my plan for dissertation last tunnel
TRANSCRIPT
“Fundamental Aspects of Design and Constructing Tunnel on Past, Present
and the Future”
Dana KadirBEng-Civil Engineer
University of CoventryAcademic year 2013-2014
Dissertation Supervisor: Dr Sam Ng’ambi
Abstract
Generally this dissertation project is going to cover major identification of the fundamental
aspects related to both design and construction of tunnelling. Alongside, looking back to the
history of tunnelling and how this structure is become more important and helping growth in
country. Furthermore, different types of soils and materials can be studied practically and in
research review from the past experience in order to comprehend the consequence of layers of
ground and materials of use to discover the right way to design and construct the tunnel. Finally
some of the most vital methods and technology for tunnel construction at present are deliberated
and the view future for tunnelling will be demonstrated.
The future of tunnelling needs more advanced and sophisticated monitoring and excavation
technologies together with superior construction measures and techniques to address various site
specific conditions
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Contents
1 Intoduction
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1. Introduction
1.1 History of Tunnelling
For years in mankind history, earth has been excavated and made caverns and tunnels for many
purposes of life. Almost every great development and civilization of mankind made interest of
digging and building tunnels, various type of digging and tunnelling were made in past for many
purposes of use for instance using for shelter or to store food. In very early time tunnels have
made in different kind of materials such as flint, wood, and later with improvement of people life
and increasing demands of using tunnels other material such as bronze, iron, steel and concrete
have used. From early time there is evidence with according to (Wahlstrom, 1973) that in Stone
Age human were sank shafts and drove tunnels in order to obtain flint for sharp edge tools. There
are a number of detailed histories and methods of constructing tunnel, some remained and others
demolished. According to (David chapman.2010) the earliest evidenced to construct the tunnels
using the gunpowder was for a pioneering tunnel of the canal age built on the Canal “du Midi”
which was constructed across France in the 1666-1681. The Canal du Midi was 157m long and
connected the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and the tunnel was rectangular cross
section shape. Additionally, in the UK, the past engineering art has created magnificent channel
system which was part of the industrial revolution. For instance the Harecast Tunnel in 1770s was
2090m long constructed using gunpowder to bore the ground. Also within according to
(Chapman.2010) there has been substantial development in tunnel construction techniques in the
last two centuries particularly after first use of tunnelling shield under the River Thames in
London by Marc Brunel in 1825-1842. Whereas, the key role of this technique was to support the
face and provide safety for the workers by used cast iron shields. Figure () is demonstrated sample
details of this technique somehow its very similar to nowadays tunnel technique systems.
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Figure () display details of Brunel’s Shield (Chapman.2010)
Extra infor from (Ref: Tunnel construction by David Chapman, Nicole Metje and Alfred
Stark.2010
Furthermore, the tunnel became very interesting in many other regions around world. In Europe
the first major construction of tunnel between two portals was built by using rock drills. At same
time in the USA the Hoosac Tunnel started at 1855 and it was 7.44km long, in order to increase
the rate of the Hoosac tunnel construction a compressed air rock drills was used for first time in
the world tunnel project (David chapman.2010). Moreover, various way and combinations of the
structure of tunnels were made for different purposes through out of the history. For example in
the USA highway tunnel was made for first time as the submerged tube steel circular shells and
opened in 1928. Also by year 1933 the biggest tunnel underwater was finished in the UK which
wide enough for four lanes of traffic (David chapman.2010).
Tunnels have not just used for traffic and food store, in primary stage of finding gold and jewels
underground, tunnels were also created in many deep excavations in mining fields in order to
preventing these mining fields from collapse by using tunnel support. At the start timber was used
as some types of support for protection of rock collapse during transporting minerals to surface
and gave secure safety place for workers. Figure () shows example of timber support
(Szechy.1966)
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Figure () shows timber frame support for mining tunnels (Szech.1966)
In the twentieth century there has been huge growth of long networks of tunnels to provide the
needs in both of hydroelectric- power and water-supply systems. There has also been substantial
tunnelling activity in connection with the circulating-water systems of large generating stations
(Ponnuswamy and Johnson Victor 1996).
