Ethical Considerations in Research

PED 451 – Research in Health and Exercise Science

Ethical Question: Why Did theChicken Cross the Road?

• Plato: For the greater good.

• Shakespeare: To cross or not to cross, that is thequestion.

• Einstein: Whether the chicken crossed the road orthe road crossed the chicken depends on yourframe of reference.

• Darwin: It was the logical next step after comingdown from the trees.

• Graduate student: Was that regular or extra-crispy?

Scientific misconduct is fabrication,

falsification, or plagiarism in proposing,

performing, or reviewing research, or in

reporting research results.

Definition of ScientificMisconduct

Federal Resistor October 14, 1999

The Basics of Ethics in Research

Dishonest, fraudulent, or unethical researchers can circumvent the scientific methodNotable examples:

1. Nazi Germany Experimentation- Charges brought against 23 German physicians

in the Nuremberg War Crime Trials for their medical experiments – included:

1. Freezing Experiments2. Malaria Experiments3. High-Altitude Experiments

- Led to the development of Nuremberg Code

The Basics of Ethics in Research

2. The Tuskegee Syphilis StudyWas investigation of long-term effects of untreated syphilis on AA males in Macon County,ALDecision was made to do long-term prospective study and follow long-term effects until deathParticipants were never told real nature of study – were not afforded informed consentTreatment for syphilis was withheld (even after discovery of penicillin to treat syphilis) – study continued for 40 yrs.

Regulation of Research and Protection of Research

Participants:

Proponents of situational ethics argue that no general rules can be applied to all situations – each action is uniqueBelmont report – serves as a fundamental document for current federal regulations for protection of human subjects – 3 principle:

1. Respect for Persons2. Beneficence3. JusticeCode requires that protocols involving human subjects be reviewed by an IRB.Complete Belmont report: http://www.ohrp.osophs.dhhs.gov/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.htm

Informed ConsentInherent to this principle are 4 elements:1. Subjects are made fully aware of the nature and purpose of the research project2. Consent is voluntarily given3. The person involved has the legal capacity to give consent4. The responsibility for obtaining consent rests with the

researcher* Sometimes, because of the Hawthorne Effect, it may be

necessary to use some deception in telling subjects about the study.

Privacy and ConfidentialityPrivacy refers to capacity of individuals to control when and what conditions others have access to their behaviors, beliefs, and values.Confidentiality refers to linking information to a person’s identity

CAN YOU THINK OF EXAMPLES WHERE CONFIDENTIALITY WOULD BE IMPOTANT?

Informed consent should indicate how researcher will protect confidentiality of participantsSome procedures that can ensure confidentiality:

Obtaining anonymous informationCode data so that identifying info is eliminatedSubstitute other namesDo not release or report individual dataLimit access that could reveal individual identityReport data only in group formUsed computerized methods for encrypting data

Seven Areas of Scientific Dishonesty

1. Plagiarism—using the ideas, writings, and drawings of others as your own

2. Fabrication and falsification—making up or altering data

3. Nonpublication of data , also called “cooking data”

4. Faulty data-gathering procedures

5. Poor data storage and retention

(continued)

Seven Areas of Scientific Dishonesty

6. Misleading authorship—who should be an author?

- Technicians do not necessarily become joint authors.

- Authorship should involve only those who contribute directly.

- Discuss authorship before the project!

(continued)

1. PlagiarismMeans using ideas, writings, or drawings of others as your own.Happens with student work as well – with advent of Internet, the availability of research is greater – is often more tempting

Can occur unintentionally with students and researchers if they are careless or nonsystematic about their “pre-writing” and revision to a paper/manuscript

Many schools are accessing plagiarism software – Anti-Plagiarism V.1.2

Common practice is to circulate drafts of papers among scholars who are know to be working in a specific area – give credit where credit is due.

2. Fabrication and Falsification

Occasionally, scientists will be caught “making up” research – Technical term is called “Cooking the data”

“I only need a few more subjects, but I am running out of time.”Falsification can also occur with cited literature – Be careful how you are interpreting what an author says – “If it ain’t there, don’t make it up out of thin air”.Is another reason you should rely primarily on primary, original sources.

