – how to select the best varieties tooffer farmers in SE Asia. ACIAR Mono-graph 62 (also available in Lao, Indonesian,Thai, Vietnamese and Chinese). 80pp(ACIAR, Canberra).

- Stür WW and Horne PM (in press).Developing forage technologies withsmallholder farmers – how to growmanage and use forages. ACIARmonograph series. (also to be published inLao, Indonesian, Thai, Vietnamese andChinese). (ACIAR, Canberra, in press).

- Horne PM and Stür WW (in prepara-tion). Developing agriculturalsolutions with smallholder farmers –participatory approaches for getting itright the first time. (ACIAR MonographSeries). (also to be published in Lao,Indonesian, Thai, Vietnamese andChinese).

- Sisouphanthong B and Taillard C, 2000.Atlas of Laos: spatial structures of theeconomic and social development ofthe Lao People’s Democratic Repub-lic.

160 pp. (Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai,Thailand).

- SPC (2001). Participatory PovertyAssessment in Laos. A study prepared bythe State Planning Committee. 448 pp.(ADB, Vientiane).

Figure : 1 The process of fidning solutions to livestock problems

SelectVillages

Agreeon issues

Select afocus group

Search foroptions to test

Reachother villages

Share withother villages

Integratesolutions on

farmsVillage

planningFocus group

meeting

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ANTHRA is an organization basedin India, working towards thedevelopment of livelihoods of

marginalised communities includingpastoralists, dalits and tribal groups.ANTHRA’s approach for improving thelivelihoods of the farming communitiesdependant largely on livestock rearing, isbeing discussed.

The various activities and interventionscarried out by ANTHRA are largelycommunity led action research projects.While working with diverse livestockrearing and farming communities,problems are defined, different strategiesand approaches are identified andimplemented and the experiences aredocumented which serves as an input forenriching the organisation’s activities,strategies and policies. The variousinterventions carried out by ANTHRAare:

1. Strengthening rural veterinaryhealth care delivery systemsthrough training of Animal HealthWorkersIn most parts of India, veterinaryservices are very poor. There is anestimated one veterinarian per 7000animals. The services are concentrated inthe urban and more affluent parts of thecountry. To make veterinary servicesavailable in rural areas, especiallly, in themore remote and inaccessible parts of thecountry, it has been necessary to look foralternatives. Local healers and trainedAnimal Health Workers (AHW) doprovide an important interface betweenrural communities and formal veterinarycare systems. Healers and AHWs doprovide primary health services andvaluable preventive solutions such asdeworming and vaccinators. They act aschange agents by educating and trainingrural communities on improved healthand management practices.

Healers and Animal Health Workers fromthe local communities are trained in theuse of different systems of medicines. Aswomen are the primary caretakers of thelivestock in many households, a largenumber of women have been trained.These Animal Health Workers have beenresponsible in bringing down themortality and morbidity rates oflivestock in their villages. In addition,they have formed state level networks

NGOs role in livestockimprovement - A case ofANTHRA

Nitya Ghotge and Sagari Ramdas

through which they are able to deal withvaried issues related to resources,finances, medicines etc

2. Community efforts in conservinglivestock diversity.Most poor rural communities aredependent on local species of livestock.However, government programmes in thepast have given scant attention to thesebreeds. Programmes for preserving thegene pools of the traditional breeds likeKanchu Mekha (dwarf variety of goat),Dangi breed of cattle and, Decanni sheep,are being taken up by the localcommunities. For instance, conservationof the Aseel breed of poultry is beingcarried out in the East Godavari districtof Andhra Pradesh, along with GirijanDeepika, a tribal people’s group andYakshi, a resource group.

3. Community biodiversity parks:herbal and fodder nurseriesA number of small bio diversity parksand nurseries have been initiated byinvolving local communities. Here, localvarieties of medicinal, fodder and foodcrops and local breeds of livestock arebeing grown and reared, thus promotingpreservation.

4. Production of low cost herbalmedicinesHealers and health workers affiliated toANTHRA, produce traditional remediesand market them to rural communities ina ready to use form at affordable prices.To prevent over exploitation of medicinalspecies on common lands, some of thesemedicinal plants are raised and harvestedfrom ANTHRA’s nurseries.

5. Documentation anddisseminationANTHRA adopts different methods toreach out to a larger group of farmers.Newsletters and journals are brought outregularly in local Indian languages.Books, posters and other educationalmaterials are also being published indifferent Indian languages on variousaspects pertaining to livestock healthmanagement as well as Natural ResourceManagement. ANTHRA has documenteddetails of over 300 traditional speciesused as fodder.

In one of its projects, the documentation,validation and dissemination oftraditional livestock rearing practices has

been done by bare foot field researcherstrained by ANTHRA. This has ensuredlocal communities involvement andparticipation in the process. As a part ofthe project, ANTHRA has documentedover 700 different traditional remediesused for treating approximately 70different conditions affecting domesticfarm animals and 14 conditions affectingpoultry. Extensive directories of theplants and their properties, herbaria anddirectories of well-known localtraditional healers of livestock have beencreated. The information is shared withthe communities in the form of books,newsletters, and other educationalmaterials.

Village outreach programmes areimportant means of spreadinginformation. Village yatras (campaigns)are held every year in different villages.The topics include livestock health andproductivity, natural resourcemanagement, social issues and humanhealth. Stalls are also set up at prominentAnimal Bazaars. These have becomeextremely popular among the farmersfrom different villages. The AnimalHealth Workers also visit differentvillages and hold meetings and trainingprogrammes and extend their knowledgeto other farmers with the help ofeducational materials designed andproduced by the organisation.

Policy, research and advocacyLivelihoods of livestock farmers aregreatly affected by the policies at theState, Central and global levels.ANTHRA attempts to analyze differentpolicy documents and analyse theirimplications on livestock rearing,especially those practiced by poor ruralhouseholds.

�

Nitya Ghotge, ANTHRA , F, LantanaGardens NDA Road , Bavdhan, Pune, India411021, [email protected]

Sagari Ramdas, ANTHRA , A 21Secunderabad India 500094,[email protected]

References :

1. Anthra, Yakshi, Girijana Deepika andWomen’s Gotti. 2001. “Conserving theAseel Poultry”.The International Magazine of Ecologyand Farming, No. 27.pp 12-14.

2. Ghotge N.S May 2000, Chapters on“Livestock farming systems:Sustainable Options for the newmillennium” and “Biotechnology andLivestock” p 153- 178 , p 242 -247in the book Challenges of Agriculturein the 21st century, Ed. Mr Pillai G.MMaharashtra Council o f AgriculturalEducation and Research , Pune, India

3. Anthra. 1997. Community-basedresearch on local knowledge systems:The ANTHRA project onethnoveterinary research. In McCorkleet. al. Proceedings of the FirstInternational EthnoveterinaryConference, BAIF, Pune , India.


Artificial Insemination (AI) withimproved semen hascontributed significantly

towards upgradation of local cattle andmaintaining the genetic superiority ofcross-bred cows. The artificialinsemination has also beeninstrumental in reducing the calvinginterval through timely servicing andbetter conception. Together with thegood marketing network, this practicehas played a pivotal role in making theOperation Flood, a reality.

