ORSZÁGISMERET: NAGY BRITANNIA (INTRODUCTION TO BRITAIN)

Geography

British Isles and its surroundings1707Great Britain – to name the country (politically united2 Parliaments, governments united)1603Queen Elizabeth died (Tudor dynasty died out)Steward dynasty – James I. (Scottish)

Act of Union created Gb Wales was occupied by Britain Ireland politically divided after 1922

o catholic – Republic Irelando Protestant – Northern Ireland + GBUnited Kingdom (1801, central government in

London) Channel Islands - Jersey, Guernsey Isle of Man – it has its own government Island of Wight Hebrides Orkney I., Sherland I. – Scandinavian English Channel/The Channel Channel Tunnel

North See shallow: 100-200m deep rich in oiloil rigs

Topography of the Isles South – flat, only hills N, West – mostly mountains Wales – hilly, raising animals(sheep) North of E. – pretty hilly Scotland – mountainous (Low Land) East - sunny, weather is extremely changeable Ireland – mostly hilly or flat

UK, GB and its constituents British people are the Queen’s subjects Scots live Scotland/they are Scottish Welsh people live in Wales

Historical milestones 844: Kingdom of Scotland united

954: Kingdom of England united 1169: Ireland invaded by England 1284: Wales occupied by England 1603: E. and S. have the same king: James I. of E., James VI. of S. 1707: Scottish Act of Union: E. + S. = GB 1800: Irish Act of Union: GB + Ireland = UK 1922: Irish Free state (lt. Republic of Ireland) separates; UK + GB = Northern Ireland

Flags: cross of St. George: England cross of St. Andrew: Scotland cross of St. Patrick: UK

England

County = shireBig county = law population

Physical map: centralized, stable kingdom London:

o social, cultural, economic, political centreo 8 M. peopleo flat, hillsThe Pennines – dividing line from NW.

ColumbiaDistrict of Lakes Cornwall

Rivers: Severn – high tide, low tide Thames – through Windsor, Oxford (rowing) wide, big rivers The Wash – Briston line separates N and W Humber

Regions: London South East South West East England – historically rich Midlands

o Easto West: industrial cities: Birmingham, Nottingham(after WW2 the begin to

decline)more similar to the north Yorkshire and Humberside

North West industrial revolution (Mill Towns, factories) North East each city has its own accent – original, social

The Home Counties – counties surrounding London Surrey Berkshire Buckinghamshire Hertfordshire Essex Kent Sussex Oxfordshire Hampshire Bedfordshire

Greater London: The towerto protect London(the city): it was always north of the Thames Westminsteroriginally out of the city, governmental centre Ring Road M25 Central LondonTower, St. Paul Cathedral, Parliaments, Hyde Pare

Basic facts about London: population:

o in Greater London: 8 Mo in London Metropolitan Area: 13,6 M

every fifth person live in or near London racial and ethnic origin:

o 71% white (60% British, 3% Irish, 8% other)o 12% British Asiano 11% blacko 3% oriental (Chinese-->, Hong Kong colony)o 3% mixed

country of birtho 5,2M UK (born in England)o 260.000 Indiao 220.000 Pakistan and Bangladesho 160.000 Poland – after joining EUo 130.000 Irelando 115.000 Nigeria

foreign born people: 2.3 M in 2006 (from 1,6M in 1997) population peak time: 1939 – 8,6M centre of government: Westminster centre of theatre life and entertainment: West End

poor areas: East and South London Big Ben is part of the Parliament(clock tower) Houses of Parliament(used to be Westminster Palace) The British Museum Buckingham Palace – London Residence of Monarch The Tower and the City The White Tower The Tower Bridge Millennium Bridge and St. Paul’s Cathedral Nelson’s Column on Trafalgar Square

Regional differences: North vs South social Northern features:

o industrialized cities: Manchester, Sheffield, Birminghamo Liverpool – largest port (19th century)o Glasgow, Newcastle – ship building placeso after WW2 other countries produces things cheaper

China, India Europe – textile ind.

o punk musicsocial developmento accents, pride, poorer

Terrain:o N.: hilly, mountainous, less fertile o S.: flat, slightly hilly, mostly fertile

