physics - gbv
TRANSCRIPT
PHYSICS Marcelo Alonso Florida Institute of Technology
Edward J. Finn Georgetown University
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Wokingham, England • Reading, Massachusetts • Menlo Park, California • New York
Don Mills, Ontario • Amsterdam • Bonn • Sydney • Singapore • Tokyo • Madrid San Juan • Milan • Paris • Mexico City • Seoul • Taipei
Contents
Preface
Introduction
What is physics? The relation of physics to other sciences The experimental method
1 The structure of matter
v 3.8 Composition of velocities and
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Introduction Particles Atoms Molecules Matter in bulk Living Systems Interactions
2 Measurement and units
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Measurement 2.3 Fundamental quantities 2.4 Fundamental units 2.5 Derived units and dimensions
3 Rectilinear motion
3.1 Mechanics 3.2 Frames of reference 3.3 Rectilinear motion: velocity 3.4 Rectilinear motion: acceleration 3.5 Some special motions 3.6 Free vertical motion under the
action of gravity 3.7 Vector representation of velocity
and acceleration in rectilinear motion
1
1 2 4
5
5 5 7 9
12 15 16
18
18 19 20 21 24
29
29 30 31 37 41
44
47
3.9 accelerations Relative motion
4 Curvilinear motion
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
4.5
4.6
Introduction Curvilinear motion: velocity Curvilinear motion: acceleration Tangential and normal acceleration Curvilinear motion with constant acceleration Relative translational motion: the Galilean transformation
5 Circular motion
5.1 5.2 5.3
5.4 5.5 5.6
Introduction Circular motion: angular velocity Circular motion: angular acceleration Vector relations in circular motion Relative rotational motion Motion relative to the Earth
6 Force and momentum
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
6.6 6.7
Introduction The law of inertia Mass Linear momentum Principle of conservation of momentum Newton's second and third laws Relationship between force and acceleration
48 50
57
57 58 60
62
64
69
77
77 77
81 82 85 87
93
93 95 96 99
100 106
108
VII
viii Contents
6.8 Units of force 6.9 Classical principle of relativity
7 Applications of the laws of motion
7.1 Introduction 7.2 Motion under a constant force 7.3 Resultant force 7.4 Equilibrium of a particle 7.5 Frictional forces 7.6 Frictional forces in fluids 7.7 Systems with variable mass
8 Torque and angular momentum
8.1 Introduction 8.2 Curvilinear motion 8.3 Torque 8.4 Angular momentum 8.5 Central forces
9 Work and energy
9.1 Introduction 9.2 Work 9.3 Power 9.4 Units of work and power 9.5 Kinetic energy 9.6 Units of energy 9.7 Work of a constant force 9.8 Potential energy 9.9 Relation between force and
Potential energy 9.10 Conservation of energy of a
particle 9.11 Discussion of potential energy
curves 9.12 Non-conservative forces and
energy dissipation
10 Oscillatory motion
10.1 Introduction 10.2 Kinematics of simple harmonic
motion 10.3 Rotating vectors or phasors 10.4 Force and energy in simple
harmonic motion
110 112
120
120 120 121 125 127 130 133
141
141 141 145 146 148
157
157 158 161 161 164 167 168 169
171
174
177
184
190
190
191 192
10.5 Basic equation of simple harmonic motion
10.6 The simple pendulum 10.7 Superposition of two SHMs in
the same direction and frequency 10.8 Superposition of two SHMs with
the same direction but different frequency
10.9 Superposition of two SHMs in perpendicular directions
10.10 Coupled oscillators 10.11 Molecular vibrations 10.12 Anharmonic oscillations 10.13 Damped oscillations 10.14 Forced oscillations
11 Gravitational interaction
11.1 Introduction 11.2 The law of gravitation 11.3 Newton's derivation of the law
of force 11.4 Inertial and gravitational mass 11.5 Gravitational potential energy 11.6 Relation between energy and
orbital motion 11.7 Gravitational field 11.8 Gravitational potential 11.9 Gravitational field of a spherical
body 11.10 The principle of equivalence 11.11 Gravitation and molecular forces
12 Space exploration
