pogroms in russia 1880-1914

7/23/2019 Pogroms in Russia 1880-1914

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Pogroms in Russia: 1880-1914: From Alexander IIs Assassination to World War I

!e date "as #ar$! 1%t!& 1881& and 'ollo"ing a (iolent atta$) on t!e $on(o*

o' +,ar Alexander II in t. Peters/urg& t!e sixt* t!ree *ear old $,ar la* d*ing and

'ollo"ing !is return to t!e Winter Pala$e died o' !is "ounds. Follo"ing Alexanders

deat!& e"s "ere s$aegoated t!roug!out t!e emire desite t!e 'a$t t!at t!e

$onsirators !ad onl* one e" amongst t!em and "ere et!ni$all* la(s. !e reigns

o' Alexander III and later !is son& 2i$!olas II& "!o "as to /e Russias last $,ar& sa"

an out/rea) o' in$reasingl* (iolent Anti-emitism in t!e last *ears o' t!e Russian

emire. Pogrom& a Russian "ord meaning to "rea) !a(o$ too) on se$ial

meaning 'or Russians and e(entuall* entered international language usage in t!e

late 19t!and earl* 30t!$enturies "!ere (iolen$e against e"s "as an all too

$ommon o$$urren$e in t!e Russian mire. In addition to (iolent& !*si$al atta$)s

on e"s and e"is! o"ned roert* during t!is time eriod& atta$)s on t!e e"is!

eole t!roug! t!e "ritten "ord too) o5 as "ell. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion&

a notorious 'orger* detailing "!at its /elie(ers sa" as roo' o' a e"is! $onsira$*

'or glo/al domination "as used as 6usti7$ation o' (iolen$e against e"s and t!e

e"is! eole /eing regarded as se$ond $lass $iti,ens in t!e emire. iolen$e

against e"s rose "idel* in t!ese *ears o' $risis and turmoil t!roug!out t!e Russian

emire. uestions remain toda* nearl* a $entur* a'ter t!e last Romano( $,ar "as

on t!e t!rone& in Russia 6ust !o" $ula/le Russias elites "ere o' t!e Anti-emitism

/ot! (iolent and "ritten dire$ted to"ards Russias e"s in t!e last *ears o' t!e

emire. Pogroms "ere most li)el* to o$$ur in times o' anxiet* and stress due to

'a$tors su$! as an assassinated $,ar /ut also t!e stresses o' moderni,ation& "ar&

and a 'ailed re(olution. !e !ea(* re(alen$e o' Anti-emitism and (iolen$e in

Russia is a t!oug!t ro(o)ing issue "!en it $omes to understanding later Anti-

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emiti$ regimes su$! as 2a,i ;erman* and Russian !istor* itsel' toda* a'ter t!e 'all

o' /ot! t!e Romano(s and later t!e o(iet uilit* and modest rogress 'or t!e e"s !ad ended.1

1 (i ;itelman& A +entur* o' Am/i(alen$e& age 3

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Alexander III& li)e !is grand'at!er 2i$!olas I mar)ed a return to $onser(atism

'ollo"ing t!e deat! o' a relati(el* rogressi(e $,ar. It "as t!is "orld t!at t!e e"s o'

Russia li(ed in 'rom Alexander IIIs $ro"ning to t!e Fe/ruar* Re(olution o' 191B.

Russian e"s "ere not a$$eted /* Russian +!ristians into so$iet*. !e

Russian $on$et o' e"is! religious 'anati$ism mirrored $ertain o/(ious 'eatures o'

e"is! li'e in astern uroe& su$! as t!eir ersistent di5eren$es in dress& language&

and religious and $ommunal organi,ations. Russians assumed t!at t!e e"s

$onsidered t!emsel(es to /e not onl* a $!osen eole& /ut also endo"ed "it! a

;od-gi(en sueriorit* o(er t!e desised non-e"s. !e* "ere a eole aart& de(oid

o' lo*alt* to t!e state or an* $ommitment to a roer $i(i$ relations!i "it! t!e

non-e"is! oulation.3+!ristian Russian !ostilit* to"ards er$ei(ed e"is!

religious 'anati$ism is ironi$ gi(en Russias o"n reutation o' /eing stu$) in old

"a*s and religious 'anati$ism 'rom t!e erse$ti(e o' outsiders and t!ose inside

Russia "!o "anted Russia to moderni,e. e"s "ere rominent in Russias

re(olutionar* mo(ement earl* as Russia mo(ed to"ard re(olution. !is allo"ed anti-

emites to /ot! atta$) t!e e"s as re(olutionaries e(en "!ile at t!e same time&

man* o' t!ese same Anti-emites atta$)ed t!e e"s on religious grounds.

Anti-emitism "as $ommon in uroe in t!e late nineteent! and earl*

t"entiet! $enturies /ut Anti-emitism in Russia "as arti$ularl* !ostile and o'ten

(iolent. !e Cre*'us A5air o' Fran$e& in "!i$! a e"is! Fren$! arm* $atain& Al'red

Cre*'us desite all e(iden$e to t!e $ontrar* "as a$$used o' s*ing 'or ;erman*

s!o"ed !o" e(en in 1890s Western uroe "!i$! "as suosedl* enlig!tened and

'ree 'rom religious /igotr*. ?o"e(er& it is "ort! noting t!at Cre*'us "as e(entuall*

3 o!n Co*le Dlier: Russians& e"s& and t!e Pogroms o' 1881-1883& Page %

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(indi$ated "!i$! "as in large art due to a ress $amaign /* t!e "riter mile ola

"!o atta$)ed Anti-emitism and also s!o"ed t!at t!e rose$ution made errors.

?ad t!e Cre*'us A5air ta)en la$e in Russia !o"e(er& it is !ig!l* unli)el* t!at

Cre*'us "ould !a(e /een (indi$ated& due to /ot! oular Anti-emitism t!at

seemed to unite Russias ri$!est and oorest $iti,ens& and an oressi(e auto$ra$*

t!at "ould !a(e ne(er allo"ed a man li)e mile ola to use t!e ress to $riti>ue t!e

go(ernments a$tions on su$! a !ig! le(el. (en /e'ore +,ar Alexander IIs

assassination in #ar$! 1881& t!e Russian go(ernment sa" e"s as a t!reat to t!e

sta/ilit* o' t!e emire sin$e e"s "ere seen as /eing dislo*al to t!e emire and art

o' Russias gro"ing re(olutionar* mo(ement. It "as true t!at e"s "ere a$ti(e in

Russias re(olutionar* mo(ement /ut t!e >uestion !as to /e as)ed a/out t!e role o'

Anti-emitism in $reating an atmos!ere "!ere re(olutionaries e"is! and ;entile

ali)e !oed to o(ert!ro" t!e go(ernment. ime and resour$es t!at $ould !a(e /een

sent on real t!reats to t!e emire su$! as t!e 2arodna*a ol*a terrorist

organi,ation t!at )illed +,ar Alexander II "ere instead sent on a er$ei(ed e"is!

$onsira$*. o!n Co*le Dlier "rites in Russians& e"s& and t!e Pogroms o' 1881-1883

t!at P.A +!ere(in& t!e $!ie' o' gendarmes and a$ting !ead o' t!e !ird e$tion& t!e

se$urit* oli$e "rote on Aril E t!& 1880 to t!e ro(in$e go(ernors in t!e Pale o'

ettlement as)ing t!em to sear$! out a uni(ersal e"is! )a/al& a /od* "it!

o/6e$ti(es "!i$! "ere inimi$al to t!e +!ristian oulation. !is )a/al& said to rel*

on t!e suort o' all e"s& $aitalists& and roletarians ali)e& "as des$ri/ed as an

imortant sour$e o' material suort 'or t!e re(olutionar* mo(ement.%!e Pale o'

ettlement "as t!e area "!ere e"s "ere allo"ed to /e resent and reside "it!in

t!e Russian mire. +!ere(ins $on(i$tion t!at t!ere "as a e"is! $onsira$*

% Dlier& age 1

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against t!e regime led /* e"is! +aitalists and =e'tists ali)e "as a 'ores!ado"ing

o' later Anti-emitism t!at lin)ed +aitalism and ols!e(ism toget!er not 6ust in

re(olutionar* era Russia /ut t!e 2a,is during t!eir rise to and reign o' o"er.