Climateo N.: cooler, wettero S.: warmer, drier

History:o N.: poorero S.: more urban, wealthier

Accents:o N.: wide variety of accentso S.: standard British is based on southern dialects

Economy: o N.: industrial revolution – Scotland

after WW2, traditional industries (coal mining, iron and steel. shipbuilding, textile) hit by depressionhuge social problems in North

People:o Northerners: more open and friendly, less educated, less healthy(more working

class)o Southerners: more reserved, more educated, healthier, wealthier (more middle

class)

Scotland

South of S. – Low Lands – English, German invasionNorth of S. – Celtic – High Lands(low population, tourist destination)

ScotsScottish people language – not Celtic language but English

Grampian Mts. North West High Lands Glasgow was the biggest port Fifth of Forth Loch Ness Southern Uplands Central Lowlands Inner and Outer Hebrides

Historical and cultural dif.:1. Lowlands:

original ethnic groups (Angles and Britons) historical languageScots (strong Eng. dialect) fertile land, strong agriculture larger population political/economic centresEdinburgh, Glasgow

2. Highlands: Scots and Picts Gallic (Celtic, relater to Irish) mountainous, poor sail, animals population smaller few cities highland traditions: kilts, tartans, bagpipe, folk music, whisky

Brief Scottish history: 840s: Scots and Picts unite their kingdomorigins of Kingdom of Scotland 1290-1314: war of independence against EnglandScottish identity strongly anti-English 1603: King James VI. of Scotland inherited the throne of Englandpersonal union 1707: Act of Union: Scottish Parliament and government abolished, Scottish legal and

education system remains separate 1715 and 1745: Highland clans rebel against English supporting Stuart pretenderspunishment destroys clan system, Gallic and traditions banned The Stone of Scone – symbol of independence(coronation ceremony outdoor) Battle of Culloden (1746): the final defeat of the Highland clans

Devolution in Scotland: decentralization of central power referendum in 1997 – Tony Blair

o held about S. Parliament and government

legislative body – törvényhozó executive body – végrehajtó

1999: first election of S. Parliament: Labour Party formed, government led by a First Minister developed powers: Scottish justice and education system, healthcare policing, agriculture,

economic development, tax rate reserved powers for UK Parliament: foreign affairs, defence, immigration, status and

government of Scotland, national finances

Growing claims of Independence: 2007: the Scottish National Party(SNP) formed government for the first time 2011: SNP won absolute majoritydemand for Scottish, independence increased 2014 sept: referendum on S. independence is to be held doubt:

o will S. be economically better or worse?o will is retain the monarchy?o will it keep the pound or adopt the euro?

Alex Salmond: First Minister of Scotland and SNP

The Scottish Kirk – Church Church of Scotland: protestant but not identical with the Church of England Presbyterian (Calvinist) church, founded by John Knox (1560) each congregation is led by elected elders or presbytersno bishops! monarch has no leading role in the church before 20th century strict moral and theological discipline, Sabbath(Sunday) observetoday

less than half of Scots

Education of Scotland: protestant tradition: every person should be educated to be able to read the Bible in general education, independent schools are for less signify 4 historical universities: St. Andrews (oldest) Glawgow, Aberdeen, Edinbrugh undergraduate cycle lasts for 4 years unlike in England Scottish Parliament didn’t introduce tuitionScottish universities are still free charge

Edinburgh vs. Glasgow Edinburgh:

o royal seat and capital, seat of Scottish governmento historical atmosphereo world famous art festival

Glasgow:o ancient city but grew large during Ind. Revolution: sea trade, shipbuilding, textile

industry, financeslargest city of Scotland

Wales

St. David of Wales (6th century)

National symbols: leek – distinguish from English in wartheory daffodil (Narcisse)

Physical map: full of hills divided into smaller units was always a poor country (sheep) coal mining (Brecon Beacon)small villages Cardiff – Ind. Revolution, largest city Swansea 80% of the population live here Newport capital: Cardiff with 300.000 people population: over 3M ‘Welsh identity’: 64% non-whites: 2% (much lower than England) speakers of Welsh: 19% (560.000)