12.1 Introduction 12.2 Earth satellites 12.3 Voyage to the Moon 12.4 Exploration of the solar System
13 Systems of particles 1: Linear and angular momentum
13.1 Introduction
196 197
200
203
205 208 210 212 213 216
239
239 241
245 247 249
251 264 267
268 274 277
286
286 287 292 294
301
301 13.2 Motion of the center of mass of
an isolated System of particles 302 13.3 Motion of the center of mass of
a System of particles subject to 194 external forces 307
Contents ix
13.4 13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9 13.10 13.11
Reduced mass Angular momentum of a System of particles Internal and orbital angular momentum Angular momentum of a rigid body Equation of motion for rotation of a rigid body Oscillatory motion of a rigid body Gyroscopic motion Equilibrium of a body
14 Systems of particles II: Energy
14.1 14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7 14.8
14.9
Introduction Kinetic energy of a System of particles Conservation of energy of a system of particles Total energy of a system of particles subject to external forces Internal energy of a system of particles Kinetic energy of rotation of a rigid body Rotational energy of molecules Binding energy of a system of particles Collisions
14.10 Fluid motion
15 Gases
15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4
15.5 15.6 15.7
Introduction Temperature The ideal gas temperature Temperature and molecular energy Internal energy of an ideal gas Real gases Polyatomic gases
16 Thermodynamics
16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4
Introduction Internal energy and work Many particle Systems: work Many particle Systems: heat
314
317
320
321
328 331 334 339
348
348
348
349
352
353
354 357
358 360 367
378
378 379 381
384 386 390 394
400
400 401 401 405
16.5 Many particle Systems: energy balance 406
16.6 Special processes 410 16.7 Heat capacity 412 16.8 Reversible and irreversible
processes 416 16.9 Entropy and heat 418 16.10 Efficiency of a thermal engine
operating in a Carnot cycle 422 16.11 The law of entropy 426
17 Statistical mechanics 433
17.1 Introduction 433 17.2 Statistical equilibrium 434 17.3 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law 436 17.4 Statistical definition of
temperature 441 17.5 Energy and velocity distribution
of the molecules in an ideal gas 446 17.6 Experimental verification of the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
17.7 17.8 17.9
law Thermal equilibrium Entropy Law of increase of entropy
18 Transport phenomena
18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4
18.5 18.6 18.7
18.8
Introduction Molecular diffusion: Fick's law Steady diffusion Thermal conduction: Fourier's law Steady thermal conduction Viscosity Mean free path and collision frequency Molecular theory of transport phenomena
449 450 453 454
462
462 462 465
469 470 472
475
477
19 The principle of relativity 483
19.1 Introduction 483 19.2 The velocity of light 484 19.3 The Lorentz transformation 487 19.4 Lorentz transformation of
velocities and accelerations 490
x Contents
19.5 Consequences of the Lorentz transformation
19.6 Special principle of relativity 19.7 Momentum 19.8 Force 19.9 Energy 19.10 The general theory of relativity
20 High energy processes
20.1 Introduction 20.2 Energy and momentum 20.3 Systems of particles 20.4 High energy collisions 20.5 Particle decay
21 Electric interaction
21.1 Introduction 21.2 Electric charge 21.3 Coulomb's law 21.4 Units of charge 21.5 Electric field 21.6 Electric field of a point charge 21.7 The quantization of electric
charge 21.8 Principle of conservation of
charge 21.9 Electric potential 21.10 Relation between electric
potential and electric field 21.11 Electric potential of a point charge 21.12 Energy relations in an electric
field
22 Magnetic interaction
22.1 Introduction 22.2 Magnetic force on a moving
charge 22.3 Motion of a charged particle in
a uniform magnetic field 22.4 Motion of a charged particle in a
non-uniform magnetic field 22.5 Examples of motion of charged
particles in a magnetic field 22.6 Magnetic field of a moving