+!ere(ins 'ears o' a grandiose e"is! $onsira$* "ere s!o"n to /e un'ounded&

sin$e "!en t!e $,ar "as assassinated& less t!an a *ear later all /ut one o' t!e

$onsirators !ad non e"is! an$estr* and "as 'urt!ermore $omrised o' $!ildren o'

Russias elites and "ere at!eists. +onsira$ies a/out e"s /eing /e!ind lots

against t!e emire "ould $ontinue to endure "it! t!e suort o' Anti-emiti$

$onsira$* t!eorists li)e +!ere(in administrating imortant go(ernment osts.

The Protocols of the Elders of Zionmore t!an an* ot!er do$ument la*ed a

role in in$iting and 6usti'*ing (iolen$e against t!e e"is! eole in t"entiet! $entur*

Russia. !e Proto$ols !a(e /een a ro(en 'orger* /ut /elie(ers o' t!eir legitima$*

romoted t!em as roo' o' a e"is! $onsira$* 'or glo/al domination. Furt!ermore&

t!e sour$e material 'or t!e Proto$ols is a Fren$! oliti$al satiri$al no(el "ritten

a/out a dialogue in !ell /et"een t!e !iloso!ers& #a$!ia(elli and #ontes>uieu&

/ot! non-e"s. Go!anan Petro(s)*-!tern argues t!at t!e Proto$ols "ere li)el*

"ritten /et"een 190% and 190B.4 !e earl* 1900s "as a tumultuous time eriod

'or t!e Russian mire. Russia su5ered a $riling de'eat to t!e aanese mire in

t!e Russo-aanese War and t!e 190H Re(olution !ad resulted in 2i$!olas II /eing

'or$ed to s!are o"er "it! t!e Cuma. Russias o"er/ro)ers needed a $on(enient

s$aegoat and t!e e"is! eole made an eas* one due to t!e !ostilit* dire$ted to

t!em t!roug!out t!e emire !e exa$t aut!or o' t!e Proto$ols remains un)no"n

/ut man* s$!olars suggest t!at t!e @)!rana& t!e Russian se$ret oli$e la*ed a /ig

4 Go!anan Petro(s)* $!tern: +ontextuali,ing t!e #*ster*: !ree Aroa$!es to t!e

Proto$ols o' lders o' ion& age %9H

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role in "riting t!e Proto$ols. W!o in 'a$t "rote t!e Proto$ols i' not Petr I(ano(i$!

Ra$!)o(s)ii !imsel'& t!e $!ie' o' t!e Russian se$ret oli$e in Paris as)s Go!anan

Petro(s)*-!ternH. @t!ers t!in) t!at "!ile t!e @)rana la*ed a (ital role in "riting

t!e Proto$ols t!at t!e* "ere "ritten /* a ro'essional "riter instead. #i$!ael

?agemeister $ites resear$! 'rom 1999 /* Fren$! "ee)lies t!at oint to #at(ei

;olo(ins)ii& a noted rea$tionar* 6ournalist and "riter as t!e aut!or o' t!e Proto$ols

o' t!e lders o' ion. ?agemeister& t!roug! t!e Fren$! sour$es suggest t!at

;olo(ins)ii "rote t!e Proto$ols on orders 'rom Ra$!)o(s)ii& t!e @)!rana !ead in

Paris.E iolen$e against e"s "as 're>uent e(en /e'ore t!e "riting o' t!e Proto$ols

/ut t!e Proto$ols /eing enned /* Russian rea$tionaries and se$urit* ser(i$es

suggests t!at t!e Russian go(ernment !ad an interest in s$aegoating e"s to

distri$t t!e u/li$ 'rom t!e emires ro/lems. !e Proto$ols "ere resented to t!e

u/li$ as roo' o' a e"is! $onsira$* 'or glo/al domination and t!us t!e rea$tionar*

rig!t o' Russia 'elt (indi$ated t!eir $alls 'or (iolen$e and mistreatment o' e"s.

Religion la*s a /ig art in understanding Russian Anti-emitism during t!e

reigns o' Alexander III and later 2i$!olas II. #ost Russians "ere Russian @rt!odox

and li)e man* $!ur$!es o' t!e time eriod "ere not immune 'rom Anti-emitism.

Anti-emitism in +!ristianit* o'ten in$luded t!e $!arge t!at e"s "ere resonsi/le

'or t!e deat! o' +!rist. !e Dis!ine( Pogrom o' 190% is $onsidered /* man*

s$!olars to /e t!e most (iolent ogrom and it "as rie "it! examles o' $lerg*

eit!er ignoring (iolen$e or e(en en$ouraging (iolen$e dire$ted at e"s. #ont* 2oam

Pen)o"er "rites t!at @rt!odox is!o Ia)o( /lessed t!e redominatel* @rt!odox

H Petro(s)*-$!tern +ontextuali,ing t!e #*ster* age %9E

E #i$!ael ?agemeister: !e Proto$ols o' t!e lders o' ion: et"een ?istor* and

Fi$tion& age 8%

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atta$)ers.B!e (iolent mo/ "as t!us $on(in$ed t!at t!e (iolen$e dire$ted at e"s

"as morall* de'ensi/le. !ere "ere o$$asions "!en @rt!odox $lerg* dis$ouraged

(iolen$e against e"s and Anti-emitism. !e $lerg* "ere ordered /* t!e ?ol*

*nod to rea$! anti-Pogrom sermons& and a num/er o' Russian @rt!odox $lerg*

"ere gi(en medals and $ommendations 'or t!eir e5orts to re(ent ogroms.8A )e*

di5eren$e in t!e rea$tions o' $lerg* seems to /e t!at in 1881 as oosed to 1904

"as t!at Anti-emitism "as a$tuall* more "idesread in 1904 due to in$reased

roaganda dire$ted against e"s.

@rt!odox t!eolog*& !o"e(er& remained Anti-emiti$. An examle o' religion

/ased Anti-emitism& The Way of the Pilgrim& a (er* oular and inuential late

nineteent! $entur* @rt!odox siritual /oo). Conald ;ra*ston "rites t!at t!e

siritual $ontained man* Anti-emiti$ assages t!at +!ristian er$etions o' e"s.