Furthermore, the raise in world population and the quick enlargement of cities required even more
needs and purposes for using tunnels for instance in drains, sewers, channel, water supply, cable
tunnels and other uses. The need for water led to ever bigger dams needing tunnels, sometimes
during construction for diversions, sometimes permanently. Moreover, in recent decades with the
growing of population the number of vehicles also increasing therefore it has became a common
phenomenon of daily traffic congestion, pollutes air and creates conflicts with the pedestrians. On
ground surface the traffic became a real deteriorate by extending more lanes in existing road
which most of time is unlikely to ease the traffic problem. Hence, the tunnelling for underground
metro and railway, road vehicles has assumed increased importance because of the need to expand
the transportation infrastructure in the country to cope with the anticipated magnitude of the
economic activities. Also major progress projects such as rapid travel schemes in metropolitan
cities, expressways connecting major cities, and also building tunnel as a subway has been used
successfully in the crowded cities of the world for pedestrians walking and safety.
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The process of excavating a tunnel in ground is not simply a procedure of deciding where the
tunnel is to go. There are many concerns of general uncertainties and unknowns when dealing
with the underground structure. These variables can variety from small inconveniences to major
challenges to the designers and constructors of the tunnels. The uncertainties can be geology of
the area, ground water, initial drilling core which cover only 0.0005% of the actual excavation
volume of a tunnel in any project etc (Wahlstrom. 1973).
Today with advance of technology different types of tunnels have introduced which accelerate the
rate of excavating ground and more importantly methods standard uses to control workplace
hazards in underground construction as long as appropriate precautions are taken to protect
workers in a variety of situations. Furthermore, regulation standard such as Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) relating to underground constructions have established during
1970s and improved over the years to add new defensive measures and enhance worker safety.
Training requirements for all workers involve in underground project must be taught to identify
and respond to risk related with this type of work (Ref:OSHA construction tunnelling Pdf).
There are many options available these days for the construction of tunnels. The selection of
which tunnelling technique to use must be made on the basis of the known and suspected ground
condition, in combination with other aspects such as access, possible local tunnelling traditions
and skills, as well as costs. Hence, in view of the fact this thesis intends to present a
comprehensive introduction to different types of tunnels and construction, impact of environment,
collecting previous experience and researches of tunnel and finally what will be future of the
tunnels.
In view of the fact that these modest beginnings there has been an explosion of tunnelling all over
the world and we can now almost certainly claim on a practical level to be able to construct
tunnels anywhere, through any ground.
1.2 different types of tunnelling
Following recent introduction it might be importance to detail the engineering basics of the
different types of tunneling. Tunneling has been using in many ways and many purposed
throughout of history. it can be better to classify as following:
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1.3 Impact of Tunnels in Environment
1.4 Health and Safety and Risk management in Tunneling
Health and risk management in construction create unique challenges due to the nature of the
industry and these challenges are in more serious hazard when dealing with underground
structures. Normally those who works underground construction must be aware of high risk that
might be facing that can be include engineers, owner, designer and contractor of a project. The
UK code of practice for risk management of tunnel describes the “risk” as the mixture of the
outcome or severity of an exposure and its possibility of happening (Pennington.etc.2006).
Furthermore, a risk assessment in any type of project including tunnel and underground structure
is the organized and formalized method of recognizing and computing hazards in terms of cost,
duration of project, safety for employers and employees as well as the impact of surrounding area
and environment. There are many report and researches are related to civil engineering industries
underground and on ground are confirming that the construction industry as one of the most
dangerous field. In according to (Joyce.2001) report study of accidents over five years from 1981
in building and civil engineering (underground and on ground) showed that 739 people were died
in the construction industry. Also throughout the period from 1981 to 2000 figure () is illustrated
numbers of death for each year. So it can be seen that casualty is very constant and less
improvements for future. Therefore someone can get into conclusion behind such a connection
between construction activity levels and losses is that health and safety is still not a sufficient
enough to protect workers and reduce risk also priority to attract investment in training.