Brief history: 48-410: Wales was part of the Roman province of Britain 50-1280: Romans – Britons (speaking Celtic) withdrew to Wales from invading Anglo-Saxons

and created several small kingdoms 1280-84: King Edward I. conquered all of Wales 1536: Wales was fully united with England by Henry VIII. shire system, English law was

imposed

Devolution in Wales: not a restoration but created from scratch 1997: Referendum of Welsh Assemblycontrol the execution of Btirish law: 50,3% in

favour(less than 7000 votes for majority) 1999: first election of Assembly, Welsh Labour Party formed, first Welsh government Welsh Assembly originally could not make independence laws 2006: Government of Wales: Assembly received power to pass ‘measures’ in 20 areas –

reinforced by 2011 referendum Welsh Nationalist Party: Plaid Cymru

Welsh language (cymraegh) Celtic language related to(but different from) Scottish and Irish government rich medieval politic tradition Bible was translated to Welsh in 1588 until the late 19th century, majority of Welsh population spoke it, but it went into decline

during the 20th century

1970s and 80s: Welsh radio and television channels were launched since 2000 it’s compulsory up to 16 in all schools since 2011: official language of Welsh but 74% does not speak it at all

Famous: Caernarfon CastlePrince of Waleseldest son of the monarch Conwy Castle Snowdonia National Park David Lloyd-George, PM

Northern Ireland

Basic data: alternative name: Ulster capital: Belfast with 300.000 people population: 1,8M (2011)

o protestant pop.:48% (41% self-identified)o catholic pop.: 45%o other pop. 7%

speakers of Irish: 4%, 66.000 oepple (17% with some knowledge)

Brief history: Celts settled in Ireland from 500 BC 432: Patrick, a Christian missionary arrivesIreland converted to Christianity after 6th century Christianity thrives in Ireland, spreading over to Scotland as well 1169: the first English invasion of IrelandPope declared Henry II. ‘Lord of Ireland’ 13-15th century English mainly Dublin and the area around it (The Pale) 1541: Henry VIII. was declared by the Irish Parliament ‘King of Ireland’ from 1560s: English attempt to establish Protestantism in Ireland, provoking resistance from 1610s: the first great ‘plantation’ of Ulster began

o protestant English and Scottish settlers occupied confiscated the Land of Catholics 1640: Great Rebellion in Ulster against the Protestant settlersCromwell brutally supressed

it in 1649: massacring civilian in Drogheda and Wexford 1689: James II. fled to Ireland from England1690: Battle of the Boyne, victory of William III.

of Orange over Jamesprotestant dominance 18th century: two societies: wealthy Anglo-Irish Protestant elite(10.000 families) <-> mostly

poor, supressed Catholic majority(75% of population) Catholics were excluded from positions, voting and awning land 1800: Act of Union of GB and Ireland was passedIrish Pare abolished, UK created Irish MPs

in Westminster 1845-49: Great Potato Famine: mass stagnationpopulation reduced from 3 to 5 M (at least

800.000 died, 2M emigrated) 1919: Nationalist Party Sinn Fein MPs set up the first Dail in Dublin in Januarydeclared

Ireland independent and set up the IRA to fight the British Irish Republican Army

History of Northern Ireland: 1921: Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed: Ireland was portioned into the Irish Free State and

Northern Ireland(Worst of Ulster) remaining within the UK 1967-72: beginning of the ‘Troubles’ in No.Ir.: nationalist Catholics began to protest their

discrimination in politicsrallies and demonstrations attacked by N. I. police, para-military groups formed escalating violence

1972: N. Irish Parliament and Government suspended direct rule from London, British Army troops moved in, IRA attacks soldiers, later on British targets

1998: Good Friday Agreement between UK and Irish government, as well as Catholics and Protestantspower snaring between the two communities in return for giving up violence

Government of Northern Ireland since 1998: Northern Irish Assembly wide powers in N. I. more similar to Scottish P. than Welsh P. Northern Irish Executive: each cabinet position is fulfilled by two ministers, 1 protestant and

1 catholic, e.g. there is a Protestant First Minister and a Catholic Deputy First Minister current governing parties:

o Democratic Unionist Party(Prot.)o Sinn Fein(Cath.)