!e most /latant is o' t!e +!ristian ilgrim rotagonist (isiting a e"is! inn o"ner

telling o' !is 'at!er "!o as a *oung man "as an a(o"ed enem* o' +!ristians and

ra//ini$al student "!o mo$)ed and dese$rated a +!ristian s)ull t!at !e 'ound in a

$emeter*. !e *oung man "as t!en !aunted /* t!e g!ost o' t!e s)ull and so

!aunted "as !e t!at !e $on(erted to +!ristianit*.9!e narrati(e in t!e stor* ree$ts

+!ristian er$etions o' e"s !ating +!ristianit* and in t!is $ase e(en resorting to

dese$rating s)ulls. +iting t!e same siritual& ;ra*ston $riti$i,es t!e "riter 'or

des$ri/ing e"is! $riti$isms o' +!ristian t!eolog* as gossi or $!it-$!at adding

B #ont* 2oam Pen)o"er: !e Dis!ine( Pogrom: A urning Point in e"is! ?istor*&

age 18B

8 Dlier& age E8

9 Conald ;ra*ston& Antiemitism in a Russian iritual +lassi$& !e Pilgrims ale&

age 11%

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t!at t!is "as e(en sadder gi(en t!e "riter o' The Pilgrims Tale"as t!e son o' a

e"is! $on(ert to +!ristianit*.10 Russian +!ristians $an /e summari,ed /* t!e

rea$tions o' t!eir leaders to ogroms and t!eir "ritings a/out udaism sa" udaism

as a t!reat to t!eir religious 'ait! and sa" t!e e"is! eole as e(il (illains. Religion

la*ed a )e* art in de(eloing Russian Anti-emitism /ut it "as 'ar 'rom t!e onl*

'a$tor

Anti-emitism "as 'ound not onl* at middle and lo"er le(els o' so$iet* /ut at

t!e (er* !ig!est a "ell. !e Romano( ro*al 'amil* !ad a mixed re$ord in dealing

"it! its e"is! su/6e$ts. It !ad /een +at!erine t!e ;reat "!o t!roug! t!e artitions

o' t!e Polis!-=it!uanian $ommon"ealt! /roug!t large num/ers o' e"s in to t!e

emire. !e rede$essors o' $,ars Alexander III and 2i$!olas II& exlains Conald

;ra*ston resonded to Russias e"is! oulation di5erentl*. Alexander I& "!o ruled

'rom 1801-3H& "!o& "as raised in t!e nlig!tenment ra exanded man* li/erties to

Russias e"is! su/6e$ts. ?is su$$essor and /rot!er& 2i$!olas I& 183H-HH "as mu$!

more restri$ti(e and !ars!. 2i$!olass son& Alexander II& 18HH-81 "as less !ars! /ut

t!e lega$ies o' !is 'at!er loomed !ea(il* on udeo-+!ristian relations. Alexander IIs

1881 assassination "ould sar) "a(es o' Anti-e"is! a$ti(it* t!roug!out t!e

emire.11Curing t!e ogrom o' lisa(etgrad& "rites @melian Pritsa)& a $ommon

s!out !eard "as !e e"s )illed t!e emeror. !ere is an order to /eat t!em. !e

lo$al aut!orities are !iding it.13!us t!epogromshchikisa" t!emsel(es as

a(engers o' t!eir murdered $,ar.

10 I/in age 114

11 ;ra*ston age 113

13 @mel6an Prista)& !e Pogroms o' 1881& age 18

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Alexander IIIs attitudes a/out t!e e"is! eole are arti$ularl* "ort!

examining sin$e it "as in !is reign "!en (iolen$e against t!e e"s too) o5 in Russia

'ollo"ing !is 'at!ers assassination. Alexander in t!e earl* *ears o' !is reign

aeared to !a(e /een distur/ed /* reorts o' (iolen$e against e"s. I. #i$!ael

Aronson notes t!at 'ollo"ing t!e Aril 1881 t!e $,ar exressed surrise at t!e dee

!atred o' t!e oulation 'or t!e e"s and 'elt t!e rioters& ese$iall* t!e instigators&

s!ould /e unis!ed !ars!l*.1%Cesite !is !orror at (iolen$e against t!e emires

e"s& Alexander III "as not immune 'rom re6udi$e against e"s or t!in)ing t!at

t!e* "ere (i$tims. In 188%& !e "rote er* sad& /ut I see no end to t!is t!ese e"s

ma)e t!emsel(es too reulsi(e to Russians and as long as t!e* $ontinue to exloit

+!ristians t!is !atred "ill not diminis!.14Alexanders /elie's ree$t Russians in

ositions o' aut!orit*. Ges& t!e (iolen$e against t!e e"s "as a"'ul and regretta/le

/ut t!e e"s "ere 'ar 'rom /lameless and t!e* "ere resonsi/le in some "a* 'or t!e

(iolen$e /roug!t uon t!em. !e $,ars "ritings s!o" a man some"!at sensiti(e to

t!e su5ering o' !is e"is! su/6e$ts /ut at t!e same time o/li(ious to t!e realit* o'

"!at "as !aening in !is )ingdom. ?e also ignored t!e 'a$t t!at $!ildren "ere

/eing /eaten during t!e ogroms. Alexander III $annot /e /lamed dire$tl* 'or t!e

(iolen$e against e"s t!at o$$urred in !is reign /ut !is rea$tion is "ort!* o'

$riti$ism.

Alexanders son 2i$!olas II demonstrated a more !ostile attitude to !is e"is!

su/6e$ts t!an !is 'at!er !ad. ?is reign "as mar)ed /* turmoil /ot! domesti$ and

a/road 'or t!e emire. ergei Pod/oloto( "rites t!at Russias last $,ar "as "ell

1% I. #i$!ael Aronson& !e Attitudes o' Russian @J$ials o"ards e"is! Assimilation

and migration& age %

14 Aronson age %

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suited 'or a$$etan$e o' Anti-emitism. ?is re6e$tion o' moderni,ation& !is

m*sti$ism& !is $on'usion a/out t!e modern "orld& and !is ali$ation o' moral

(alues to !is allies and enemies.1H 2i$!olas "as naturall* strongl* in$lined to

m*sti$ism and religion due to t!e illness o' !is onl* and son !eir resumti(e& Alexi.

2i$!olas also Pod/oloto( notes derided& !is e"is! su/6e$ts as Gids and li)e man*

in Russias elite sa" t!e e"s as t!e /iggest runners o' Russias gro"ing

re(olutionar* mo(ement.1E!e $,ar also s!o"ed s*mat!* to rioters "!i$!

$ontrasted !im 'rom !is 'at!er "!o "anted rioters unis!ed. !e tsar re'used

$lemen$* 'or B8 ogromists !is de$isions on 14B ot!ers remains un)no"n 'or

1&B1% $ases an o(er"!elming ma6orit* etitions 'or $lemen$* "ere

satis7ed.1B2i$!olas& in $ontrast to !is 'at!er& seems to !a(e seen (iolen$e dire$ted

against e"s as a$$eta/le and t!e (ast ma6orit* o' $lemen$* re>uests s!o" t!at

t!e $,ar s*mat!i,ed "it! t!em and t!eir a$tions. !e rioters !ad al"a*s seen t!e

$,ar as t!eir strongest all* and /* granting $lemen$* to"ards large num/ers o'

rioters 2i$!olas did not!ing to alter t!at er$etion. 2i$!olas ma* !a(e /een more

'a(ora/l* disosed to Anti-emiti$ attitudes t!an !is 'at!er /e$ause during

2i$!olass reign as $,ar t!e emire exerien$ed a !ig!er le(el o' tumultuous

a$ti(it*.

Anti-emitism amongst Russias se$urit* and militar* 'or$es "as also

re(alent during t!is time eriod. e"s "!o "ere traditionall* in(ol(ed "it!