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Figure () shows number of fatalities each year from 1981 to 2000 (Joyce.2001).
Furthermore, (Joyce.2001) was argued that the analysis of the main causes of accidents could be
prevented by the application of reasonable practicable precautions. Also is showed that a lack of
supervision by line managers in the construction industry and a lack of communication and
connection among the members of the professional level to lower level of works at the pre-
construction stage as well as introducing dangers and identify risks in industry toward workers.
Additionally, in tunnel constructions many hazards such as (unstable ground, water, noise, dust,
moving machinery and electricity) have the potential for harm to persons, the tunnel and the
surrounding environment. Over the past few years there have been a number of spectacular tunnel
collapses around the world which have resulted in both workers and members of the public being
killed. These risk of workplace can be different and directly related to choose type and method of
tunnel for instance the mechanized tunneling is found to be less risky because only those entering
the cutter-head for inspection and maintenance are facing dangers well on other hand when a
collapse does occur with a shield driven tunnel in an urban area, it might be greatest risk for
public and those on the surface (Chapman.2010).
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1.3 methods of design and construction of tunnels
It is hard to simplify the use of a particular construction method in view of the fact that each
project is unique and has numerical of constraints and unpredictable condition that should be
considered when selecting a construction method.
Tunnel construction methods (cut and cover, shield driven, bored, drill and blast,
immersed tube, NATM)
Geometry shape (Circular, rectangular, horseshoe, oval/egg
Ground conditions (soft, subaqueous, mixed face, rock)
Lining and support system (unlined rock, cast in place concrete, shortcrete/gunite,
precast liners, steel/iron plate, masonry, slurry wall (Ref:best practices for roadway
tunnels design)
Now day methods of design and construction of tunnel has magnificently improved especially in
engineer and soil mechanic fields. Today the construction of tunnel in development countries has
to consider greater safety and much better working conditions than an historical counterpart. Also
with improvements in design and construction the diversity of use has been widened and tunnels
are not simply using for mines and shelters that they used to be. At present time the human race
excavates for transportation, mining, storage, deposition of waste and so on. In a very simple way
within according to (Walhstrom.1973) a tunnel can be described as a long narrow pathway,
essentially linear excavated underground opening which the length normally is greater than the
width and height.
Tunnels are different from other civil engineering structures, in buildings and any other
construction above ground such as bridges the using materials normally can be defined and
testable properties, whereas for tunnels this case is different. Table () below is shown some
problems associated with tunnel design and construction and comparison with above ground
construction projects (Ref: Tunnel construction by David Chapman, Nicole Metje and Alfred
Stark.2010).
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Table () shows comparison between tunnels and structures above ground (Ref: Tunnel
construction by David Chapman, Nicole Metje and Alfred Stark.2010)
Construction material
Loads Safety
Structure above ground
Construction
Materials are tested during production process and
guaranteed by the quality control procedures
All loads and forces are affected a structure can be known by using structural
analysis method.
Safety factor can be determined base on known loads and
properties of the construction materials
Tunnel construction
Uncertainty of the ground properties and materials are incapability to influence its
properties
Loads can be only found by estimating therefore
analysis of loads is basically unidentified.
due to major of uncertainties related to the loads and material properties it is impossible to find
factor safety of the tunnel construction
due to some of the problems associated with tunnel design and construction for instance
supporting system which is made up of concrete and steel in any types of tunnel projects. can be
considered to be challenge in engineering field because it is a complicate mixture works of ground
and composite process which needs to understand of a soil condition in addition to structural
problems. Therefore plan of this dissertation is going to be covered various types of tunnels and
classification of soils as well as methods of design and construction as major parts of this study.
1. Cut and Cover Tunnels
The Cut and Cover methods are sophisticated engineering techniques for tunnel construction in
urban and interurban areas. Initially this method was industrial for unban passageway structures
where the slightest possible disruption of traffic is required thereafter the method has used in
highway, railway projects but appeared to be less favourable due to issues related to instability of
ground during construction (Mouratidis.2008).