Glossary: nationalist: people who wish to unite N. I. with Ireland, feel Irish republicans: people who wish to unite N. I. with Republic of Ireland six counties: still part of Ireland Green: symbolic colour of Nation, Rep. Cath. Unionists: people wishing to maintain the Union Jack between GB and N. I. Loyalists: people wishing to maintain loyalty to British Monarch + keep N. I within UK ulster: name of N. I. among Protestants (separate country) Orange: symbolic colour of Union, Loyal., Prot.

British Government

the Crown and the Constitution

The Monarchy: Britain’s oldest institutiona history of over 1000 years both in England and Scotland England/Britain has always been a monarchy except between 1649-1660, the period of the

Commonwealth (Republic) of Oliver Cromwell the present framework of government, called constitutional monarchy, was outlined in the

Bill of Rights in 1689o coup against James II. catholico William (James II.’s son in law) protestanto Glorious Revolution

took away the king’s powero no taxation without Parliament’s approvalo MP’s elected without royal interference/have freedom of speecho no new courts of law without P’s approvalo no standing army without P’s approvalConstitutional Monarchy

The British Constitution

uncodified (unwritten) Cons.: not a single document, but a collection of laws, treaties parliamentary conventions (traditions)

Parliament is a free to change the Cons. with a new actnothing is explicit ‘unconstitutional’ important constitutional acts include

o Magna Chartao Bill of Rights (1689)constitutional monarchyo Act of Settlement (1701)royal succession (no Cath. won)o Acts of Union (1707,1800)GBUKo Reform Acts (1832, 1867, 1884, 1918)women got the right to voteo Parliament Acts (1911, 1949)o House of Lords Act (1999)reformo Constitutional Reform Act (2008)creation of Supreme Courto Fixed-term Parliaments Act (2011)Pare elected every 5 years

Major principles of British Constitution: Parliamentary sovereignty: Pare is the supreme law-making body and it may pass any law it

wishes nile of law: laws and government actions should conform to fundamental principles e.g.

equality before the law, no punishment before a clear breach of law Unitary state: P. may legislate for the whole country, including Scotland Wales, Northern

Ireland( developed powers may be revoked by P.)

The powers of the Monarch

Monarch is the Head of State, exercising a number of powers (royal prerogatives) e.g. to summon and dissolve Parliaments to appoint or dismiss the Prime Minister or any ministers to grant Royal Assent to parliamentary billsthey become valid law to command the Armed Forces of the UK to declare war and peace to make and ratify foreign treaties to recognize states and to receive diplomats to create corporations via Royal Charter to grand honours and mercy

the Monarch exercises most of his/her power ‘on the advice’ of the PM or other ministers’The monarch reigns but does not rule.’

the M. takes no part in day to day politics or the actual executive government Queen Elizabeth II. in power since 1952

What does a M. actually do? appoints a P.M. and consults with him/her once a week reads the Queen’s Speech at the Opening of Pare Grants Royal Assentsbills become valid laws(has not been refused since 1708)

Grants Honours (peerages sy. become a lord, knighthoodsmedal, Sir, OBE) represents the nation at home and abroad symbolizes national unity, identity and stability

British Government, Parliament, Cabinet, Elections and Parties

Parliament: bicameral legislation: consists of two ‘chambers’ or ‘houses’ House of Commons: consists of MP’s elected from single member constituencies every five

years House of Lords: unelected body that consists of

o Lords Spiritual: archbishops and bishops of the Church of Englando Lords Temporal: hereditary and life peer

Houses of Parliament: Westminster Palace The speaker: chairman of the commons elected from among themselves

o right side: part of Pareon front bench: The Cabinet ministerso left side: not part of Pareon front bench: The Shadow Cabinet ministerso every minister has its opposite on the other side

red line gallery – for journalists dispatch box the king/queen must not go to the House of Commons Cabinet: the Prime Minister and his most important ministers - government Shadow Cabinet: leader of the largest opposition party and his associates – designated gov. backbenchers: ordinary MPs without a leading role, sitting in the back benches

Key concepts in the Commons: whip: party official responsible for maintaining discipline among backbenchers division: voting in the Commons: members walk through one of two corridors (‘aye’ lobby

and ‘no’ lobby)o division bellthere is a vote ‘come’

the vote of no confidence: the only way to force a governing Cabinet to resign: the majority of the Commons must vote against them