However, Artificial Inseminationsystem itself had many constraints (SeeBox), which created a need for lookingat alternatives.

The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK),initiated efforts in enabling farmers toaccess the services of ArtificialInsemination for their livestock. TheKVKs in collaboration with localNGOs, promoted alternative veterinaryservices to unreached areas and theexperiences of two KVKs in isdescribed in this paper.

Case 1: KVK – MitraniketanNGO, Trivandrum District,KeralaThe Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch (ICAR) established a KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) under themanagement of Mitraniketan NGO in1979-80. Mitraniketan, located inVellanad village of Trivandrum district,was already working towards

Para technicians asalternative veterinaryservice for livestockmanagement

M.J.Chandre Gowda and R.K.Samanta

alternative livestock services, byproviding artificial insemination serviceby collecting liquid semen from thebulls maintained in its farm. From1979-80 onwards, the artificialinsemination services were broughtunder the fold of KVK. One of themandates of the KVK was to provideself-employment oriented vocationaltraining programmes. The idea ofpromoting para-technicians, served thedual purpose of helping theunemployed youth to be gainfullyemployed and also in providing serviceat the farmers’ doorstep.

The Animal Husbandry Department inTrivandrum district, has 222 artificialinseminators in its network. The ratioof cows to artificial inseminator wasabout 1135:1. With about 80% of thecows being breedable, each artificialinseminator has to work with andmonitor at least 980 cows in a year.The distribution density of cows in thisdistrict is 68 per sq. km. Thus, eachartificial inseminator was required tocover at least an area of 15 sq. km. But,in reality, the coverage was less than 10sq.km., and the service remained, lessthan required.

Rural Extension Sub Centers(RESC) / Cattle ImprovementCentersThe RESCs are sponsored by the localinstitutions like panchayat, youth club,village library, milk cooperative

society, sports club or some NGOs.There are 22 RESCs in Trivandrumdistrict established during the last twodecades. Each serves 2-3 panchayatsover an area ranging from 15 - 25 sq.km. Each RESC is managed by anArtificial Inseminator and is normallylocated in tribal and interior areas. Fewof them has one helper as an additionalstaff.

The youth sponsored by localinstitutions are trained for 2 months atthe KVK. The local institutions providethe necessary infrastructure. The paratechnician purchases the minimumequipment required like cryocan. KVKprovides the technical support and alsothe liquid semen at a subsidized rate.The para technicians exchangeinformation among themselves, discussproblems and help each other whenneeded. In addition to the scheduledfortnightly meetings at KVK premises,they often have unscheduled meetingsto plan for contingencies and to tideover the difficulties. The paratechnicians provide the inseminationservice at the rate of Rs.75, thusgenerating income.

The para technicians use severalapproaches to keep in regular contactwith their clients. Farmers located infar-off and interior villages arecontacted through contact telephonesavailable in the village, petty shops,medical shops, milk societies etc. Aregister is maintained in the RESC toenable the visiting farmers to leaveinformation on the services required,while the para technicians are away onvillage visits. On return, the paratechnicians check the register andensure timely services. Record onevery insemination is maintained whichhelps in monitoring the conception.

Impact on the project areaThe alternative extension serviceprovided to the dairy farmers by theRESCs and the KVK has severalsignificant features. It has succeeded infilling the gap in the public extensionservice and thereby meeting theinformation and service requirementsof the dairy farmers. Some of thesalient features are given in Table I.

There is a significant impact on variousaspects of livestock development since

Constraints in Artificial Insemination System

1. Poor quality of semen, mainly due to inadequate care during its preservation andtransportation limited the conception rate.

2. High cost of insemination inhibited many farmers from availing the services ofartificial insemination, particularly when the farmers had to take the ArtificialInseminators to their villages.

3. Due to distant location of the Government Veterinary Centers (AI Centers), farmerswho resided even 2-3 km away from the center could not avail its services as it wasdifficult to bring their livestock to the A.I Center for insemination.

4. Insemination services were available only during the office hours and hightemperatures during this time did not favour conception. This resulted in the AIprocess becoming ineffective. Moreover, the services were not available on holidays.

5. Poor transport facilities to tribal and interior areas restricted the mobility of thegovernment staff.

6. Promoting awareness on the post-insemination care and management aspects wasneglected.

Deworming in calves by Mr.subbappa,Animal Health Promoter of KVK Erode.


RESCs have started functioning. Ascompared to 1980, when the RESCsstarted functioning, currently, thepercentage of breedable cows hasincreased from 54% to 68%, the age atfirst conception has been reduced from28 months to 20 months owing toregular contacts and technical support,the conception rate has improved fromabout 24% to more than 40% due totimely provision of good qualitysemen, the inter-calving period hasbeen reduced from 20 months to 12months, simultaneously reducing thedry period from 8 months to 4 months,thereby enabling farmers to get onecalving every year.

There has been a substantialimprovement in the average daily milkyield from 1.82 litres to 7.5 litres, thusenabling farmers to reap higher returnsfrom dairy.

The para technicians, with the help ofveterinary expert from KVK, providethe information on nutrient and diseasemanagement. Various camps onlivestock health, vaccination, de-worming, infertility identification andits treatment are organised atappropriate times. As a result, most ofthe diseases and problems related toparasites and nutrient deficiencies,have been brought down. This wasaccomplished by mobilisingcommunities on a large scale to getdesired results.

Currently, 22 young persons areworking as techno-agents in theseRESCs. With an initial investment ofless than Rs.5,000/- on critical toolsand equipment and recurringexpenditure on semen and the cost ofmobility, these para technicians areable to earn a net income of aboutRs.16,500/- a year. This income couldbe improved further to aboutRs.19,500/- if they could use frozensemen supplied by the AnimalHusbandry Department, if maderegularly available.

Case 2: KVK – MYRADA NGO,Erode District, Tamil Nadu.The Tallavadi block of Erode district islargely inhabited by tribal population.Owing to geographic remoteness, poortransport and communication facilities,these areas do not have access to, evenminimum veterinary services. Demandfor an alternate veterinary service wasexpressed by the tribal people duringthe participatory processes. The KVKalong with MYRADA, initiated theconcept of Animal Health Promoters,where a batch of youth selected fromremote villages are trained for sixmonths on various aspects. Theseinclude livestock upgradation,forecasting and prevention of seasonaldiseases and other simple practices likefirst aid, vaccination, pregnancy testetc. The six-month training is acollaborative effort of the KVK,EDCMPUL (Erode District CooperativeMilk Producers Union Limited),Government Veterinary Hospitals, MilkProducers Cooperative Societies(MPCS), Commercial Dairy Units and

TABLE 1

Features Rural Extension Animal HusbandrySub-Centres (RESC) Department

1. Coverage Upto 25 sq. kms. No limit, < 10 sq. kms.

2. Working hours Work during evening and Limited to office timings late hours also Late hour service depends

on the personal interestof the staff.

3. Reach Interior and tribal villages Villages near toA.I. Centre

4. Conception rate More than 40% due to upto 30%timely inseminationand follow-up

5. Cost of insemination Rs.75/- per dose of liquid When provided inat the farmers’ semen and Rs.125/- per the village, farmersdoorstep dose of frozen semen have to pay

Rs.150-200 for adose of frozen semen.