Additionally the Cut and Cover tunnels methods of construction are normally shaped as a frame
box structure with a separating wall and walkways to each track giving an average box width of
10m and the depth of 10m to 12m is normally more economical and more practical then mined or
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bored tunnelling (Federal Highway Administration (FHWA).2013). The technique is often
preferred for the construction of shallow tunnels and it is built inside an excavation and covered
over backfill material when construction of the structure is complete. In the soft ground areas a
temporary diaphragm walls or sheet piling might be used to protect sides from collapse (Nicholas
& Krishnan.2000). With regards to the impact environment it is fairly sensitive and even less
damaging because of backfilling the cutting area. Figure () shows construction procedures of the
cut and cover method (Mouratidis.2008).
Figure () shows stages of construction for the Cut and Cover techniques (Mouratidis.2008)
Furthermore, in according to (FHWA.2013) the cut and cover system needs support to prevent the ground from falling and blocking groundwater into excavated area therefore three common support categories can be used:
1) Open Cut slope : it is used where enough room is available to open cut the area of the
tunnel and slope the sides back to meet the adjacent existing ground line and is taking into account
the natural repose angle of the in-situ material and the global stability.
2) Temporary Support system : it is support vertical or almost vertical faces of the
digging in areas where sufficient room is not available. This type of support is not bearing loads of
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the tunnel structure and it remains underground after being backfilled. Furthermore, mostly this
type of support can be classified as flexible or rigid such as sheet piling and soldier pile and
lagging walls.
3) Permanent support system: it is similar to the Temporary Support system however
this support becomes part of the tunnel to carry structure loads. From engineering point of view
this system is considered to be working as rigid systems which have more load carrying capacity
than flexible systems. Example of permanent support slurry walls, soldier pile or secant pile walls.
Figure () demonstrates an example of the cut and cover tunnel construction with both the
Temporary and the Permanent support wall systems.
Figure () shows temporary and permanent support wall systems (FHWA.2013)
Eventually there are issues need to be concern while using the Cut and Cover tunnel system
during design and construction. It is necessary to assess and mitigate of construction impacts on
adjacent structures. Also it is vital for engineers to be familiar with systematic features of analysis
soil movement as a result of the excavation (FHWA .2013). Last but not less the method also has
extensive surface disruption along the route during construction.
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2. Immerse Tube Tunnels ( look at for extra work on
http://books.google.iq/books?
id=dUBaw8fQRAMC&pg=PA20&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false)
An immersed tube tunnel is other types of tunnel systems. It is normally a best way of
constructing a tunnel across a water way. In according to (Lunniss and Baber.2011) the history of
immersed tunnel initially is going back to early 1800s where the first concepts developed in
England and by 1893 the first immersed tunnel was built. Before first immersed tunnel was
successfully built many proposed and attempted were made, for instance within according to
(Ingerslev.2010) Edward Reed in 1882 proposed a submerged railway tunnel across the English
Channel to connect England and French but due to French fear invasion the parliament of
England did not accept the propose.
Immersed tube tunnels are constructs differently from other type of tunnel system. It is ideals for
crossing rivers and mostly using pre-fabricated elements which are assemble in the dry place near
the tunnel location. These parts are floated into the river/sea bed and joined together. It is very
important to ensure adequate stability for these parts against uplifting (Davie Chapman.2010).
Additionally, in the world there are two types of immersed tube tunnel which are:
2.1 Steel Shell
The steel shell type is conventionally chosen in the United States. It is normally built as single or
double shell construction see figure (). It is consisted of relatively thin-walled composite steel and
concrete rings. The steel shell provides the water barrier and uses for the water tightness.
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Figure () shows example of single and double for steel shell immersed tube tunnel
(Chapman.2010)
2.2 Concrete
Concrete is other material used for immersed tube tunnel. Normally double and multiple tubes
with rectangular shape can be made. Traditional casting method is carried out by using movable
steel shutter as formwork. At first the base slab is constructed and then the vertical bearing walls
casts to be ready for last part which is roof slab to complete the rectangular box (Chapman.2010).