/usiness "ere $onsidered more interested in ma)ing mone* t!an $aring a/out t!e

1H ergei Pod/oloto(& Kand t!e ntire #ass o' =o*al Peole =eat


11/45

"el'are o' t!e Russian emire and eole. A rominent aut!or "!o inuen$ed t!ese

/elie's "as se(olod Dresto(s)ii& "!o "as also a noted mem/er o' t!e la(o!ile

mo(ement in Russia. !e la(o!iles "ere $onser(ati(es "it!in Russian so$iet* "!o

oosed modernit* and suorted la(i$ !iloso!ies and religious ra$ti$es in

$ontrast "it! t!e moderni,ers "!o li)e t!eir name suggests suorted

moderni,ation /ut also "!om loo)ed to t!e "est 'or insiration ese$iall* in

!iloso!*. se(olod Dresto(s)ii& "rites Go!anan Petro(s)*-$!tern a'ter 1881

Dresto(s)ii re6e$ted t!e notion t!at e"s $ould /e lo*al to t!e emire. ?e also

$laimed t!at e"is! suort 'or t!e emires militar* inter(ention in t!e al)ans "as

not due to lo(e or t!eir desire to !el out la(s /ut rat!er materialisti$.18!e

er$etion t!at e"s $ared more a/out e$onomi$ sel'-reser(ation t!an t!e emire

"as !eld t!roug!out t!e emire. In i/eria& as "ell as in t!e !eart o' t!e emire&

e"s $ould ser(e as s$aegoats 'or all t!e regimes militar* and sul* 'ailures.19

Anti-emitism& alread* a ro/lem in t!e emire got e(en "orse 'ollo"ing t!e 190H

Re(olution and t!e emires !umiliating de'eat to t!e aanese emire in t!e Russo-

aanese War o' 1904-0H.

Russias se$urit* 'or$es s!ared t!e arm*s Anti-emitism and "ere $on(in$ed

o' a grand e"is! $onsira$* to tole t!e go(ernment ese$iall* in t!e a'termat!

o' +,ar Alexander IIs assassination. o!n Co*le Dlier summari,es t!e aranoia /*

t!e se$ret oli$e t!at t!e ne"l* 'ormed @)!rana did not ut an end to t!e use o'

oli$e resour$e against e"s. In t!e summer o' 1881& t!e* extensi(el* in(estigated

18 Go!anan Petro(s)* $!tern& !e e"is! Poli$* o' t!e =ate Imerial War #inistr*&

age 33H

19 =illa Dalmina. !e Possi/ilit* o' t!e Imossi/le: Pogroms in astern i/eria& age

1%8& art o' onat!an Ce)el-+!ens Anti-e"is! iolen$e

11


12/45

a !antom International e"is! +on(ention t!at "as aarentl* meeting on

Russias 'rontier "it! sinister intent. !e ilna di(ision o' t!e @)!rana e(en sent a

se$ial agent to 'ollo" an elderl* ra//i around t!e $it* o' Donigs/erg in t!e !oe o'

un$o(ering t!e $onsirators and /lo$)ing lans to imort re(olutionar* $ontra/and

into Russia.30As s!o"n /* Dlier and Dalmina& Anti-emiti$ a$ti(it* and /elie'

ouris!ed in t!e minds o' t!ose administering t!e emire t!e most in times o'

turmoil in t!e emire su$! as 'ollo"ing t!e $,ars assassination and later in t!e

*ears 'ollo"ing t!e unsu$$ess'ul Re(olution o' 190H.

!e Russian media ese$iall* t!ose o' t!e Russian rig!t !eled s!ae Anti-

emitism in Russia during t!is time eriod too. !e Russian rig!t "as traditionall*

Anti-emiti$ due to t!eir staun$! monar$!ism& o'ten strong +!ristian @rt!odox

/elie's& and tenden$* to /e la(o!iles in t!e la(o!iles (ersus moderni,ation

de/ate t!at di(ided Russia during t!is time. !e $,ars assassination sar)ed a

"a(e o' Anti-emitism and $alls 'or (iolen$e rose against e"s in Russias rig!t "ing

ne"saers exlains @mel6an Pritsa). Curing t!e latter !al' o' #ar$! an intensi(e

anti- e"is! $amaign "as laun$!ed in t!e Russian rig!t-"ing ress& sear- !eaded

on #ar$! 30 /* Novorossiiskii telegrafu/lis!ed in @dessa. !e ress sread

rumors t!at t!e +!ristian oulation o' 2o(orossiia L2e" RussiaM "as lanning to

mount anti-e"is! ogroms during t!e aster !olida*s to a(enge t!e )illing o' t!e

N/elo(ed sar.N31!e rea$tionar* ress in Russia "as "illing to gi(e (oi$e to t!ose

"!o t!oug!t (iolen$e against e"s s!ould o$$ur and $onse>uentl* (iolen$e against

30 Dlier age 3

31 Prista)& age 10

13


13/45

e"s did o$$ur. !e transition 'rom simle Anti-emiti$ re6udi$e to !orri7$ and

/rutal Anti-e"is! (iolen$e !ad /egun.

Pogroms !ad o$$urred /e'ore 1880 /ut t!e 1880s "ere "!en some o' t!e

"orst ogroms o$$urred. !e /asi$ sar) 'or t!e rise o' ogroms in t!e 1880s "as

t!e assassination o' t!e $,ar and Russias e"is! oulation "as /lamed 'or t!at

assassination desite onl* one o' t!e 2arodna*a ol*a $onsirators /eing e"is! /ut

ea$! out/urst !ad its o"n se$i7$ sar). #ost o' t!ese earl* ogroms too) la$e

"it!in t!e Pale o' ettlement& naturall* due to t!at area !a(ing t!e !ig!est

$on$entration o' e"is! oulation in t!e emire. !e retext 'or man* ogroms

"as a$$usations o' e"is! (iolen$e to"ards +!ristians "!i$! man* Russian

+!ristians used as 6usti7$ation to atta$) all e"s regardless o' age or gender. In t!e

late a'ternoon o' 1H Aril& a 7g!t /ro)e out in t!e ta(ern o' t!e e" !ulim

;ri$!e(s)ii. @ne a$$ount $laimed a !ol* 'ool& I(anus!)a& "as man!andled 'or

/rea)ing a glass "ort! t!ree )oe)s& anot!er t!at t!e retext "as t!e simletons

nois* singing o' t!e aster ant!em Dristos os)res L+!rist Is RisenM .In an*

e(ent& !is $ries attra$ted a large $ro"d. A oli$e sergeant arri(ed and urged t!e

$ro"d to diserse. Instead& t!e* s!outed !e Gids are /eating our eoleO and

/egan to /eat e"s.33W!ile undou/tedl* (iolen$e against +!ristians /* e"s did

o$$ur& t!e rioters used it as an ex$use and retext to atta$) all e"s during ogroms

"!i$! leads to t!e $on$lusion t!at t!e* "ere moti(ated /* somet!ing more sinister

t!an 6ust a(enging +!ristians. !e Pogromschiki& t!e Russian "ord 'or t!ose "!o

too) art in t!e ogroms "ere in t!e earl* 1880s $on(in$ed t!at t!e* "ere doing

"!at t!eir $,ar "anted 'ollo"ing t!e assassination o' t!e re(ious $,ar. !e

ogrom in Anane( on 3E Aril "as triggered /* $laims o' a lo$al man& Ignat

33 Dlier& age 3E

1%


14/45

=es!$!en)o& t!at t!e aut!orities !ad suressed a $,arist order to /eat t!e e"s

suosedl* issued in retaliation 'or t!eir murder o' Alexander II.3%!epogromschiki

"ere strongl* $on(in$ed t!at t!e* "ere doing 'ollo"ing orders o' Alexander II

!imsel' /ut to t!e $ontrar*& +,ar Alexander III $ondemned t!e (iolen$e against !is

e"is! su/6e$ts and t!at t!e oli$e in t!ese earl* *ears reeatedl* attemted to

re(ent ogroms 'rom o$$urring. o!n Co*le Dlier in ussians! "e#s! and the

Pogroms of $%%$&%'suggests t!at oli$e inter(ention did not deter t!e

pogromschiki!"!o used t!e oli$es attemt to sto t!e riots as roo' o' a 'alse

/elie' t!at t!e oli$e /eing /ri/ed /* e"s suggests t!at t!eir inter(ention did not

matter to t!epogromschikiA 7g!t in t!e /a,aar es$alated into a ogrom& during

"!i$! t!epogromschikis!outed eat t!e e"s& t!e )illers o' our tsar and !e

oli$e are in t!e a* o' t!e Gids& and !a(e !idden t!e order to atta$) t!em. LDlier

%3M !us $onsira$* t!eories "ere strongl* lin)ed "it! Anti-emitism sin$e t!e

pogromschiki"ere $on(in$ed "!at t!e* "ere doing "as la"'ul in t!e e*es o' t!e

$,ar /ut also /elie(ed t!at t!e oli$e "ere art o' t!e e"is! $onsira$* against t!e

state. !e earl* ogroms 'ollo"ing Alexander IIs deat! also s!o" "!* ogroms

"ere lin)ed to t!e rig!t "ing and nationalism sin$e t!epogromschikidid man* earl*

/eatings and )illings o' e"s in t!e name o' t!e $,ar.