Animal Health PromotersA Case of Subbappa

Among the nine animal healthpromoters, Mr. Subbappa has seen aphenomenal change in his statusthrough this new assignment. He hassucceeded in winning the confidence ofvillagers and has treated 1173 animals(526 cows, 126 buffaloes, 242 sheepand 279 other animals) in five monthsand has earned on an average of Rs.2060 every month. More than themoney, it is the recognition he receivesfrom the villagers, which gives himimmense satisfaction.

Self Employment Training Instituteslocated in the area. The first batch oftraining was completed in April 2002.The trainees are attached to an MPCSfor better rapport with the customers.Considering the fact that the averageeducation being 10th standard, theseyouth have been doing a tremendousjob with the guidance and support ofveterinary doctors and constantmonitoring and supervision of theKVK personnel.

ConclusionDependency on public extension isslowly reducing and the involvement ofprivate extension is gainingmomentum. The successfulexperiences of KVKs in Kerala andTamil Nadu in providing benefits forboth farmers and para-technicians haveconfirmed the approach as analternative extension service forlivestock management.

�

Dr.M.J.Chandre Gowda, Senior Scientist(Ag.Extn.), and Dr.R.K.Samanta, ZonalCoordinator, Zonal Coordinating Unit VIII,ICAR TOT Projects,Bangalore 560 030

Animal Health Promoters – A Case of Vijaya Kumari

20 years old, diminutive, PUC-educated, and from a poor dalit family, Vijaya Kumari ofVeeranur village (Erode District, Tamilnadu) signed up for the 6-month VeterinaryPromoters’ Training Programme announced by the Myrada-KVK with the determinationto work and improve her household economic condition. She was one of 9 youth whomade up the batch. Theory and practical classes on the KVK Instructional Farm werefollowed by lectures and exposure visits at various places including the TamilnaduAgriculture University (TNAU), Ambedkar Self Employment Training Institute (ASETI),and the Coimbatore Veterinary Hospital where they were enabled to accompany thedoctors on their rounds and also spend a week in the Pathology Laboratory. To round itoff, they were attached to the Erode Milk Producers’ Union where they accompanied the‘route’ doctors and got to see and examine more than 100 animals per day.

Armed with a letter of course completion, a veterinary kit, and a loan that she used tobuy a bicycle, put up a signboard, and modestly equip her clinic, Vijaya Kumariintroduced herself to all the surrounding villages by contacting the self help groups ofwomen and impressing them with her professional skills. The strategy worked and shehas now built up a practice that enables her to routinely earn around Rs.1,200/- toRs.1,500/- per month. Veterinary doctors at the town nearby willingly support her withguidance and advice.

(Source: MYRADA)


The Narayana Reddy Column

Polyculture of animalhusbandry

For ages, farmers in India integratedagriculture with many interrelatedactivities like tree cropping,

livestock production like cattle, sheep,goat, piggery, poultry, beekeeping,sericulture etc. for their sustainableproductivity utilizing all the farmresources and natural resources for food,fuel, fiber fodder and green manure.However, they were cautious in using theresources by preserving and regenerating,without causing their exhaustion. It isonly during the past 25 years, suchsmall-scale, self-reliant systems havebeen replaced by specialized or industrialtype of dairy, piggery and poultryfarming, necessitating use of high costexternal inputs.

Even today in our farm, we hatch ourown chicks, at a cost of about Rs.1.50(including the cost of egg and labour),whereas, the commercial poultry farmerspurchase a chick at around Rs.13 toRs.20. While the commercial poultryfarmer spends around Rs.40 on the feedand medication even on a broiler chickenwith a huge risk and tension, we actuallydo not spend any money on the poultryfeed and medication. Similarly,commercial dairy farmers purchaseexpensive crossbred cows at aroundRs.20,000 each and spend around Rs.150each day on their concentrates andmedication apart from fodder, which isalso procured from outside and not fromhis own farm. In our farm, we do havecrossbred cows (below 60% character)born in our own farm or have boughtlocally heifers at Rs.3,000 or below andfeed them with 90% of our own fodderand concentrates with very little risk andcost. Similarly we do with our goats orsheep.

Most of the farmers in India are smalland marginal farmers cultivating underrain fed conditions. They having plentyof free time. The governments, both atthe Centre as well as at the State, shouldencourage farmers to take up backyarddairy, sheep or goat rearing, piggery andpoultry. They should provide technicalknowledge and financial support, ratherthan promoting commercial or industrial,cost intensive, high external inputdependent animal husbandry. When thesmall farmers raise between 20 to 100indigenous chicken they do not incur any

expenses on them or their feed. They caneasily realise Rs.1500 to Rs.7500 eachyear, even after meeting their familyneeds of eggs and meat. The chicken canbenefit the farm by fertilizing, weed andpest control. However, they need to bemanaged carefully, without damaging thecrops when they are young or ready toharvest. Cattle can be a source of plentyof manure and their dung and urine can beused even after obtaining cooking gasthrough gobar gas plant.

Some State governments are in theprocess of banning goat rearing, under thedisguise that goats destroy vegetation.Yes, goats do graze away almost everyplant, only when they are let free forstray grazing. But, if they are stall fed,they can increase the income four times,as compared to sheep. Therefore, it isimportant to ban stray goat grazing andnot goat rearing. When the goat farmerfinds it necessary for stall-feeding hewould surely, grow more trees to feed hisgoats. Thus, it is harmful in the interestof small farmers and the nation if hastydecisions are taken withoutunderstanding the ground realities andexamining the available alternatives.

Without livestock rearing, the farm bye-products like hay, weeds, tree branchesand unusable seeds would be wasted orburnt. Many people may wonder oreven feel nasty if they understand thateven bye-products from meat and fishprocessing industries and shops are beingfed to pigs and fish. Again, small farmers

are being cheated by butchers andmiddlemen who purchase from farms orweekly markets (shandy) on piece basisthan by body weight. So, it is necessarythat animals be sold according to bodyweight at 65% to 70% value of processedmeat.

Farmers should always try to utilize thewild vegetation and fruits as animal feed,which otherwise are wasted. It is notonly the livestock which is traditionallybeing reared should be integrated infarming, but also some birds like Turkey,Quail, Pigeon and small animals likerabbit etc. These can be raised on asmaller scale, so as to utilize resourcesefficiently. Small-scale aquaculture isanother option for augmenting farmincome. Aquaculture enhances thenutrient quality of the irrigation water ofthe storage pond. Thus, animalhusbandry has a significant role inimproving farm productivity by theintegrated use of resources.

�

L. Narayana ReddySrinivasapuraVia Maralena HalliHanabe P.O.Doddaballapura Taluk – 561203Ph : (C:080) 7651360


SOURCES

30L E I S A I N D I A • A P R I L – 2 0 0 2

Improving goatproduction in thetropics a manualfor developmentworkers by PeacockC. 1996. 386 p..ISBN 0 85598 269 1(pbk) : £ 14.95.FARM-Africa, 9-10

Southampton Place, London WC1A2DA, UK. Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road,Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK.