Furthermore, traditional cracking in concrete is a major problem facing immersed tube tunnel due
to heat of hydration generated from different stages of concrete casting. In order to solve cracking
problems either carry on casting of the full cross section or cooling pipes to control temperature
and construction joints between the walls and top and bottom slabs can be used (Chapman.2010).
Figure () shows some examples of the rectangular concrete immersed tube tunnel.
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Figure () shows examples of rectangular concrete immersed tube tunnel (Chapman.2010)
Additionally, for construct typical immersed tube tunnels some general stages need to be taken
in any immersed tube tunnels which are as following:
a) Tunnel parts with a complete cross section and required length are manufactured in a large
ship or on a port later transport for tunnel position.
b) In order to prevent water, these cross section element parts are closed by temporary
bulkheads.
c) To make the elements sunk, some temporary water is putting into the ballast tanks inside
the elements, then the elements are joined together and form watertight connection.
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d) At the initial stage of construction the tunnel foundation has to be prepared.
e) To prevent the tunnel from damage backfilling the excavation and placing rock protection
on the top are used.
f) Finally the tunnel is sealed and pumped out the water inside.
Demonstrate the sequence of these stages is clearly shown in figure () in more details.
Figure () shows typical sequence for the construction of an immersed tube tunnel (Chapman.2010)
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Around world other types of immersed tube tunnels have constructed in different approaches and
are not discussed in scope of this project for example, steel sandwich composite, concrete
monolithic but figure () is displayed recent trends in structural form of immersed tube tunnels.
Figure () shows trends in structural form of immersed tube tunnels (Lunniss and Baber.2011)
and
Within according to (Lunniss and Baber.2011) after the first transpiration tunnel was built in
1910, growth in immersed tunnels worldwide has been dramatic increased especially in United
States, Europe and significantly in Asia and far East. It can be assumed that in average of around
one project opening per year. Figure () is shown rate of immersed tunnel construction worldwide
for transportation tunnels.
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Figure () is shown rate of immersed tunnel construction worldwide for transportation tunnels
(Lunniss and Baber.2011)
Additionally, further improvement techniques in constructing immersed tunnels have led contries
such as the United States, the Netherlands and Japan are became the majority of building
immersed tunnel and more recently the People’s Republic of China, including Hong Kong has
shown dramatic increased in the rate of immersed tunnels constructions because of the geological
lying regions with major cities and rivers. Figure () shows the number of immersed tunnels built
by country include those under construction (Lunniss and Baber.2011).
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Figure () numbers of the immersed tunnels built by country (Lunniss and Baber.2011).
Eventually, it can be seen that the immersed tube tunnels around world has became more
interesting and rapidly built especially in those countries which economical development are
significantly increases and improvement of technology and techniques of building this type of
tunnel is hel of econ
3. Drill and Basting tunnel method
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Aim:
Objectives:
The objective of this study is shows the history of tunnelling and understanding of design and
constructing as well as the problems pose on in modern construction and major uncertainties that might
be happened during construction.
Contents:
Methodology, resources
Project title
Abstract
List of figure
List of tables
Symbols and notation
Formula
Synopsis
Chapter One (Background and History of different types of TunnelsTunnels are mostly can be defined an underground structure, which considers to railway tracks, passageway. Tunnels are built either above sea level or likely in modern day technology builds
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under sea-level. The worldwide development in progress of civil engineering infrastructure over the past years has led to a major enhance in the numbers and types of tunnels constructed for road, railways and water supply.
History of Tunnelling
Tunnelling dates back to centuries in human kind developments. Many data and researches are published different times of building tunnels therefore there is not exact known date of construction first tunnel.
Impact of Tunnels in Environmental and Health and Safety Issues
In construcation of any type of structures there is always need to considered environment affacts risk of health and safety issues. Everything around us are called environment therefore almost most of activities are going on somehow effect and have impact in environment. The study of this chapter is going to include aim and objective of these bullet points:
Introduction into history of tunnelling in the past to the present time.
Background of information , collection of previous knowledge about that
subject
Background of this project, familiar knowledge about the area of research
History of the construct tunnelling and related aspects.
Explain various types of soils and dealing with them during construction.