charge 22.7 Magnetic dipoles
23 Electric structure of matter 592 492 495 496 498 500 505
518
518 519 522 525 529
539
539 541 542 543 545 548
552
555 555
556 558
563
569
569
570
572
576
578
583 585
23.1 Introduction 23.2 Electrolysis 23.3 The nuclear model of the atom 23.4 Bohr's theory of the atom 23.5 Quantization of angular
momentum 23.6 Effect of a magnetic field on
electronic motion 23.7 Electron spin 23.8 Spin-orbit interaction 23.9 Electron shells in atoms 23.10 Electrons in solids 23.11 Conductors, semiconductors and
insulators
24 Electric currents
24.1 Introduction
Part A: Electric currents and electric fields 24.2 Electric current 24.3 Ohm's law 24.4 Conductivity 24.5 Electric power 24.6 Combination of resistors 24.7 Direct current circuits 24.8 Methods for calculating currents
in an electric network
Part B: Electric currents and magnetic fields 24.9 Magnetic force on an electric
current 24.10 Magnetic torque on an electric
current 24.11 Magnetic field produced by a
current 24.12 Magnetic field of a rectilinear
current 24.13 Magnetic field of a circular
current 24.14 Forces between electric currents
592 592 594 596
601
603 605 606 608 614
615
624
624
625 625 627 628 632 634 636
638
641
641
645
647
648
650 653
25 The electric field
25.1 Introduction 25.2 Electromotive force 25.3 Flux of the electric field
661
661 661 662
Contents xi
25.4
25.5
25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9
Gauss' law for the electric field Properties of a conductor placed in an electric field Electric polarization of matter The polarization vector Electric displacement Electric susceptibility and permittivity
25.10 Electric capacitance: capacitors 25.11 Energy of the electric field
664
670 673 675 676
678 680 685
26 The magnetic field
26.1 26.2
26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7
26.8 26.9
Introduction Ampere's law for the magnetic field Magnetic flux Magnetization of matter The magnetization vector The magnetizing field Magnetic susceptibility and permeability Energy of the magnetic field Summary of the laws for static fields
690
690
690 696 697 699 704
706 708
711
27 The electromagnetic field 714
27.1 Introduction 714
Part A: The laws of the electromagnetic field 715 27.2 The Faraday-Henry law 715 27.3 Electromagnetic induction due
to the relative motion of a conductor and a magnetic field 720
27.4 Electromagnetic induction and the principle of relativity 722
27.5 The principle of conservation of electric Charge 723
27.6 The Ampere-Maxwell law 724 27.7 Maxwell's equations 727
Part B: Application to electric circuits 728 27.8 Self-induction 728 27.9 Free electrical oscillations 732 27.10 Forced electrical oscillations:
alternating current circuits 734
27.11 Energy of the electromagnetic field ' 739
27.12 Coupled circuits 741
28 Wave motion
28.1 Introduction 28.2 Waves 28.3 Description of wave motion 28.4 The general equation of wave
motion 28.5 Elastic waves 28.6 Pressure waves in a gas 28.7 Transverse waves on a string 28.8 Transverse elastic waves in a rod 28.9 Surface waves in a liquid 28.10 What propagates in wave motion? 28.11 Waves in two and three
dimensions 28.12 Spherical waves in a fluid 28.13 Group velocity 28.14 The Doppler effect
747
747 748 749
753 754 758 761 763 764 766
769 771 772 775
29 Electromagnetic waves
29.1 29.2 29.3
29.4 29.5
29.6
29.7
29.8
Introduction Plane electromagnetic waves Energy and momentum of an electromagnetic wave Radiation from oscillating dipoles Radiation from an accelerated charge Propagation of electromagnetic waves in matter; dispersion The Doppler effect in electromagnetic waves The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
782
782 783
787 790
793
797
798
802
30 Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter: photons 808
30.1 Introduction 808 30.2 Emission of radiation by atoms,
molecules and nuclei 808 30.3 Absorption of electromagnetic
radiation by atoms, molecules and nuclei 810
xii Contents
30.4
30.5
30.6 30.7