=it!uania "!ose lands "ere a/sor/ed into t!e Russian emire during t!e

t!ree artitions during t!e late eig!teent! and earl* nineteent! $enturies "as also

!ome to ogroms during t!e 1880s. Carius taliunas e$!oes o!n Co*le Dliers

"ritings t!at t!e non-e"is! oula$e in t!e Pale o' ettlement /elie(ed t!at t!e

ne" $,ar !ad ordered t!e e"is! eole to /e unis!ed 'or t!e deat! o' t!e $,ar. In

1881 t!e situation deteriorated still 'urt!er 'ollo"ing t!e assassination o' Alexander

3% I/in& age %1

14


15/45

II& and t!ere "ere rumours t!at t!e ne" tsar !ad issued a de$ree unis!ing t!e e"s

'or ta)ing art in t!e assassination.34 !us t!e /elie' t!at t!e ne" $,ar !ad e(en

"ritten an order t!at e"s /e atta$)ed in retaliation 'or Alexander IIs deat! "as a

"idesread /elie' t!roug!out t!e emire. Residents o' t!e 2ort!-Western ro(in$es

suggests Carius taliunas 'urt!er 'elt t!eir a$tions "ere state san$tioned "!en

rumors o' an order signed /* Interior #inister 2i)olai Pa(lo(i$! Ignate( en$ouraging

eole to /eat e"s and steal t!eir roert* $ir$ulated.3HIgnate( "as a noted Anti-

emite and $onsira$* t!eorist a$$ording to o!n Co*le Dlier& in August 1881 !ad

$on7ded to t!e Austrian am/assador t!at Poles and e"s "ere /e!ind t!e 2i!ilist

mo(ement in !is (ie".3E!e /elie' t!at e"s "ere to /e /eaten in retri/ution 'or

Alexander IIs deat! "as re(alent t!roug!out t!e emire.

Get t!ere is ot!er resear$! t!at suggests t!at t!ese earl* ogroms !a(e a

simler $ause. taliunas o/ser(es t!at drun)enness la*ed a /ig role in Anti-e"is!

out/rea)s. @J$ial $orresonden$e s!o"s t!at man* /ra"ls /ro)e out in inns or inn

!ouses& "!ere t!e $oni$ting arties di(ided along et!ni$ lines. !ese $oni$ts

arose in (illages as o'ten as in to"ns or $ities. Cisagreement o(er a*ment 'or

al$o!ol& e"s re'usal to sell (od)a& and a$$idental en$ounters "ere retexts 'or

(iolen$e.3Bx$essi(e al$o!ol use is "ell )no"n to $ause /ot! imaired 6udgment

and o$$asionall* (iolen$e& so al$o!oli$ /ra"ls& in addition to a oulation alread*

redisosed to Anti-e"is! re6udi$e $ould /e said to /e rone to anti-e"is!

34 Carius taliunas: Anti- e"is! Cistur/an$es in t!e 2ort!-West Pro(in$es in t!e

arl* 1880s& Page 119

3H I/in& age 131

3E Dlier& age 3

3B taliunas& age 131-33

1H


16/45

(iolen$e. Crun)enness and Anti-emitism "ere not limited to t!e $i(ilian "orld. ut

in 188% a drun)en gang o' $ons$rits "andered around t!e to"n all da*& atta$)ing

e(er* e" t!e* 'ound& $o(ering t!em in mud& and /rea)ing !ouse "indo"s and

s!utters. !is /om/ing o' e"is! !ouses $ontinued t!e next da* too and onl* t!e

inter(ention o' lo$al oJ$ials ut a sto to it.38Crun)en /e!a(ior alone $annot

exlain t!e (iolen$e t!at gried Russia during t!is time !o"e(er sin$e o'ten

ogroms and (iolen$e to"ards e"s too) la$e on unda*s and !ol* da*s 'ollo"ing

$!ur$! ser(i$es.

Anti-e"is! (iolen$e $ould also /e lin)ed to e$onomi$ resentments as "ell.

Cesite Alexander IIs 18E1 li/eration o' t!e ser's& o(ert* "as still re(alent in t!e

Russian mire. e"s t!roug! oular and religious $ulture "ere o'ten lin)ed "it!

"ealt! and t!e exloitation o' +!ristians. ?ein, Cietri$!-=o"e o/ser(es It is&

t!ere'ore not surrising t!at in t!e /eginning o' man* or e(en most ogroms

Lese$iall* in 1881-1883M t!at "ealt!* e"s "ere t!e rime target o' atta$)s.39

e"s "ere lin)ed "it! greed !istori$all* /e$ause o' t!eir ositions as mone*lenders

in t!e +!ristian $ommunities in "!i$! t!e* resided and /e$ause t!e* $!arged

interest "!i$! @rt!odox +!ristians sa" as immoral. Interest "as used as (alidation

o' +!ristian er$etions o' e"s as greed* in site o' t!e 'a$t t!at ot!er +!ristian

'ait!s ra$ti$ed interest in mone*lending. !e #a* =a"s o' 1883& 'or examle&

ro!i/ited e"s 'rom trading during unda*s and +!ristian !ol* da*s. Get t!e

easantr* interreted t!e la"s to 'or/id trade at an* time during t!ose da*s and

t!at "rites Carius taliunas led to $oni$ts /et"een e"s and easants& t!e in$ident

38 I/in& age 133

39 ?ein,-Cietri$! =o"e& Pogroms in Russia: xlanations& +omarisons&

uggestions& age 30

1E


17/45

started o(er e"is! mer$!ants setting u stalls outside t!e $!ur$! and 'ollo"ing t!e

mass /anged s$*t!es "!i$! a$$ording to easant testimon* angered t!e easants.

ut t!e retext taliunas "rites "as an argument /et"een a mer$!ant and easant

o(er t!e ri$e o' a s$*t!e. Insults "ere ex$!anged and e(entuall* t!e $arts o' t!e

mer$!ants "ere o(erturned $arts resulting in t!e damage (alued at H08 rou/les.%0

iolen$e dire$ted at e"s in(ol(ing e$onomi$ resentments "as not limited to t!e

earl* 1880s and "as a art o' earl* 1900s (iolen$e dire$ted to"ards e"s as "ell.

!lomo =am/ro,a des$ri/es an in$ident /et"een a e"is! mer$!ant and easant

"oman t!at started as a disute o(er t!e ri$e o' a s$ar' t!at nearl* ended "it! t!e

mer$!ant /eing /eaten nearl* "it!in deat! /* a mo/.%1 !e easantr* "as long

rone to Anti-emitism due to t!e !ea(* inuen$e o' Anti-emitism in t!eir li(es as

"ell as a general ignoran$e o' t!e la"s a/out "!at e"s $ould and $ould not do

under t!e la".