Consider hazards and health and safety of constructing tunnels.
Chapter Two
Literature review.
Past experiences and fundamental aspects of use.
Methods of design and construction of tunnels.
Literature ReviewIn the previous chapter tunnel were described as underground passage that constructed for the
various reasons. Then this chapter is going to discuss researches and many studies were made
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about different types of tunnels, as well as methods and technique of fundamental aspects of
construction and select appropriate methods.
Classification of tunnels can be contented of many types such as railway tunnels, metro system,
highway, sewage tunnels etc. All these types of tunnels have unique way to deal with,
constructing and design of tunnels can be directly related to geological location and condition of
ground as well as sectional shapes which are usually determined by their purpose of use.
Moreover, the most fundamental operations of tunnelling need to carry out survey and soil
condition carefully, also considering using appropriate mechanism and machines to excavation of
ground and immediate support of ground. Most importantly managing of water during
construction and finally using right permanent support to hold ground and prevent the tunnel of
collapse and failure.
Nowadays there is a continuous and growing required for constructing tunnels for various reasons.
Methods of making tunnels are always in progress due to high demand and well developed
technology.
In the mining industry drill and blast has been used rapidly for excavate of ground however, the
mechanical excavators is replaced with helps of new technology and therefore it has achieved
lower costs and faster development schedules as well as sufficient mine planning and detailed
performance analysis. Also using mechanical excavators can make perfect estimation of
production rates and costs.(Application of tunnel boring machines.M.Cigla)
Method of construction:
Look at “tunnel file”
Tunnel types
History of Tunnel-Boring Machine (TBM)In the history of tunnel the earliest record of a working Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) is going
back to 1856 under different name called “Wilson’s Patented Stone-Cutting Machine” named by
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Charles Wilson (Ref:Practical Tunnel Construction, by Hemphill.2013). Wilson were develop his
idea and improved his machine see figure () in 1857 and the machine was used to build the 7645 m
tunnel in western Massachusetts. The tunnel in western Massachusetts was required to be 0.33 m
wide and outer diameter of 7.3 m and penetration rates were estimated to be (0.254−0.61)m per
hour. Unfortunately the Wilson Improved machine was not continued due to high cost of used and
commercial failure (Practical Tunnel Construction, by Gary B. Hemphill).
Figure () shows Wilson’s Improved Machine in 1857 (Hemphill.2013)
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM):Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) is one of very essential methods in modern day technology and it
has become a preferred way of construction tunnels nowadays. The TBM is designed to carry out
a circular cross section. It is used to drilling and excavating tunnels through all different types of
soil and rock layers. In addition, the TBM is well accepted in environment and it is considered to
be less harming to underground and disturbance to land. (Engineering Survey system
TBM.Andrew file). Tunnels in soft soil are often constructed as bored tunnels therefore the TBM
is chosen to be better choice compares to cut and cover tunnel techniques. To some extent the
TBM is less expensive and different from the traditional drill and blast method. Moreover, tunnels
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by the TBM are used both in urban and non-urban areas in soft and in a sub-aqueous environment.
(refreec singh pdf).
In general overall advantages of using TBM can be demonstrated as following:
Fast rate of advance in producing a round, smooth and un-shattered bores.
Over break is less in ground during excavation than other methods.
During excavation ground is not weakened hence support is less required.
Reducing risk of collapse of the excavation face.
It is economical especially in the long tunnel length.
Nevertheless there are some disadvantage points of using the TBM which can be verified as
following:
In term of using in short tunnels, it is expensive.
It can be used only for circular tunnels cross section.
Construction of TBM is considerably costly.
In most of cases the TBM machine components can be different from each other so Figure () is
shown an example of the TBM machine with main components and functionalities of them.
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Figure () shows a typical layout of TBM
1. Cutter Disc: it is at the front end of the machine and is responsibility to excavate rock or
soft ground by the rotating mechanism which is made the teeth cutting rock under pressure
of wheels.
2. Shield Skin: it is responsible to prevent the soil from getting inside the machine and give
clear space for the workers.