Scattering of electromagnetic waves by bound electrons Scattering of electromagnetic radiation by a free electron: the Compton effect Photons More about photons: the photoelectric effect in metals
811
813 816
820
31 Radiative transitions
31.1 Introduction 31.2 Stationary states 31.3 Interaction of radiation with
matter 31.4 Atomic spectra 31.5 Molecular spectra 31.6 Radiative transitions in solids 31.7 Spontaneous and stimulated
radiative transitions 31.8 Masers and lasers 31.9 Blackbody radiation
32 Reflection, refraction and polarization 856
32.1 Introduction 32.2 Rays and wave surfaces 32.3 Reflection and refraction of plane
waves 32.4 Reflection and refraction of
spherical waves 32.5 Reflection and transmission of
transverse waves on a string 32.6 Reflection and refraction of
electromagnetic waves 32.7 Propagation of electromagnetic
waves in an anisotropic medium 32.8 Reflection and refraction at
metallic surfaces
33 Wave geometry
33.1 Introduction 33.2 Reflection at a spherical surface 33.3 Refraction at a spherical surface 33.4 Lenses 33.5 Optical instruments 33.6 The prism
33.7 Dispersion 33.8 Chromatic aberration
34 Interference
34.1 Introduction 34.2 Interference of waves produced
by two synchronous sources 34.3 Interference from several
898 900
908
908
909
824
824 825
829 831 835 838
841 843 848
856
856 857
858
861
863
865
867
872
875
875 876 882 885 891 897
34.4 34.5 34.6 34.7'
34.8
synchronous sources Standing waves in one dimension Standing electromagnetic waves Standing waves in two dimensions Standing waves in three dimensions; resonant cavities Waveguides
35 Diffraction
35.1 35.2 35.3
35.4
35.5
35.6 35.7
Introduction Huygens' principle Fraunhofer diffraction by a rectangular slit Fraunhofer diffraction by a circular aperture Fraunhofer diffraction by two equal parallel slits Diffraction gratings X-ray scattering by crystals
36 Quantum mechanics: fundamentals
36.1 36.2 36.3
36.4 36.5
36.6
36.7
36.8
36.9
Introduction Particles and fields Scattering of particles by crystals Particles and wave packets Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for position and momentum Illustrations of Heisenberg's principle The uncertainty relation for time and energy Stationary states and the matter field Wave function and probability density
914 919 924 926
929 930
936
936 937
939
942
944 945 948
955
955 956
957 960
961
963
967
968
971
Contents xiii
37 Quantum mechanics: applications 977 41 The ultimate structure of matter 1070
37.1 Introduction 37.2 Schrödinger's equation 37.3 Free particle 37.4 Potential wall 37.5 Potential box 37.6 Potential well 37.7 Particles in a general potential 37.8 The simple harmonic oscillator 37.9 Potential barrier penetration
38 Atoms, molecules and solids
38.1 Introduction 38.2 Angular wavefunction under a
central force 38.3 Atoms with one electron 38.4 Atoms with two electrons 38.5 Atoms with many electrons 38.6 Diatomic molecules 38.7 Linear molecules 38.8 The geometry of molecules 38.9 Structure of solids 38.10 Electrons in metals
39 Nuclear structure
39.1 Introduction 39.2 The nucleus 39.3 Properties of the nucleus 39.4 Nuclear binding energy 39.5 Nuclear forces 39.6 The deuteron 39.7 Neutron-proton scattering 39.8 The shell model 39.9 Nuclear radiative transitions
40 Nuclear processes
977 978 979 980 981 985 988 991 993
999
999
999 1002 1006 1009 1012 1015 1017 1020 1023
1027
1027 1027 1028 1030 1031 1034 1035 1036 1038
41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.6 41.7 41.8 41.9
Note
2.1
2.2 3.1 5.1
6.1 8.1
9.1
9.2
10.1 10.2
10.3
10.4
11.1
1042 11.2
40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 40.5 40.6 40.7 40.8
Introduction Radioactive decay a-decay ß-decay Nuclear reactions Nuclear fission Fission chain reactions Nuclear fusion
1042 1042 1045 1048 1052 1054 1056 1059
11.3 11.4
11.5
13.1
13.2
Introduction 1070 The 'fundamental' particles 1071 Particles and antiparticles 1073 Particle instability 1077 The conservation laws 1080 Symmetry and interactions 1081 Resonances 1085 The Standard model 1087 The evolution of the universe 1091