3. Nonpublication of Data

This refers to “not including” data because they don’t support the hypothesis

Sometimes in the data, there are extreme scores or “outliers” - and these outliers are “trimmed” from the data setThey can result in nonsiginificant findings but should “automatically” be cut.

Nonsiginificant results often give just as much important information as do significant results.

4. Faulty Data Gathering

Aspects that students should be aware of:1. Continuing with data collection from participants who are not

meeting the requirement of the researchEXAMPLES?

Subject comes in with a hangover and you use that data anyway

2. Malfunctioning equipment

3. Inappropriate treatment of subjects

4. Recording data incorrectly

Poor data storageMisleading authorship

4. Poor Data Storage – Rule of thumb is to keep data for 3 yearsAll original data should be kept if there is a question

5. Misleading Authorship – Order of authorship is based on author’s contributions1st author usually developed the idea for the researchThis needs to be decided BEFORE the research is started.

Two rules help to define authorship:1. Technicians are not necessarily authors

Data collectors are not necessarily included in the authorship

2. Authorship SHOULD include only those who directly contribute

• What is “fair use” of materials?

Ethical IssuesRegarding Copyright

- Purpose: Commercial or educational?- Nature: Is copying expected?- Amount: How much is copied?- Effect: What is the influence on the market?

• For teaching: Articles, chapters, overheads, slides, PowerPoint presentations

• For research: Figures and tables, standardized tests, questionnaires, previously published scholarly work

• If you are unsure, ask permission!

Model for Considering ScientificMisconduct

• Scientific misconduct Sanctions

• Scientific mistakes Remedial activities

• Causes of scientific misconduct

- Pressure to publish- Need to complete graduate work- Desire to continue funding- Desire for academic rewards

• Faculty advisors or mentors should treat graduate students as colleagues.

Working With Faculty

• Selecting an advisor or mentor:- Read what she or he has written.- Talk to other students.

• Changing your advisor or mentor

Elements of Informed Consent:

In considering these elements, reflect back to:Nazi ExperimentsTuskegee Syphilis Experiment

1. A fair explanation of the procedures to be followed, including identification of those that are experimental

2. A description of discomforts and risks3. A description of possible benefits4. A disclosure of appropriate alternative procedures

that would be advantageous to the subject5. An instruction that the subject is free to withdraw or

leave at any time

In preparing her thesis introduction, Graduate Assistant Christina periodically takes multiple sentences verbatim from some of her sources (her attitude is, “I couldn’t have written it better myself”).

Example: Plagiarism

• Is she wrong to do this?

• If she provides a reference to her sources at the end of the paragraph, is she still wrong?

Professor Wade has strength-training data on 20 elderly participants. As he was madly processing hisdata to meet the ACSM abstract deadline, he realizedthat the sample did not show a significant increase instrength. Examining his data more closely revealed that 15 participants did improve, but 5 did not. Hedecided that they must not have adhered to the training,so he dropped them and now has a significant increasein strength.

Fabrication or Falsification of Data

(continued)

Fabrication or Falsification of Data

• Has Professor Wade acted ethically?

• How long should you keep your data for others to see?

• Are you obligated to provide your data on request?

Professor Conan Barbarian is an icon in the field ofgerontology. He is the director of the Institute ofGerontological Research at Jellystone University, ahighly funded research lab with lots of graduatestudents. Professor Barbarian requires that he belisted as an author on all manuscripts based onresearch completed in his lab.

Authorship

• Is Professor Barbarian justified in his demand, or is this an example of “ego gone wild?”

Graduate Assistant (GA) Lee is interested in themechanical behavior of muscle and was accepted atCU to study with Professor Silverman, an expert inthis area. After a year in the program, the chemistry between GA Lee and Professor Silverman is not sogreat. Lee also notes that a GA friend is working withProfessor Moran, an expert on muscle energetics,and getting some travel money. Lee wants to switch to Professor Moran but keep working on muscle mechanics.

Changing Your Major Professor

(continued)

Changing Your Major Professor

• Should GA Lee propose a mentor change?

• If so, how should he go about this?

• What are GA Lee’s obligations to ProfessorSilverman?