3. Pushing Jack: it is located on top side of the machine straight behind the Cutter disc, it is
work by hydraulic and pushing the Cutter forward during operation.
4. Main Drive: Drive is work by electricity and provides a force to rotate the Cutter disc.
5. Screw Conveyor: it is worked to get out the broken parts of soils at the Cutter disc and
feed onto a conveyor system.
6. Erector: to erect the segments to form a complete ring after shoving at the tail of the TBM.
7. Back up Facilities: it is a channel to travel with the TBM and to service the operation.
Because of demonstrated abilities in achieving high rates of advance in civil tunnel construction
the TBM machine is always shown a major interest in the hard rock mining industry initially for
development of doorway, as well as ventilation, haulage and production drifts. Furthermore, in
order to achieve lower costs and faster development schedules the choice of using mechanical
excavation method with sufficient planning and detailed performance analysis is better than using
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Drill and Blast method (Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured). Mechanical excavation offers
several advantages over drill and blast for all types of tunnel excavation some of these
comparisons are shown in table () (Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured).
Mechanical excavation Drill and Blast excavation
Safety of workers is in great improvement
during operation of the machine.
High risk for workers due to exclusion of
blasting and toxic smoke
Reducing ground disturbance which
considerably lower support requirements for
stability opening
Mass ground disturbance due to blast and
needs sufficient support for stabilisation of
opening
During excavation smooth walls created by
machine boring which helps to induce
ventilation requirements
It is necessary to build smooth walls and
installs ventilation.
However, despite the comparisons above there are several issues were rose by looking back to
history of TBM in mine industry. In according to (Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured)
TBMs have been used in mining operations from time to time the earliest application dates back to
late of 50’s and following decades. The capability of the TBMs machine was shown high rates
achievement in many projects during those decades. However, overall costs were not be justified
due to lack of experience of the workers applying these type of machines for excavate which
caused very low machine utilization rates. Also these machines were not originally designed for
mining fields. In addition lack of accurate estimation and unexpected ground conditions, such as
very weak and broken ground or fault zones made these machines unfavourable for using in mine
fields.
In most recent years, application of the TBMs in mining operations have came back to point of
interest, the TBM is improved successfully due to experiences gained with helps of technology in
cutter design and machine components systems also awareness of the manufacturers to design
appropriate and more specific machine for mining excavations. (Ref:Application of tunnel boring
Secured)
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Within according to (Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured) reliability of the TBM in most of
tunnelling projects is directly related to many factors influencing the TBM performance during
excavations. These factors can be concise as following:
1. Intact Rock Properties The intact rock property is commonly related to measure of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
of rock property (Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured). Normally during excavation it is
necessary to know how much force needs to break a rock, in order to evaluate the resistance of the
rock against the indentation of the cutting tool the UCS is carried out to measure and great
awareness is needed to work out how the sample of the rock can be fail during UCS testing. Some
times during UCS test two types of failures can be observed, which are structural and non-
structural failures. Structural failure is fail along existing rock defects, such as joints, fractures,
bedding or foliation of the rocks. However, where the testing of the samples is not crashed due to
any defects and happened in an “intact” manner the sample is noted as having failed in a non-
structural behavior. Widely speaking the non-structural failure is of essential because it cannot be
predicted. Figure () is demonstrate the UCS samples of the rock which are compressed and tested
under hydraulic machine for structural and non-structural failures.
Figure (), left hand side non-structural failure, right hand side structural failure (Rock Mechanics)
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2. Rock Mass Properties In the excavation process different layers of the rocks are existed on the ground therefore foliation
and bedding are significantly related to fracture propagation between cuts of the rocks and directly
related to the direction of the machine advance cutter disc. Furthermore, intact rock properties
together with rock mass characteristics should be well investigated for selection of proper tunnel
boring machine (TBM). Also within according to (Factors influencing performance of hard.) the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) has developed a hard rock TBM
prognosis model that shown it is important to evaluate the orientation of foliation planes with
respect to the angle of Alpa (α) that is the angle measured between the plane of weakness and
tunnel axis. If the angle of the machine advances parallel to across foliation planes of the rocks it
will reduce machine penetration because of increased difficulty of rock breakage (Ref:Application
of tunnel boring Secured). Figure () is demonstrate cutting direction parallel to foliation.