Historical basis for the fundamental units 23 Space, time and matter 26 The age of the universe 52 Radial and transverse velocity in plane curvilinear motion 80 The forces we know 114 Scattering of a particle by a central repulsive inverse Square force 153 Relation between force, torque and potential energy in plane curvilinear motion 173 Energy in plane curvilinear motion 182 Impedance of an oscillator 221 Fourier analysis of periodic motion 224 Representation of oscillatory motion in phase space 226 Non-linear oscillations and 230 dynamical chaos General motion under gravitational attraction 259 Gravitational energy of a spherical body 261 Critical density of the universe 262 Gravitation and the large-scale structure of the universe 278 Gravitation and dynamical chaos 280 Discussion of the interaction between two Systems of particles 313 Precession of a gyroscope 336
xiv Contents
14.1
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4 18.1
18.2
19.1
19.2 19.3
20.1
20.2
21.1
22.1 23.1
23.2
24.1
24.2 24.3
24.4 25.1
25.2
26.1
26.2
26.3
Invariance, symmetry and the conservation laws Probability of a partition in Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics Heat capacity of a crystalline solid Statistical analysis of work and heat Systems far from equilibrium Relation between mean free path and molecular dimensions Convective and turbulent transport Analysis of the Michelson-Morley experiment Relativistic momentum Estimation of general relativistic effects Lorentz transformation of energy and momentum Experimental techniques for producing high energy particles Analysis of the Millikan oil-drop experiment Van Allen radiation belts Justification of relation L2 = l(l+l)h2
Origin of the spin-orbit interaction Calculation of the electric conductivity Electric currents in gases Relation between the magnetic field of a current and the magnetic field of a moving Charge Note on electromagnetic units Charge and discharge of a capacitor Relation between the electric field and the energy of the field Magnetic confinement of a plasma Magnetization of diamagnetic and paramagnetic substances Energy of the magnetic field of a slowly moving charge
372
439
445
452 458 475
479
485 498
509
520
533
554 588
602
607
632 639
648 654
683
687
695
703
710
27.1 27.2
28.1 29.1
30.1
30.2
31.1 31.2
33.1 33.2
33.3 34.1 35.1 37.1 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 41.1 41.2 41.3
41.4
The betatron Application of the method of rotating vectors to a.c. electric circuits Acoustics Comparison of electric and magnetic dipole radiation Collisions involving a zero mass particle Experimental verification of Einstein's equation Tuning of a laser Analysis of spontaneous and stimulated transitions New telescope technologies The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Non-imaging optics Hertz's experiment Holography Energy states in a potential well Discovery of the neutron Nuclear fission reactors Nuclear fusion reactors The formation of the elements The antiproton experiment Parity violations in /?-decay Experimental evidence of the internal structure of protons The cosmological fate
Appendices A: Vectors A.l A.2 A.3
A.4 A.5 A.6 A.7 A.8 A.9 A.10
A.ll
Concept of direction Sealars and vectors Addition and subtraction of vectors Components of a vector Addition of several vectors The scalar produet The vector produet Vector representation of an area Gradient of a scalar funetion The line integral of a vector: Circulation The surface integral of a vector: Flux
719
737 778
792
816
821 847
851 895
902 904 925 952 987
1053 1057 1061 1062 1076 1084
1089 1093
1097 1097 1097
1098 1100 1101 1101 1102 1103 1104
1105
1105
Contents xv
B: Mathematical relations 1106 B.l Trigonometrie funetions 1106 B.2 Logarithms 1107 B.3 Power expansions 1108 B.4 Plane and solid angles 1109 B.5 Basic derivatives and integrals 1110 B.6 Special integrals 1110
B.7 Average value of a function 1110 B.8 Conic sections 1111 C: Calculation of the moment of inertia • 1112
Answers to selected Problems 1114
Index 1124