!e lo$al aut!orities also deser(e some o' t!e /lame 'or remaining indi5erent

to Anti-emiti$ a$ti(it* and t!eir tenden$* to side "it! t!e easants in disutes li)e

t!is one. lo$al oJ$ials& /asing t!emsel(es on e(iden$e 'rom t!e easants& $laimed

t!at t!e damages su5ered "ere negligi/le. !e interretation o' t!e lo$al oJ$ials

$learl* soug!t to a/sol(e t!e easants o' guilt. It "as $laimed t!at !ad t!e e"s

resonded olitel* to t!e >uestions ut to t!em /* t!e easants& t!ere "ould !a(e

/een no distur/an$e.%3!e lo$al aut!orities& instead o' s!o"ing a /ias to t!e

emires +!ristian $iti,ens s!ould !a(e /een u!olding t!e la" /ut long !eld Anti-

%0 taliunas& age 13%

%1 !lomo =am/ro,a& !e sarist ;o(ernment and t!e Pogroms o' 190%-190E& age

181

%3 taliunas& age 13%

1B


18/45

emiti$ attitudes re(ented t!em 'rom doing so eJ$ientl*. It is true t!at t!e oJ$ials

did not dire$tl* $ommit t!e ogroms and did inter(ene to sto (iolen$e /ut t!e

noti$ea/l* indi5erent rea$tions to e"is! su5ering and o(ert /ias to easant oint o'

(ie"s $annot /e o(erloo)ed in o/ser(ing t!e oli$es resonse to t!e ogroms. !e

(iolen$e dire$ted to"ards e"s "as not going to /e eradi$ated /ut !ad t!e oJ$ials

o' t!e emire aggressi(el* gone a'ter (iolen$e& t!e amount o' (iolen$e easil* $ould

!a(e /een de$reased. It "as a situation similar to t!e re-$i(il rig!ts era sout!ern


19/45

Pogroms "ere one ase$t o' t!e e"is! >uestion.


20/45

again loo) uon a +!ristian $!ild.%E2ails "ere dri(en t!roug! !eads& /odies&

!a$)ed in !al'& slit oen and 7lled "it! 'eat!ers& Women and girls "ere raed& and

some !ad t!eir /reasts $ut o5.%B!e indis$riminate and sa(age (iolen$e is "!*

Dis!ine( is still remem/ered and its sa(ager* undou/tedl* insired later /ar/ari$

a$ts against t!e e"is! eole. Aside 'rom its (iolen$e& Dis!ine( $an also /e noted

t!at "it! 'e" ex$etions t!e non-e"is! residents o' t!e $it* did little to !el t!eir

e"is! neig!/ors. !e /etter $lass o' t!e u/li$& t!e semioJ$ial )t*

Petersburgskiye +edomosti su/se>uentl* reorted& "al)ed $alml* along and ga,ed

at t!ese se$ta$les "it! t!e utmost indi5eren$e.%8A grou o' one !undred 7't*

e"s "rites #onte 2oam Pen)o"er su$$eeded in de'ending e"s in t!e 2e" a,aar

'rom /eing atta$)ed /ut ama,ingl* t!ese indi(iduals "ere arrested /* t!e oli$e.%9

!e Dis!ine( ogrom "as li)e man* ast and 'uture ogroms /ut its /ar/arism le't

its mar) on !istor*.

W!at !ad made Dis!ine( t!e site 'or "!at man* !istorians $all t!e "orst

ogrom in !istor*S #onte 2oam Pen)o"er 7nds t!e main $ulrit to /e t!e 1894

arri(al o' a #olda(ian nationalist& Pa(ola$!i Drus!e(an to t!e $it* "!om soon

/oug!t t!e $it*s onl* dail* ne"saer and used it to rint (i$ious atta$)s on t!e

e"s and "as en$ouraged in !is "ritings /* t!e i$e-;o(ernor o' t!e region "!o

"as also t!e oJ$ial $ensor. Drus!e(ans atta$)s on t!e e"s re$alled t!e old /lood

li/el $!arge "!i$! in e5e$t said e"s "anted to use t!e /lood o' +!ristians in

%E I/in& age 18B

%B I/in& age 18B

%8 I/in& age 188

%9 I/in& age 188

30


21/45

sa$ri7$es. Drus!e(an e(en !ad !is allies distri/ute a am!let& !e Ra//is

ee$! "!i$! (er* mu$! resem/led t!e later !e Proto$ols o' lders o' ion in

t!at it "as aarentl* roo' o' a e"is! $onsira$* 'or glo/al domination. In

Fe/ruar* o' 190%& Drus!e(an& !o"e(er& 'ound t!e in$ident !e "as loo)ing 'or in t!e

/rutal murder o' a +!ristian /o* in t!e su/ur/ o' Cu/ossar*. #ont* 2oam Pen)o"er

"rites t!at D!rus!e(an us!ed t!e traged* as roo' e"is! /loodlust against

+!ristians alt!oug! e(iden$e ro(ed t!at it "as t!e /o*s un$le t!at "as

resonsi/le 'or t!e /o*s murder.40!lomo =am/ro,a 'urt!er notes t!at e"s "ere

a$$used o' )illing t!e /o* to use !is /lood to ma)e Passo(er mat,o!.41!is

allegation ma* aear imossi/le to /elie(e /ut t!e /lood li/el as it "as $alled "as

in 'a$t an age old atta$) on t!e e"is! eole. Cesite t!e 'alseness and t!e

a/surdit* o' t!e $!arges& D!rus!e(ans ne"saer& ,essarbets $alled 'or re(enge

against t!e $it*s e"s and a 'e" da*s /e'ore t!e ogrom a si,a/le grou o'

Al/anians and some #olda(ians arri(ed /* train.43(en in t!e a'termat! o' t!e

ogrom& D!rus!e(an still $ontinued to u/lis! Anti-emiti$ roaganda a$$ording to

Pen)o"er. In August and etem/er& !e u/lis!ed an a/ridged (ersion o' t!e

Proto$ols o' lders o' ion "!i$! 'or man* readers 'or t!eir 7rst time reading t!e

'orger* and t!e next *ear !e u/lis!ed anot!er noted 'orger*& !e Ra//is see$!

"!i$! mu$! li)e t!e Proto$ols sto)ed Anti-emiti$ 'ears.4%


22/45

o' 190%. D!rus!e(an !ad used !is ne"saer to drum u oular Anti-emiti$

sentiment and "orse !e !ad sread a /latant lie "!i$! ended u /eing "!at is seen

as t!e 7nal stra" t!at sar)ed t!e (iolen$e in Dis!ine( dire$ted at e"s.

D!rus!e(an and !is oliti$al allies $ertainl* deser(e /lame 'or t!e ogrom

/ut t!e rea$tions o' t!e $it*s go(ernment and religious oJ$ials made t!is traged*

e(en greater t!an it oug!t to !a(e /een. Pen)o"er notes t!at Dis!ine(s rominent

e"s as)ed t!e $it*s oJ$ials to ut a sto to Drus!e(ans a$ti(ities /ut "ere turned

do"n /e$ause t!e oJ$ials agreed "it! Drus!e(ans ludi$rous $!arges against t!e

e"s. !e $i(il and oli$e aut!orities t!us !ad s!o"n t!e* !ad no (ested interest in

rote$ting t!e $it*s e"is! oulation 'rom (iolen$e.44It "as not 6ust Dis!ine(s

$i(i$ leaders t!at ignored e"is! leas 'or !el in t!e da*s leading u to t!e ogrom

t!oug!. As rumors o' an imending ogrom $ame on to Dis!ine(& t!e $it*s e"is!

leaders "rites #ont* 2oam Pen)o"er leaded "it! is!o Ia)o( to announ$e

u/li$all* t!at t!e @rt!odox +!ur$! !ad re6e$ted t!e /lood li/el $!arge /ut is!o

Ia)o( relied t!at !e 'elt !e /elie(ed in 'a$t t!at some e"s did ra$ti$e ritual

murder.4H!e $it*s e"s t!ere'ore li)e man* e"is! $ommunities in Russia 'ound

'e" allies and e(en arts o' t!e state and so$ietal stru$ture t!at "ere in strong

s*mat!* "it! t!eir tormentors. Wit! t!e $ondes$ending and /igoted attitudes t!at

t!e* s!o"ed to t!e $it*s e"is! leaders& its not surrising t!at "!en t!e Dis!ine(

Pogrom /egan on aster 190% t!at it ended u /eing among t!e (iolent ogroms

t!at Russian !istor* !ad seen to t!at oint in time.