House of Lords: consists of unelected members, originally the ‘lords of the kingdom’ who represented the

traditional ruling classnot democratic until 1911, the Lords had the power to reject any bill passed by the Commons except ‘money

bills’since then they can only send bills back once to lower houseCommons are stronger than Lords

since 1958, ‘life peers’ have been created: people receive an honorary peerage for their lifelong service but they cannot pass it on to their children, not ‘real’ aristocrats (eg. former Prime Ministers)

The Lords today: since 1999 hereditary peers can no longer sit in the Lords, they’re represented by 92 people

they have elected among themselves currently, the Lords are composed of

o Lords Spiritual: 2 archbishops, 24 bishops from Church of Englando Lords Temporal: 92 hereditary peer, about 650 life peers

headed by the Lord Speaker (currently a life peer Baroness D’ Souza)

Reform of the Lords: since 1999 the removal of most hereditary peers, further reform is constantly debated many argue that all ancient privileges (peers, bishops) should be abolished and a variety od

elected, appointed and/or delegated people should make up the upper house in 2012, the government proposed a bill to create a majority elected upper chamber but it

was voted down by conservative bachbenchers

British Government

The Cabinet: consists of the Prime Minister and 20-22 senior ministers all cabinet are called ‘The Right Honourable’ (MPs are simply “Honourable”) each member is appointed or dismissed by the monarch on the advice of the PM government departments = minisztérium most members are heads of government departments (ministries) BUT there are other junior

ministers as well

ministers: in British English, all MPs who have any position in government departments are called ‘minister’appropriate synonym of Hungary ‘miniszter + államtitkár’

secretary (of State): senior minister, head of the government departments (Hungarian ‘miniszter’)

o Home Secretary: head of The Home Office – ‘belügyminiszter’o Foreign Secretary: head of the Foreign Office – ‘külügyminiszter’o Chancellor of the Exchequer: head of the Treasury – ‘pénzügyminiszter’o Justice Secretary: head of the Ministry of Justice – ‘igazságügyi miniszter’o Permanent Secretary: head of the Civil Service – ‘köztisztviselő’

Current leading ministers: Prime Minister: David Cameron (conservative) Deputy Prime Minister: Nick Clegg (Liberal Democrat) coalition Foreign Secretary: William Hange (conservative) Chancellor of the Exchequer: George Osborne (cons.)

British Election

Proportional Representation: reflects to the votes absolute majority: 50% +1if nobody gets it, there is a second roundplurality: more than

any other candidates

British: the House of Commons currently has 650 MPs (the number is not fixed) each MP is elected from an individual electoral district called constituencyno party lists! first-past-the-post system: the candidate with the most votes win the seat (plurality is

enough, no absolute majority is required, no second round is held)o advantage: simple, clear system, always a winnero disadvantage: does not reflect people’s will proportionately (one can become MP

with less than 50% of all votes, all the other votes are ‘wasted’, the do not count anywhere)

Hung Parliament: no one got the absolute majority (undecided)

Curiosities of 2010 election: 2nd Hung Parl. since 1945: no party won an absolute majority in the Commons Conservatives were forced to form a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats (first

coalition wince WW2) Labour Party fell from government after 13 years of power (under Tony Blair and Gordon

Brown)

Conservatives: nickname: Tory (plural: Tories) colour: blue characteristics:

o more nationalists and traditionalist, supports the monarchy and ‘British interests’o law and order party: strong police, tougher laws, strong armed forceso Euroskepticism, opposed to illegal immigrants and asylum-suckers(people from third

world countries trying to get political protection, though they can’t prove it) don’t want ‘United States of Europe’

o economic policies: privatization of public services and companies, ending subsides to struggling industries, preference for free competition”the rich got richer, the poor got poorer”

famous PMs:o Winston Churchill o Margaret Thatcher

British Society

Basic Date 2011

total UK population: 63,2 million population of England: 53 million

of Scotland: 5,3 millionof Wales: 3,1 millionof N. Ireland: 1,8 millionof London: 8,2 million (13% of UK)

population growth since 2011: 4,1 million people( due to immigration) =7% UK population change 1951-2011: www.aus.gov.uk