This book is written both for livestockspecialists and for development workerswho do not have formal training in animalproduction. It explains the theory ofgoat-keeping, and how it can be used todesign simple and cheap improvementsin the nutrition, health, and breedingmanagement of small or large flocks.

The role of forages in reducingpoverty and degradation of naturalresources in tropical productionsystems by Peters M [et al] 2001 11 p.(Agren Network Paper no. 117) TheOverseas Development Institute (ODI),111 Westminster Bridge Road, LondonSE1 7JD, UK / [email protected]

The paper reviews the role of foragecrops in improving the productivity ofsmallholder farming systems andbreaking the cycle of poverty andresource degradation. It reviews thecontributions of forage crops toincreasing farm incomes, intensifyingfarm production, and contributing tobetter human nutrition. Several casestudies are presented including mucuna inCentral America and West Africa, theforage peanut in Colombia, a foragelegume in China, forage crops in CostaRica and the production of forage cropseed in Bolivia. The paper also describesa strategy for farmer participatoryresearch in identifying suitable foragecrops in Southeast Asia.

Ethnoveterinarymedicine : anannotated bibliogra-phy of communityanimal healthcare byMartin M, Mathias E,McCorkle CM. 2001.611 p. ISBN 1 85339522 6 : USD 45.00. (IndigenousKnowledge and Development Series).ITDG, Publishing, 103-105 SouthamptonRow, London WC1B 4HL UK,[email protected] /www.itpubs.org.uk.

This bibliography with 1240 abstracts ofdocuments on ethnoveterinary medicine

covers 118 countries over the wholeworld and 25 livestock species includingnumerous breeds of cattle and sheep.

Forage husbandry by Bayer W, Waters-Bayer A. 1998. 198 p.. ISBN 0 33366856 1. (The tropical agriculturalist /Coste R (ed.)). Technical Centre forAgriculture and Rural Cooperation(CTA), PO Box 380, 6700 AJWageningen, The Netherlands.

This book gives an overview of differentaspects related to forage and livestockkeeping, with an emphasis onpastoralists and smallholder farmers.Included are basic aspects of the farmingsystems, basic biology of livestock andforage resources, management of naturalforage, forage as an auxiliary productfrom cultivated land, cultivated forages,and forage conservation and supplemen-tation. The information explains the waypastoralists and smallholder farmersorganise their lives, using livestock aspart of their risk reducing and diversifica-tion strategies, combining livestock withcrops and other - often non-farming -activities. In this sense not only technicaland socio-economical aspects are takeninto account, but also gender and othercharacteristics of the cultural dimensionof livestock keeping. The last chaptergives an overview of the research anddevelopment approaches related tolivestock keeping and forage production.This methodological guide includes acombination of traditional practices withoutside ideas and technologies, accordingto the specific characteristics and needsof the farmers. Also available in french(KH)

The long dry season: crop-livestocklinkages in Southern Mail byRamisch J. 1999. 24 p. (IIED Issuepaper no 88) International Institute forEnvironment and Development, DrylandProgramme, 3 Endsleigh Street LondonWC1H 0DD, UK / [email protected]

This paper investigates the interactionsbrought about by the co-existence ofanimal herds and agriculture in a villagesetting. It draws on PhD research thatused soil nutrient balances to evaluateexchanges of animal manure and tractionbetween owners and non-owners oflivestock in Mali. The examples describean agricultural sector undergoing anincreasing level of intensification togetherwith a growing number of animals. Thechallenge is to find ways of building onpractices to intensify agriculturalproduction further, while keeping at baythe risks of soil mining or wideninginequality between different groups.

Where there is no vet by Forse B.1999. 368 p.. ISBN 0 85598 409 0 : GBP14.95. Oxfam, 274Banbury Road,Oxford OX2 7DZ,UK.

Oxfam and CTAsupported thepreparation of thisguide to first aid foranimals. The authoris a veterinary practitioner and farmer,and does a commendable job of explain-ing an impressive number of livestockdiseases and their causes, symptoms andtreatment. The numerous drawings makethe text easy to understand. Althoughsome information on care, feeding andhandling of animals is given, therecommendations focus on curativemeasures. Important mechanisms ofspecific (often local) livestock species orbreeds, such as tolerance or resistance toa particular disease, are mentioned onlybriefly. Although it is clear that a generalbook on simple veterinary medicine forthe tropics cannot cover ethnoveterinarytreatment in any detail, it would havebeen desirable if more emphasis wasplaced on local medicines which peoplecan prepare themselves and which neednot be kept cool. The book will be usefulfor field-based development workers, toguide them in making routine treatmentand in handling emergencies. It frequentlypoints to the limits of what can be donewhere there is no vet, requiring assistancefrom more experienced people. (AWB)

Managing mobility in Africanrangelands : the legitimization oftranshumance by Niamir-Fuller M(ed.). 1999. 314 p.. ISBN 1 85339 473 4GBP 17.95. Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations(FAO). IT Publications, 103-105Southampton Row, London WC1B 4HH,UK / [email protected].

This book addresses one of the mostimportant questions in range managementin dryland areas of Africa: that oflivestock mobility, which is still the mostimportant economic strategy to deal withseasonal and inter-annual variation inforage and water availability in therangelands. The book is divided into 11chapters, of which 8 are case studiesfrom countries in northern (Morocco),western (Mauritania, Mali, Niger),eastern (Sudan, Uganda) and southernAfrica (Zimbabwe, Namibia). Thesecases cover the most important ecologicalzones for range management: arid, semi-arid, seasonally dry subhumid, in both

31L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 231 L E I S A I N D I A • A P R I L – 2 0 0 2

lowlands and highlands. They deal insome detail with current practices, theirecological foundations and problems, andissues of resource access and tenure. Inthe final chapter, key concepts related tolivestock mobility are discussed:transience and flexibility, priority of use,managing uncertainty and risk, strength-ening management regimes, managing keysites, law enforcement and mechanismsfor conflict resolution. This book is amust for both policymakers andpractitioners in range management andpastoral development. Moreover, incomparison with other technical texts, itis also reasonably priced. (AWB)

Agricultural servicesand the poor : case oflivestock health andbreeding services inIndia - summary byAhuja V, [et al]. 2000.148 p + 17 p.

Indian Institute ofManagement, Vastrapur, Ahmedabad 380015, India / www.iimahd.ernet.in TheWorld Bank, Swiss Agency for Develop-ment and Cooperation.

This study on the delivery of livestockhealth and breeding services in threestates of India attempts to developpolicy recommendations for a moreefficient and balanced system ofdelivering these services. The report witha seperate summary describes two fieldsurveys. The first covered serviceprovider units operated by variousagencies like government, cooperativeunions, private entrepreneurs and non-governemental agencies. The secondstudy focused on the demand side oflivestock service delivery. Its objectivewas to evaluate the potential impact ofprivatization and cost recovery ondifferent categories of farmers. In thelight of the findings of these twosurveys, the study recommends aredefinition of the role of government inthis sector by moving the curativeveterinary and AI service into the realmof the private sector. (WR)

Capitalising on experience in Indo-Swiss cooperation in livestockdevelopment in India 2000. 50 p. free.Capitalisation of Experiences inLivestock Production an Dairying (LPD)in India project(CAPEX),Intercooperation, PO Box 6724, CH-3001 Berne, Switzerland /[email protected]; SwissAgency for Development and Coopera-tion (SDC)/IC NRM Programme,

Chandragupta Marg, Chanakyapuri, NewDelhi 110021, India.