Pogroms and Anti-emiti$ a$ti(it* "ere sreading raidl* t!roug! Russia

during t!e earl* t"entiet! $entur* and t!e Dis!ine( ogrom "as one o' man*

44 Pen)o"er& age 301

4H I/in& age 189

33


23/45

ogroms to o$$ur. !lomo =am/ro,a "rites in The Tsarist -overnment and the

Pogroms of $./0&$./1t!at A'ter Dis!ine(& t!ere "ere o(er EH0 ogroms during t!e

next t!ree *ear eriod. !ese statisti$s indi$ate t!at during t!ese t!ree *ears t!at

a ogrom in t!e Russian emire "as o$$urred at t!e rate o' at least t!ree to 'our a

"ee) during t!is time 'rame. i/eria seemed li)e an unli)el* la$e 'or a ogrom as

it "as outside t!e Pale o' ettlement and !ad /een tolerant to e"s relati(e to t!e

rest o' t!e emire. (en t!e Russian @rt!odox +!ur$! in i/eria& long else"!ere in

t!e emire !ostile to e"s and s*mat!eti$ to Anti-emiti$ (iolen$e and out/ursts

too) a stand against Anti-emitism in i/eria. In Ir)uts)& 'or examle& @rt!odox

+!ur$! leaders re6e$ted t!e "a(e o' xeno!o/ia t!at s"et o(er Russia and

stressed t!e sin'ulness o' ogrom mongering.4EIt $an /e said t!at t!e small

oulation o' e"s in i/eria "as a reason "!* Anti-emiti$ (iolen$e ne(er too) o5

sin$e it "ould /e !arder to argue t!at t!e e"s "ere exloiting t!e lo$al oula$e

"!i$! "as $ommonl* used to drum u Anti-emiti$ sentiment in t!e Pale. Anti-

e"is! a$ti(it* did o$$ur in i/eria t!oug!& =ilia Dalmina "rites t!at 'ollo"ing a

$ounter-re(olutionar* rotest against stri)ing railroad "or)ers& !oug! demo$rati$

'or$es !ad su$$eeded in /lo$)ing re(ious attemts /* t!e la$) ?undreds to

ro(o)e mass demonstrations& agitators su$$ess'ul indu$ed a mo/ to ro/ e"is!

s!os& and /egan to /eat e"s and ot!er oonents ali)e. (en a'ter t!e

suression o' t!e stri)e and t!e restoration o' u/li$ order& e"s !ad reason to 'ear

ogroms 'or anot!er 'e" da*s.4B@ne o' t!e /ig elements in se$ular Anti-emitism

"as t!e lin)ing o' t!e e"s to re(olutionar* mo(ements and anti-e"is! (iolen$e in

i/eria "as lin)ed to $ounter-re(olutionar* a$ti(it* t!at resulted in non-e"s

4E Dalmina& age 1%%

4B I/in age 1%H

3%


24/45

targeted "it! e"s ali)e. !e go(ernments resonse in i/eria some"!at di5ered

'rom t!at in t!e Pale. =ilia Damina "rites t!at In 190H& t!e go(ernor-general o'

Ir)uts) Ir)uts)oe ;eneral-;u/ernatorsi(o& one o' t"o astern i/erian general-

go(ernors!is& in $ontradi$tion to t!e $it* o' Ir)uts)M& Pa(el Inno)entie(i$! Dutaiso(&

too) no a$tion to re(ent ogroms& /ut at t!e same time did not oose t!e

organi,ation o' u/li$ sel'-de'ense units& "!i$! in$luded non-e"s as "ell as e"s.

Alt!oug! lo$al e"s exressed gratitude t!at !e did not aut!ori,e atrioti$ Li.e.&

!ooliganisti$M demonstration& !is 'ailure to ta)e re(enti(e measures em/odied

t!ese elements.48Dutaiso(s a$tions or t!ere la$) o' $ertainl* did en$ourage t!e

(iolent elements o' t!e oulation /ut !is silent a$$etan$e o' e"s de'ending

t!emsel(es $annot /e o(erloo)ed in understanding "!* i/eria "as a relati(el* sa'e

la$e 'or e"s in t!e re(olutionar* eriod. Dalminas essa* also s!o"s t!at man* o'

i/erias ;entile oulation in a s!ar $ontrast to t!ose in t!e Pale a$tuall* 'oug!t

to rote$t t!eir e"is! neig!/ors 'rom !arm. Anti-emiti$ a$ti(it* "!ile it did o$$ur

in i/eria "as not onl* rare /ut not em/ra$ed /* t!e lo$al +!ristian oulation.

Follo"ing t!e unsu$$ess'ul 190H Re(olution& +,ar 2i$!olas II "as 'or$ed to

issue t!e @$to/er #ani'esto "!i$! !ad t!e otential to $!ange man* ase$ts o'

Russian li'e. In @$to/er o' 190H at t!e !eig!t o' t!e 190H disorders& a (iolent

ogrom eruted in t!e


25/45

not a surrise to see t!at !ostilities in @dessa "ent u as t!e $it*s e"is!

oulation and resen$e rose. A $ommon Anti-emiti$ attitude "as t!at t!e e"s

$ontrolled 7nan$ial interests and used t!at 'or oliti$al o"er. !is "as no ex$etion

in @dessa /ut Ro/ert Wein/erg suggests t!at e"s "ere not t!e o"er'ul entit* t!at

Anti-emites ortra*ed t!em as. Wein/erg a$)no"ledges t!at e"s !ad a /ig role in

t!e $it*s /an)ing and trading interests /ut t!e e"is! oulation as a "!ole !ad

little oliti$al inuen$e "!i$! "as in dire$t $ontradi$tion to $laims t!at t!e e"s !ad

lots o' oliti$al o"er. In 'a$t in 1893& e"s !ad /een disen'ran$!ised and denied

reresentation on t!e $it*s $oun$il and e"is! reresentation on t!e main $oun$il

!ad /een limited to six mem/ers out o' sixt*. o& t!ere'ore desite "!at Anti-

emites $laimed& t!e e"is! residents o' @dessa !ad limited oliti$al inuen$e. As

'or "ealt! and o(ert*& @dessas e"s "ere in 'a$t redominatel* imo(eris!ed. =

rodo(s)ii& in !is stud* o' e"is! o(ert* in @dessa at t!e turn o' t!e $entur*&

estimated t!at H0&000 e"s "ere destitute and anot!er 80&000 "ere o(ert*

stri$)en. In 190H& nearl* 80&000 e"s re>uested 7nan$ial assistan$e 'rom t!e e"is!

$ommunit* during Passo(er in order to /u* mat,o!& a telling sign t!at o(er !al' o'

t!e e"s in @dessa exerien$ed diJ$ulties ma)ing su$! ends meet. LWein/erg HBM

Get e"s "ere still s$aegoated as $aitalisti$ exloiters o' "ealt!. !e "ar "it!

aan in 190H& Wein/erg "rites exlains "!* e$onomi$ ro/lems "ere o$$urring.