Major indications for UK society: median age: 40years (slowly growing) proportion of children of 14 years or younger: 19% (11,9m) proportion of the elderly of 65 years or older: 16% (10,5m) total fertility rate: 1,9 (up from 1,6 in 2001, how many children are born to a mother) proportion of adult population living in marriage: 47% (down from 51% in 2001)

Change since 2001:

Whites 55 million 87% -5%Indian 1,45m 2,3% +0,5%Pakistan 1,17m 1,9% +0,6%Bangladesh 450.000 0,7% +0,2%Chinese 430.000 0,7% +0,3%Other B.A. 860.000 1,4% +1%Black/African 1,9m 3% +1%Mixed ethnic 1,25m 2% +0,8%Other 590.000 0,9% +0.5%

Non-native English speakers in England and Wales: people whose main language is not English:4,2 million in England and Wwlsh (8%) people who are ‘nor proficient’ in English: 1 million in England and Wales (1,6%) foreign languages spoken by most people: Polish (570.000)

Punjabi (270.000) Urdu (270.000)in Pakistan and India

The English legal system

Common law: England and the former British colonies all have a special legal system different from most

continental European countries

‘Common law’: medieval term referring to the law as administered at the royal courts (as opposed to the local courts) – the same ‘common law’ was applied all over the country from the time of Edward

Common law is based on the rules derived from past court decisions different from statue law(enacted by statue lay – continental Roman law)

Differences between Common and Continental law:1. Continental law:

based on Roman law criminal and civil codes: systematic collections of all crimes, punishments and

results the judge follows the rules specified in the codes judge makes the ultimate decision most of the world: from Europe to Eastern Asia and Southern America

2. Common law: based on medieval English tradition no criminal or civil codes: individual acts of Parliament plus precedents(earlier court

decisions) drawn from past cases judges follow earlier and higher precedents ultimate decision often lie with jury in the UK and the former colonies

Differences between Criminal and Civil law:1. Criminal law:

applies to crimes – harmful deeds against the community in general parties: The Crown (State) prosecutes a person: defendant purpose to punish criminals and deter others from committing a criminal act

2. Civil law: applies to individual legal status (property, wills, inheritance etc) legal dispute between parties: plaintiff(felperes) – the prosecutor and the

defendant(alperes) purpose: to protect individuals and provide compensation for damages, for their loss

Criminal procedure:1. Police phase: the police investigate and offense against a person (murder, battery, rape..) or

against property (theft, robbery, trespass..).2. The police arrest a suspect and interrogate him/her, collect evidence and witnesses. During

investigation the suspect may be kept in custody or released on bail. 3. All arrested persons may appeal to a court for a writ of habeas corpus(=a person can’t be

arrested without evidence).4. Prosecution phase: prosecutors have the right to bring criminal charges against a suspect

=indictment prosecutor is the person who ‘vádat emel’.5. Court phase: at a criminal trial, the suspect turns into the defendant, who has the right to a

legal counsel to defend him.

6. At a Crown Court Trial there is a judge, a jury, a prosecution, counsel, a defense counsel (professional lawyers representing the state and the defendant).

Criminal trial:The defendant must answer a question ‘How do you plead?’ two answers are possible:

if his/her plea is ‘Guilty’he/she admits to having committed the crimes he/she is charged withjudge may pronounce sentence

if his/her plea is ‘Not guilty’he/she denies the charges against him/herthe trial .. ..begins:

o A jury of 12 ordinary citizens (jurors) are selected and they listen to the prosecution and the defence presenting evidence and witness’ who testify under oath before the court.

..ends:o When the presentation is finished, the two counsels make closing speeches and the

judge sums up the fact of the case as well as the relevant point of law for the jury.o The jury then retires to reach their verdict which can be guilty or not guilty.o If the verdict is guiltythe judge pronounces sentence – prison, fine, probation etc.o If the jury cannot come into a unanimous, the jury will be hung and discharged which

leads to a new trial.