The main findings of the projectCapitalisation of Experiences inLivestock Production and Dairying(LPD) in India -CAPEX- are presentedin this booklet. This project reviewed theexperiences of the Indo-SwissProgramme LPD in India, from itsinception in 1963 to date, and formulatedfuture priorities. LPD involved 8projects spread throughout India. It alsoincluded support to developing a nationallivestock policy. Considering the wealthof experiences available after such alengthy and large programme, theCAPEX-team choose 2 topics to focuson: 1. the evolution of a comprehensiveLPD programme out of single projectsand 2. selected technical issues inlivestock breeding. The project is a niceexample of the value of reflection onexperiences! This booklet is a summaryof a full version, also available atIntercooperation, as technical report no.15. (IHG)

Politics, property and production inthe west African Sahel : understand-ing natural resources management byBenjaminsen TA, Lund C (eds.). 2001.335 p. ISBN 91 7106 476 1 GBP 18.95.Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala,Sweden.

This collection of studies about BurkinaFaso, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegalpresents natural resource management(NRM) for cropping, livestock hus-bandry and fishing in the context ofpolitical, economic and socioculturalprocesses. It shows that NRM is, aboveall, about relationships between people.It gives a glimpse into what is happeningat local level while development agenciesherald new programmes ofdecentralisation, democratisation,combatting desertification and participa-tory multi-stakeholder decision-making.Keen attention is paid to details of howlocal people decide about production andaccess to natural resources with a view tomore than official policies, and oftendespite these. The studies reveal the needto look not only at the rules of the gamebut also at what people actually do. Thebook should not discourage intervention-ists trying to strengthen the rights of themarginalised, but does encourage them tobecome better aware of the tactics of thepowerful.Nevertheless, the evidence ofproduction by smallholders in the midstof environmental uncertainty, official andactual changes in property regimes, andpolitical manoeuvring contradicts the

alarmist cries of crisis in the Sahel. Thebook creates a modest optimism thatpeople have a capacity for change anddevelopment with the right politicalenvironment, yet makes clear that thereis no policy blueprint.

It is striking that only one of the 14authors is African. Are African academicssuch a marginalised group? (AWB)

Utilizingdifferentaquaticresources forlivelihoods inAsia : aresource book2001. 416 p.ISBN 1 93026102 0. Interna-tional Institute for Rural Reconstruction,Y.C.James Yen Center, Silang Cavite,Philippines /[email protected], FAO, NACA and ICLARM.

Natural resources, especially waterresources, continue to be available topoor families in many parts of the worldand poor families have demonstrated thatthey can utilise these resources in asustainable manner.This resource book isa compilation of proven experiences romAsia that are totally field-derived, and isthe result of a participatory workshopconducted in 2000 at the IIRR. Withclear descriptions and nice illustrations,this book provides extremely usefulinformation on aquatic resource manage-ment. Participatory approaches andextension strategies, community managedaquatic resources, freshwater systems,lake and reservoir-based systems andbrackishwater and marine systems arethe chapters dealt with.

The materials of the book can be usedfreely in advocacy, training and planning.The authors realise the value and need forupscaling their efforts in small-scaleaquaculture. Especially recommended fordevelopment practitioners, localgovernment officials and academicinstitutions.(WR)

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 232 32L E I S A I N D I A • A P R I L – 2 0 0 2

Milk south-north (Lait sud-nord) byWorld Herders Council (ConseilMondial des Eleveurs), 2000. B.P.2453,6002 Lucerne, Switzerland

http://www.condial.org/francais/fspublications.htm

The World Herders Council is aninitiative of traditional herders of theSahel. It is an international network ofherders who are determined to stay andwho have a concept of cattle breedingwhich includes a respectful attitudetowards nature, towards animals andtowards people. Their dossier Milksouth-north, is a reflection on ethics forherding dedicated to milk, in which thediscussion between herders from "theSouth" and European stockbreeders isparamount. The printed version of thedossier is in French and English and canbe ordered via this web site.

Impact of changing agropastoralsystems on agrobiodiversity: A casestudy of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateauan article by Wu Ning, 1998.

http://www.icimod.org.sg/focus/agriculture/agribio_bk/agrobio4.htm

This study describes the daily lifestyleof the pastoralists and discusses theeconomic progress and resultantpressure on the environment, particu-larly on the rangeland ecosystem and itsbiodiversity.

International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development (ICIMOD)

4/80 Jawalakhel, G. P.O. Box 3226,Kathmandu, [email protected]

http://www.icimod.org.sg/

ICIMOD's mission is to help promotethe development of an economically andenvironmentally-sound mountainecosystem and to improve the livingstandards of mountain populations in theHindu Kush-Himalayan Region.

Farming Systems by InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA),c/o Lambourn (UK) Limited, CarolynHouse 26 Dingwall Rd., Croydon, CR93EE, UK . [email protected]

http://www.iita.org/crop/farmsys.htm

IITA’s mission is to enhance the foodsecurity, income and wellbeing ofresource-poor people, primarily in thehumid and sub humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. It conducts research andrelated activities to increase agriculturalproduction, improve food systems, andsustainably manage natural resources, inpartnership with national and interna-tional stakeholders. Information onsustainable crop-livestock systems isavailable on this page. IITA alsoprovides publications free of charge.

Integrated Crop-Livestock productionfor the slopelands of Asia, 1998,informative article to introduce aworkshop on this topic.

http://www.agnet.org/library/article/ac1998d.html

Combining livestock with crops is asustainable and profitable system ofproduction for low-income slopelandfarmers in Asia.

Low-cost livestock technologydevelopment by farmers, 1998.

http://www.agnet.org/library/article/ac1997f.html

This survey undertaken by the FFTC(food and fertiliser technology center)aimed at collecting and disseminatinglow-cost indigenous farming technolo-gies related to livestock production.These technologies are described in thepaper.

A knowledge link on livestock andrangeland systems, Work in progress2002-1st edition. International Fund forAgricultural Development (IFAD), Viadel Serafico, 107, 00142 Rome, Italy /[email protected]

This CD-Rom contains all the htmlavailable on the livestock and rangelandknowledge subsite of the IFAD website:http://www.ifad.org/lrkm/index.htm. Itis based on case studies of a range ofIFAD projects that support livestockproduction among pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and smallholders.

The Real Green Revolution

www.farmingsolutions.org

Farmingsolutions is a website jointly created byGreenpeace, Oxfam and ILEIA. The aim of thewebsite is to bring forward successful experiencesof ecologically-sound, socially responsible andeconomically-viable farming practices, and todemonstrate that this kind of agriculture can besuccessful in fighting hunger and malnutrition.

The website argues for a fundamental shift inagricultural production; from the present resourcedegrading, chemical-dependent, industrialagriculture controlled by corporations, to anagriculture suitable for small farmers and adaptedto local conditions.