Figure () illustrates cutting direction parallel to foliation (Ref:Application of tunnel boring
Secured)
However, it is on the most favorable boreability when the foliation is perpendicular to direction of
machine advance. This case generally helps the cracks initiation and growth between adjacent cuts
figure () represents this type of excavation.( Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured)
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Figure () illustrates cutting direction perpendicular to foliation
Moreover, in order to find out the best way to measure high performs of machine it is necessary to
test the tensile strength of the rock in various directions. For instance figure () is shows sample of
loading direction with respect to foliation/bedding planes in order to represent the crack
propagation across or along the weakness planes.
Figure () loading direction for tensile testing (Ref)
3. Machine type and Specifications
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Generally type of TBM machine can be considered to be other factors of the excavation that is
consequence the sufficiently and fasting the process. The component of the machine such as thrust
and power are the key to providing adequate amount of forces and torque to support the
excavation of operation. Enough force to efficiently penetrate the tools into the rock surface.
( Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured)
4. Cutter Geometry Front of the TBM machine is end by several cutting tools which are provided for the transmission
to break rocks and excavate ground. These cutting tools are worked by energy which is generated
by the machine. Within according to (Ref:Application of tunnel boring Secured) a single disc
cutters are the most regularly used roller cutters for hard rock tunnel boring machine because they
are the most competent types of rolling cutters since the entire capacity of the bearing is
concentrated into a single narrow edge.see an example of the single Disc Cutters in the figure ()
below.
Figure () shows Single Disc Cutters
5. Cutting Geometry The Cutting Geometry is considered to be one of the most crucial factors in performance of the
TBM. In order to make cutting works efficiency it is necessary to manage and calculate
approximately spacing and the depth of the cutter into the rock per cutter-head. Furthermore, the
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spacing of cutters has a magnificent impact on the chipping mechanism and effectiveness of
boring. Extensive past research and data resources analysis have studied that optimal cutting
efficiency is directly related to the ratio of spacing to penetration of the cutting access.
Furthermore, the interaction between adjacent cuts in maximum when a spacing for a given cutter
penetration optimum. In order to achieve high result of excavation manufacturers need to use the
ratio of spacing to penetration 10 to 20 for tougher rocks and hard/brittle rock respectively. Figure
() shows effect of spacing over penetration ratio on cutting efficiency. (Ref:Application of tunnel
boring Secured)
Figure () shows spacing over penetration ratio on cutting efficiency
Overall, there are many other factors which are effects the performance of the TBM during
excavation process. Also there are several special issues that have to be identified and dealt with
when working with TBM in any kinds of excavation so that project economics and completion
schedules can be assessed more accurately.
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Chapter three, Types and purpose of TunnelsIn this chapter types and purpose of tunnels can be widely explained
Storage and deposition of waste tunnels
Passageway and Traffic tunnels
Rail and transportation tunnels
Military and defence tunnels
Chapter Four, Design and Construction of Tunnels In this chapter a short list of many uncertainties that need to be concerned during design and construction is going to be discussed as following:
Uncertainty when dealing with any underground project
Uncertainty due to the geology of the area that will determine the feasibility
and the cost of the undertaking.
Uncertainty due to ground water table which is the most complicate
parameter to calculate.
Chapter Five, outcome & Discussion
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Chapter Six, Conclusion
Chapter Seven, Reference
Reference
Lunniss, R. and Baber, J. 2011. Immersed tunnels. London: Taylor & Francis.
Ponnuswamy, S. and Johnson Victor, D. (1996) 'Transportation Tunnels'
Szechy, K. 1966. The Art of Tunneling. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary. Use of
shotcrete for underground Structural Support.
Zhao, J., Shirlaw, J. N. and Krishan, R. 2000. Tunnels and underground structures.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Appendix
Bibliography
http://www.citethisforme.com
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/tunnel/pubs/nhi09010/
index.cfm
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