Education

British systems of education: similarly to law, the UK has no single system of education: England and Wales, Scotland and

Northern Ireland all manage their own ed. system the English ed. system is the largest and the most importantfocus of today’s lecture main divisions:

o general v. higher ed.o state-funded v. independent schools

State v. Independent:1. Independent

in England, most general schools before the mid-19th century were fee-paying, maintained by churches (mostly Anglican) or by private charities created by wealthy donors

state-finances, tuition-free primary school were introduces in 1870, but secondary schools remained fee-paying

‘public schools’: independent boarding schools (mostly single-sex) for wealthy middle-and upper class students, located in the country, providing strict but good-quality education as well as moral and patriotic values

Eton College: (Windsor, founded 1440) uniform, isolated environment, prejudices

Harrow School: (NW London, founded 1572) in British English, ‘public school’ originally meant a fee-paying, single-sex boarding school,

expensive and exclusive public=private! after 1945, when state secondary schools began to spread, the term ‘independent

school’ was invented to describe all schools not funded by the stateo nowadays ‘public school’ has an uncertain meaning: it may refer to

coeducational day schools as well, but it is always a fee-paying=independent!2. State:

primary cycle: from age 5 to 11 (6 years)o infant school (age 5-7): similar to the upper years of a Hungarian ‘óvoda’(but

nursery schools are not free and available to all in England)o junior schools (age 7-11): similar to Hungarian ‘alsó tagozat’ of a primary school

secondary cycle: from age 11 to 16 (5 years)o grammar school (Hun ‘gimnázium’): traditional day school, emphasizing

traditional curriculum and preparing for higher educationo comprehensive school: the most common type, large, coeducational day schools,

not selective, their quality and reputation is often not very high3. Prep schoolfrom 7 to 134. Public school from age of 13, graduate at 18

School –leaving exam: GCSE (taken at age 16): General Certificate of Secondary Education

o 6 to 8 subjects: Home Economic, General studies, Science..o evaluation from A (best) to G (pass) with U meaning failureo not very demanding, most students passo previous class work is part of the overall exam resulto similar to Hun.: ‘középszintű érettségi’, but taken two years earliero not enough for University

Entry to higher education: A-level =taken at 18): GCE Advanced Level (‘emelt’)

o taken in 2 to 5 subjectso proceeded by 2 year preparatory course called “sixth form’o evaluation from A (best) to E (pass) U=failureo evaluated by independent exam boardso required for university applications (usually at least B)o similar to Hun. ‘emelt’, but there is no oral component

Higher Ed.: in the UK, most higher educational institutions are called ‘Universities’there are over 100 collages are smaller autonomous units within universities, e.g. Murton College, Oxford Univ.,

or they’re institutions for further education below university level

almost all universities are state-supported but they were funded by Royal Charted or Act of Parliamentenjoy a wide degree of autonomy

entry to university is centrally organized by UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service) which is not a government organization

Types of universities: most prestigious are the ‘ancient universities’: Oxford and Cambridge in England (from

1200s), St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh in Scotland Oxford and Cambridge (often called ‘Oxbridge’) consist os over 30 autonomous colleges,

each with their own staff, programs and students students receive Mas at the end of their 3-years under-graduate studies, there their graduate

degrees have different namesLater universities:

19th century foundations: Univ. of London(originally 2 colleges), Wales (3 colleges), Durham, Newcastle

early 20th century city universities(red brick universities): Manchester, Liverpool late 20th century universities founded in the 1960s (plate glass universities): Essex, Kent,

Warwicknamed after regions former, polytechnics’ renamed in 1990s (not universities): they have lowest reputation

academically and their degrees are not highly valuescampus style

University education cycles: undergraduate course: 3 years, ending in a Bachelor’s degree (BA – B of Arts, BSc – B of

Science) graduate course: 1 or 2 years, ending in a Master’s degree (MA, MSc, Med – Master of

Education, MD – Medical Degree) postgraduate course: 2 or 3 years, ending in a doctorate (PhD) often without formal courses,

doing independent research, taking exams and writing dissertation

Tuition: before 2005, there were no tuition fees in British higher education, and students were

entitled to means-tested grants as well as student loans in 2005 optional tuition fees were introduced and their maximum level reached £9000 by

2010 (top-up fees) students don’t pay directly but they pick up a debt they have to pay back after finding a job Scottish gov. refused to introduce tuition therefore Scottish universities have remained free

for students