The web site is easy to navigate and has a lot ofinformation on world hunger, agricultural produc-tion and successful agro-ecological approaches.

You are invited to contribute your own experiencesand opinions to the site, please do!

www.farmingsolutions.org

WEBSITES


33 L E I S A I N D I A • A P R I L – 2 0 0 2

Ethnovetweb, Evelyn Mathias,Weizenfeld 4, 51467 Bergisch Gladbach,Germany. [email protected]

http://www.ethnovetweb.com/

This website is about ethnoveterinarymedicine, or how people around theworld keep their animals healthy andproductive, and how development canbuild on this information. The siteprovides information resources andpublications, some in full text. A strongpart of the website is the page with linksand descriptions of other web sites onethnoveterinary medicine and livestockdevelopment.

Livestock, Environment and Develop-ment Initiative (LEAD)

is an inter-institutional project with thesecretariat in FAO, Rome.

http://www.virtualcentre.org/selector.htm

The work of the LEAD Initiative targetsat the protection and enhancement ofnatural resources as affected by livestockproduction while alleviating poverty.The website provides information inEnglish, Spanish and French, aboutelectronic conferences, online discussionforums, research and development andelectronic newsletters on livestockproduction.

Centre for research on sustainableagricultural production systems -CIPAV, Cali, Colombia /[email protected]

http://www.cipav.org.co/index.html

The CIPAV Foundation is a ColombianNGO founded in1986. The projects andprogrammes on which it focuses arealternative agricultural productionsystems. These systems promote theefficient and sustainable utilisation of theavailable human and natural resources,in harmony with the environment. Theirexperience in a wide array of ecosystemsand social conditions can be summarisedin a strategy for sustainable farmingsystems in tropical humid America. Thesite provides information on livestockresearch, the electronic journal LivestockResearch and Development, conferences,publication lists etc., in Spanish and inEnglish.

Animal production and health page ofFAO, Rome Italy

http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGA/index_en.htm

Global livestock production is growingmore dynamically than any otheragricultural sector. Livestock are alreadythe world's largest land user, and thelivestock sector is predicted to become

the most important agricultural sector interms of added value by 2020. On thispage FAO provides recent informationon livestock production. A lot ofpublications are mentioned. Of particularinterest is a series of practical publica-tions especially meant for farmers.

International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI). ILRI-Kenya

P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, KENYA /[email protected]

http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/research/prod-con.cfm

The International Livestock ResearchInstitute works to improve the wellbeingof people in developing countries byenhancing the diverse and essentialcontributions that livestock make tosmallholder farming. On this researchpage of ILRI, information on theproduction-to-consumption systemsapproach is to be found. Research toimprove livestock productivity andsustainability in market-orientedsmallholder systems will help ensureaffordable balanced diets for the urbanpoor while reducing poverty andbuilding assets for the rural poor. Moreinformation can be obtained from thenewsletter of the Crop-animal SystemsResearch Network (CASREN) which isavailable in pdf format on the ILRI site.

Food and Fertilizer TechnologyCenter: An international informationcenter for farmers in the Asia PacificRegion [email protected]

http://www.agnet.org/

Asian countries are densely populated,and farms are small. The articlesavailable on the site cover a wide rangeof policies, programmes and problems inAsian agriculture. Also information onFFTC seminars, workshops, trainingcourses and special projects to collectand disseminate information aboutagricultural technology for small farms inAsia is provided. Free publications andother technical information, includinglow-cost technology for resource poorfarmers is given.

http://www.icimod.org.sg/publications/imd/imd98-5.htm

The paper “Livestock Development inMixed Crop Farming Systems 98/5” isfound on this page. This paper reviewsand analyses: 1) the temporal changesthat took place over the past years interms of livestock population andcomposition and 2) the institutionalprogrammes for developing thelivestock sector. Finally, it drawsimplications of these experiences forlivestock planners and policy-makersand raises several research issues relatedto livestock sector development.

World watch list for domestic animal diversity

The increasingly grim outlook for indigenous livestock breeds – and for thefarmers who depend on them – is detailed in the third edition of the 726-pagevolume of the FAO/UNEP World watch list for domestic animal diversity (WWL-DAD:3), released in December 2000. While local communities generally possessextensive knowledge of the observable characteristics of their breeds, there isnegligible documented research data for about 85% of all breeds and even lesssound breed comparison information for decision making on breed use. The realvalue of genetic diversity is not properly reflected in current choices of breedsand associated technologies. Breeds that utilise low-value feeds, or survive inharsh environments, or have tolerance to or resistance against specific diseasescould be very beneficial in the future.

Indigenous breeds can be improved to provide better outputs Opportunities forimprovement of indigenous breeds have never been explored systematically. Tohelp countries in improving the performance of indigenous breeds, the FAO’sinitiative for Domestic Animal Diversity (iDAD) is currently producing guidelinesfor identifying and achieving particular breeding objectives (more meat, milk,eggs, wool, etc.). In addition, iDAD supports the conservation of pure breeds,which is vital for maintaining genetic diversity and preserving the geneticmaterial on which future agriculture may depend.

For more information visit the web pages of FAO’s Domestic Animal DiversityInformati on System. www.dad.fao.orga

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The role of smallholder farmers inseed production systems report andrecommendations of a study visitorganised by the technical centre foragricultural and rural cooperation,Zimbabwe, 1999. 2000. 94 p. ISBN 929081 2176. Technical Centre forAgricultural and Rural Co-operation(CTA), PO Box 380, 6700 AJWageningen, The Netherlands /[email protected] CTA number 965. 10 creditpoints.

This book reports about the CTA studyvisit to 19 seed supply projects inZimbabwe by 16 seed supply expertsfrom sub Saharan Africa. The visitsfocused on work with smallholderfarmers and on small grain and otherindigenous crops. The report details thevisits, outlines the seed supply situationin participants’ home countries, andexplains the follow-up work uponreturning home. The report provides alot of technical information but alsoencompasses socioeconomic aspects inmanagement decision making.

The availability of improved seeds holdsa key to enhanced farm productivity andincreased income generation. The formalseed sector has had an impact on theproductivity of high-value crops. Buthigh quality seed supply for smallholderfarmers has often been neglected, thoughindigenous crops grown by smallfarmers largely contribute to householdand national food security in mostcountries. It is the informal seed sectorthat supplies 90% of the seeds of theseindigenous crops. This report providesrecommendations to improve theinformal seed sector. The participants inthe study agreed that when the informalseed sector is given the resources itneeds to generate high-quality seeds forthe nearly 90% of farmers in Zimbabweand neighbouring countries whopresently rely on this source, it will havea huge impact on national food stocksand food security. (WR)

Global development : an experimentin rural development in Bolivia 2001.83 p. Centre of Studies on Social andEconomic Reality (CERES),Cochabamba, Bolivia. Simon I. PatinoFoundation, 8, rue Giovanni-Gambini,1206 Geneva, Switzerland.

From 1990 to 1995, the Simon I. PatinoFoundation undertook an integrateddevelopment project in a peasantcommunity near Cochabamba (Bolivia)with the objective of improving thequality of life of the population andhalting the process of emigration,severely affecting the region at that time.The book describes the experiment fromits inception, the handing over ofresponsibility to the community and therelative continuance of activities. In thefirst part of the book the agricultural site

with its drought problems is discussedand the start-up of the project togetherwith the organisation and the activitiesundertaken. The last part deals withrelations within the community, thehanding over of the project to thecommunity and the causes and conse-quences of the interruption of most ofthe project activities. The text concludeswith a more general reflection on thesubject of development, for which theexperiment under consideration serves asa starting point. (WR)

From indigenous knowledge to participa-tory technology development : soil andwater conservation by Michael YG,Herweg K. 2000. 52 p. Centre forDevelopment and Environment,University of Berne, Institute ofGeography, Hallerstrasse 12, 3012Berne, Switserland / [email protected].

Dr. Yohannes Gebre Michael, P.O.Box33569, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia / Fax:+251 1 518977.

This booklet on extension in soil andwater conservation contains extractsfrom the detailed case studies YohannesGebre Michael carried out on differentsites in Ethiopia, as part of his PhD. It istargetted at Development Agents of theagricultural extension service. Thebooklet helps the user to understand andrespond to the diverse rural communitiesand landscapes, to see the needs andunderstand how indigenous soil andwater practices work, to consider theseindigenous practices as options forparticipatory technology development,and to integrate both indigenous andintroduced know-how and practices for amore sustainable land management.

This booklet illustrates a procedure onhow to learn about the prevailing naturaland human settings in a rural area. Itshows how to make best use of existingknow-how through discussions withfarmers, women, elders and leaders. Landusers have most knowledge of their area,and development agents and expertsshould not attempt to do the farmers’ jobon behalf of them. Recommended. (WR)

New ways ofdevelopingagriculturaltechnologies :the Zanzibarexperience withparticipatoryintegrated pestmanagement byBruin GCA,Zeeman F. 2001.167 p. ISBN 906754 624 0.Wageningen University and ResearchCentre, Technical Centre for Agriculturaland Rural Cooperation (CTA), PO Box380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Nether-lands / [email protected].

This book tells the story of an interna-tional collaboration in crop protectionthat evolved over sixteen years inZanzibar. The project developed from atop-down activity focussing on thestrengthening of a governemental plantprotection organisation, to a successfulprocess of bottom-up development insubsistence agriculture.

Experiences are decribed with theFarmer Field School (FFS) developmenton the islands of Zanzibar. The results infive different cropping systems aredescribed, and general lessons are drawnfrom the successes and failures. Lessonsinclude necessary adaptations of the FFSmodel, originally developed in riceagriculture in Southeast Asia, to thetypical agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions of small-scalefarmers in East Africa. By doing so thebook addresses biological, ecological,social, economic, bureaucratic, andpolitical dimensions of agriculturaldevelopment.

The conclusions of this work show thatFFS can work in an East African contextif certain conditions are met. Theseconditions include raising awareness,creating mutual trust, developing newpartnerships in research and extension,promoting conducive policies for FFSdevelopment, and mobilizing funds tomake this happen. The good news is thatthe FFS way of working is capable ofeffectively mobilising people tocollaborate in new and productive ways.However, this will not happen overnightand requires commitment of manystakeholders.

The international seminar on non-timber forest product : China Yunnan,Laos, Vietnam 2001. 187 p. ISBN 781068 271 7 RMB 40.-. Sino-DutchCooperation Forest Conservation andCommunity Development Project Office/ [email protected] YunnanUniversity Press, 8 Jiaolin Road,Kunming, Yunnan 650031, P.R. ofChina.

This seminar aimed at increasingunderstanding about the role of NonTimber Forest Products (NTFP) inconservation and development in threecountries - China, Vietnam and Laos.The report contains all the paperspresented and summaries of the plenarydiscussions. Besides the plenarydiscussions, three parallel working groupdiscussions tackled specific practicalproblems, in order to share and discussexperiences and lessons learnt. The threeworking groups were: NTFPs and forestconservation, NTFPs and communitydevelopment, and NTFPs and marketingand processing. Papers addressing thesetopics with a lot of case studies andrecommendations for sustainable use andmanagement, participatory methods to

BOOKS

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determine the role of NTFPs incommunity’s life, and marketinginformation are compiled in theproceedings. Useful information onforest conservation and sustainabledevelopment.(WR)

Learning together: the agriculturalworker’s participatory sourcebook byStewart S. 1998. 350 p. ISBN 1 88653210 9. Heifer project International, POBox 808, 1015 Louisiana Street, LittleRock, AR 72202-2815 USA /www.heifer.org

Triops, Hindenburgstrasse 33, D-64295Darmstadt, Germany / [email protected] ; www.net-library.de.

Christian Veterinary Mission, 19303Freemont Ave.N., Seatle, WA 98133USA / www.vetmission.org. CTA no.1045, 80 creditpoints

Learning together is a very rich resourcebook of excellent quality, meant fortrainers in the field of agricultural andlivestock development. It focuses mainlyon trainers (both professionals orfarmers) who are or will be trainingfarmers in a participatory way. It iswritten by a variety of people working inagricultural development connected to arange of organisations. Drawing on thetraining experiences of practitionersfrom over 25 countries on 5 continentsmakes the book extremely practical. Itoffers a wealth of useful participatorymethods, tools, techniques, games,energizers, etc. that can be used toimprove on the quality of agriculturaltraining.

It is designed primarily as a referencebook. Users can pick out ideas from thesections related to the activity they wantto undertake. The book is very compre-hensive and includes all relevant topics,which are covered in a very practicalway. The source book contains foursections: (1) How adults learn andeffective learning techniques, (2) Thesteps in a training cycle, (3) Issues inagricultural and livestock training(gender, communication and IK) and (4)Reference section.

The book is rich in illustrations and thetext is easy to understand. The approachto learning is very refreshing. Instead ofthe traditional form of theory followedby exercises, this book gives a lot ofexercises through which reflection on thetheory is stimulated. In short, this iscertainly a book that will be frequentlyused and highly appreciated by everyagricultural trainer who seeks to improvehis or her training/facilitation skills.(WvW)

Urban Agriculture 2001. 45 min VHSPAL. ETC Netherlands/Resource Centreon Urban Agriculture and Forestry(RUAF), PO Box 64, 3830 AB Leusden,The Netherlands / www.ruaf.org ;[email protected].

This video on urban agriculture has beenproduced to facilitate a greater under-standing of urban agriculture amongpolicy-makers, urban planners, NGOs,sectoral organisations and other peoplewho can make a contribution to theintegration of urban agriculture into urbanpolicies, plans and developmentprogrammes. It can be used in meetings,seminars, workshops, staff-trainingsessions, and initial phases of projects.The first part of the video shows thepotential contribution of urban agricul-ture to enhancing urban food security, topoverty alleviation and to sustainableurban management. The second part ofthe video presents two examples of localprocesses of situation analysis, planningand action regarding urban agriculture -one example in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,and the other in Cuenda, Ecuador. Thevideo is also available in French andSpanish.

Ethical consumers and ethical trade :a review of current literature byTallontire A, [et al]. 2001. 34 p. ISBN 085954 527 X GBP 5.-. Natural Re-sources Institute (NRI), University ofgreenwich, Chatham, UK DFID. (Policyseries ; EP 12). NRI Catalogue Services,CAB International, Wallingford, OxonOX10 8DE, UK.

This review examines both the nature ofethical consumerism and the characteris-tics of consumers themselves. Themotivations of ethical consumers arevaried, as is their willingness to pay anethical premium on consumer goods.Ethical consumerism is a complexphenomenon and the experiencesobtained within the fair-trade andorganic movements are reviewed in anattempt to clarify issues determining itsfuture potential. These conclusions areimportant both to the commercial sectorand to development agencies concernedwith trade with developing countries.

On-farm seed priming - a keytechnology to improve the livelihoodsof resource-poor farmers in marginalenvironments by Harris D., 2001. 15 p.DFID plant Sciences ResearchProgramme, Centre fro Arid ZoneStudies, University of Wales, Bangor,Gwynedd ll57 2UW, United Kingdom.

Soaking seeds before sowing, or priming,is a technique that has been used byfarmers for generations. However, it hasbeen done mainly in times of drought to“catch up “ on time lost, and theduration of soaking has been highlyvariable. This booklet documents thefindings of participatory researchundertaken by researchers of the Centrefor Arid Zone Studies of the Universityof Wales and farmers in several countriesin Asia, Africa and Latin America on seedpriming as a regular practice. Thefindings prove that seed priming is a low-cost, low-risk technology ideally suitedto the needs of resource-poor farmers inmarginal areas of the semi-arid tropics.The booklet contains a lot of practicalinformation on a range of crops that canbe tried out and adapted by farmers.More information can be found on theweb site www.seedpriming.org (CW)

The meat business : devouring ahungry planet by Tansey G, D’Silva_J(eds.). 1999. 249 p. ISBN 1 85383 603 6GBP 12.99. Earthscan, 120 pentonvilleRoad, London, N1 9JN UK /[email protected] ;www.earthscan.co.uk.

This book tackles a fundamental globalconcern: how can we feed ourselves inthe coming centuries, in a way thatprovides healthy and plentiful food forall people and yet is gentle on animalsand on the environment? The papers ofCompassion in World Farming’sconference on Agriculture for the newmillennium- Animal welfare, povertyand globalisation have been transformedinto this book. The book is veryinformative and provides ethicalconsumers and campaining citizens withpractical advice on how to achieveurgently needed reforms in agriculturalpractices. The exploitation of animals infactory farming is criticized. It says thatcheap meat takes food from the mouthsof the poor and creates degradation andpollution of the environment. The bookcontributes to the discussions on theneed for a more sustainable agriculturalsystem both in developed and indeveloping countries.(WR)

Visit our website:www.ileia.org

Themes for the

LEISA-India

Vol. 5,3 September 2003

Access to and control over resources

Many different systems and arrangements determine who has access to andcontrol over natural resources like land, water, trees, grazing, manure etc., andunder what conditions. Systems of access and control change and evolve overtime and range from formal to informal, from traditional to new, from collectiveto private. This issue of LEISA India will try to bring into focus some of thepractical aspects of these different systems and arrangements. We invite you toshare your experiences.

Deadline for contributions is 31st October 2003

Vol 5, 4, December 2003

Rehabilitation of degraded land

Developing economies, growing populations and intensified agriculturalpractices have all contributed to increasing pressure on land resources.Economic growth and intensified large scale production often leads to themost productive land being used for larger commercial plantations, pushingsmall farmers onto degraded lands. How can small-scale farmers go aboutmaintaining the land they depend on for survival and increasing itsproductive potential? How can productive sodic, saline, eroded or toxicsoils be rehabilitated to a fertile condition? This issue of LEISA India willdeal with practices that contribute to maintaining productive soil andrehabilitating land that has been degraded. Please contribute yourexperiences, ideas and solutions.

Deadline for contributions is 31st October 2003You are invited to contribute to these issues with articles (about 800, 1600

or 2400 words + 2-3 illustrations or photographs), suggest possible authors,and send us information about interesting publications,

training courses, meeting and websites.

In recent years there has been risingglobal awareness on the virtues ofrabbit meat production in developing

countries as an alternative means ofalleviating their food shortages. Rabbitrearing, per se, involves high capital andoperating costs. Due to this, resourcepoor farmers, apprehensive of the risksinvolved in this relatively new enterprise,have not ventured in a big way.However, back yard rabbit rearing is asuitable option for those farmers wholack in resources like space, cash andlabour.

Backyard Rabbit Rearing – AFamily EnterpriseAs a backyard activity it is best suited,as rabbits are quiet, odourless and docileanimals. Often they are unnoticed byneighbours, even in residential areas. Ofthe various meat breeds available in India,White Giants, Soviet Chinchillas andNew Zealand Whites were found to havemany desirable traits, such as rapidgrowth rate, good carcass quality andgood prolificacy. A unit of three does(female rabbits) and a buck (male rabbit)of a broiler breed, can be raised ininexpensive sheds, using garden produce,kitchen waste and supplemented byother feeds and wastes which otherwisemay not be used. The time or labourrequired to raise rabbits can be around 10hours per breeding doe in an year. For thebackyard operation with three breedingdoes, this labour input relates to lessthan 10 minutes per day which can beconveniently contributed by the familyitself.

Integration into traditionalfarming

Rabbits that are raised in backyards canbe strongly integrated into traditionalfarming practices. This entails therecycling of garden produce as rabbit feedand the conversion of rabbit manure intocompost for enhancing the soil. Thisintegrative approach is an effectivemeans by which investment on animalfeed and fertilizer can be minimized. Insome countries of Africa, rabbits arehoused over fish-ponds, whereby, blue-green algae production is increased due torabbit droppings, thereby, enhancing fishharvests, while rabbits are fed on

Backyard rabbit rearing:A viable option forresource poor farmers

D.Puthira Prathap and K.Narayanan

inexpensive forage and/or garden wastesgrown along the pond banks.

Rabbit Products and their use

The manure from rabbits is rich inorganic matter and nutrients and makesexcellent compost. On a dry matter basis,rabbit manure contains 2.7% of nitrogen,1.5% of phosphoric acid and 1.5% ofpotash. Rabbit meat is high in protein,low in fat, sodium and cholesterol ascompared to beef, mutton, chevon, porkand poultry and thus the meat has beenrecommended by physicians to diabeticpatients and to those with coronary heartconditions. Hats, rugs and toys are someof the value-added products obtainedfrom rabbit skins.

Conclusion

In India, where rabbit rearing is still in itsinfancy, farmers can go for backyardrabbit rearing with minimal capitalinvestment. Experiences of variouscountries such as Mexico, Ghana, Nigeriaand China have shown that small-scalerabbit enterprises have been verysuccessful. Hence more emphasis needsto be given on the research and extensionpriorities for backyard rabbit rearing.

Scientists, Southern Regional ResearchCentre, Central Sheep and Wool ResearchInstitute (ICAR), Mannavanur,Kodaikanal – 624 103

White Giant doe with New born kids

march 2002 volume 4 no.1 indi leis a · 2017-10-30 · 2 leisa india • m a r c h 2 0 0 2 leisa...

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