+onditions $ontinued to deteriorate as t!e *ear 190H aroa$!ed& due to t!e

out/rea) o' "ar /et"een Russia and aan in 1904. rade& t!e mainsta* o' @dessaUs

e$onom*& de$lined and t!e $it*Us industrial se$tor entered a eriod o'

retren$!ment. It "as t!is en(ironment t!at led u to @$to/er 190H.

Cemonstrations 'ollo"ing t!e @$to/er #ani'esto made @dessa e(en more unsta/le.

49 Ro/ert Wein/erg& Wor)ers& Pogroms& and t!e 190H Re(olution in @dessa& age

HH-HE

3H


26/45

Ro/ert Wein/erg notes t!at t!e li)el* sar) 'or t!e ogroms t!at o$$urred in @dessa

"as t!e s!ooting deat! o' a *oung /o* $arr*ing an i$on ossi/l* /* a e"is!

re(olutionar*.H0!is Wein/erg exlains sent t!e ro-$,ar demonstrators into a rage

"!ere e"is! s!os "ere looted and e"s /eaten indis$riminatel* and o'ten )illed.


27/45

a/sent in D!ar)i( and it "as no more or less Anti-emiti$ t!an t!e a(erage $it*.

Curing t!e Russo-aanese "ar& t!e usual rumors a/out e"is! lo*alt* to t!e emire

"ere sread in D!ar)i(. Curing t!e summer& 'ears es$alated again as rig!t-"ing

agitators sread rumours t!at t!e "ell-)no"n e"is! Poni,o(s)ii $ommer$ial 7rm

!ad aided t!e aanese /* ro(iding gold.H%D!ar)i( "ould /e an imortant $it* as

t!e 190H Re(olution dre" $loser.

!e 190H Re(olution !it D!ar)i( li)e it did ot!er industrial $ities. #i$!ael

?amm exlains t!at *ear a grou o' some t!ree !undred lo$omoti(e "or)ers too)

$ontrol o' t!e $it*s largest industrial enterrise and /egan 7ring and !iring

emlo*ees. A la$) ?undred grou led /* a lo$al mer$!ant resonded and started

/eating e"s and students on t!e street.H4It loo)ed li)e D!ar)i( $ould erut into a

ogrom /ut t!is mira$ulousl* did not !aen. D!ar)i(& li)e ot!er industrial $ities !ad

a rising so$ialist mo(ement during t!is time eriod. #i$!ael ?amm "rites t!at a

grou o' #ens!e(i)s& ols!e(i)s& and Rs 'ormed a /attle grou to rote$t "or)ers&

students& and e"s 'rom retaliator* assaults. !e militia "ent !ouse to !ouse

arresting t!ie(es and lunderers and ta)ing t!em to a 'arm ma$!iner* assem/l*

"!ere t!e* "ere !otogra!ed and "arned i' t!e* "ere $aug!t in a la$) ?undred

mo/ again t!at t!e* "ould /e s!ot.HH!e /attle grou and militia su$$eeded due

to t!eir a$tions. #i$!ael ?amm notes /ut it "as t!e Dmitet /or/* L/attle grouM&

oli$e a$)no"ledged& t!at (irtuall* o(ernig!t a$>uired general u/li$ s*mat!* and

"ell-)no"n aut!orit*. Its militias& "!i$! almost $ertaint* !ad a ;entile "or)er

H% I/in& age 1E1

H4 I/in& age 1E1

HH I/in& age 1E3

3B


28/45

ma6orit*& dro(e t!e ogrom mo/ 'rom t!e $it* and /roug!t order to t!e streets.HE

Interet!ni$ and religious $ooeration !ad allo"ed t!e $it* o' D!ra)i( to a(oid t!e

ogroms t!at !ad s"et t!roug!out t!e Russian emire in 190H /ut "!*S D!ar)i(s

o$ial Cemo$rats& #i$!ael ?amm exlains !ad $amaigned 'or$e'ull* against

ogroms& arti$ularl* a'ter t!e Dis!ine( massa$re in 190%. !e* also soug!t to

re(ent t!e so$ialist mo(ement 'rom 'ragmenting into et!ni$ 'a$tions.HBold

leaders!i and re(enti(e measures /* D!ar)i(s le't "ing during t!e 190H

re(olution allo"ed t!e $it* to a(oid ogroms.

!e >uestion o' "!o exa$tl* "ere t!e eole $ommitting t!e ogroms is a

ro(o)ing >uestion to as) sin$e Anti-emitism "as "idesread in Russian so$iet*.

o!n Co*le Dlier "rites t!at o' t!e 4&0H3 eole "!ose gender "as noted uon

arrest 'ollo"ing t!e 1881 riots all /ut 333 "ere "omen.H8!is is not surrising gi(en

$rime is traditionall* $ommitted /* men as "ell as Russia /eing a male dominated

so$iet*. Dlier also "rites t!at o$$uation "ise a ma6orit* o' t!ese earl*

ogroms!$!i)i "ere 'rom t!e easant $lass.H9!lomo =am/ro,a e$!oes Dliers

o/ser(ation t!at Peasants and "or)ers "ere t!e ma6orit* o' t!e ogrom $ro"d.E0

!e easants "ere seen as !ostile to t!e e"s /e$ause t!e easants "it! t!eir

o(ert* and lo" edu$ation le(el "ere more sus$eti/le to /elie's t!at t!e e"is!

eole "ere exloiting t!em and t!eir lo" edu$ational le(el meant t!at t!e* "ere

HE I/in& age 1E3

HB I/in& age 1E8

H8 Ibin& age 48

H9 I/in& age 49

E0 =am/ro,a Pogrom #o(ement and Russia& age 191

38


29/45

more li)el* to a$$et outlandis! anti-e"is! $onsira$ies as 'a$t. !e rioters "ere a

redominatel* male and lo"er $lass grou /ut one t!at also !ad !el 'rom t!e

militar* and oli$e aut!orities on o$$asion.

oldiers /ot! on and o5 dut* too) art in t!e ogroms as "ell. Go!anan

Petro(s)*-$t!ern exlains t!at t!e militar* "as 7lled "it! Anti-emitism and& !ad a

strong Anti-emiti$ $ulture. D!mento(s)ii& an ad(iser on t!e "ar ministr* and an

a$ti(e arti$iant o' t!e +ommission on +om/ating e"is! Cra't (asion "rites

Petro(s)*-$!tern $ame to t!e $on$lusion t!at e"s al"a*s 'ound a loo!ole in

legislation t!at allo"ed t!em to e(ade t!eir militar* resonsi/ilities.E1 e"s "ere

seen /* t!e militar* as dislo*al to t!e emire and as exloiters o' t!e militar*. !e

oli$e t!emsel(es also too) art in some ogroms as "ell desite an oJ$ial oli$*

t!at $ondemned ogroms. Ro/ert Wein/erg "rites in t!at during t!e lead u to t!e

190H ogrom in @dessa t!at lain$lot!es oli$e oJ$ers !anded t!e rioters (od)a

/ut also guns and mone*.E3Wein/erg also "rites t!at during t!e ogrom itsel' a 'e"

lo" ran)ing oli$emen in and out o' uni'orm arti$iated in t!e looting and )illings

o' e"s.E%!lomo =am/ro,a adds t!at data 'rom 190%-0E s!o"s 3%T o'

oli$eVtroos a$ti(el* arti$iated in all ogroms. A$ti(e arti$iation is de7ned as

=am/ro,a as looting& illaging& murder& and t!e !*si$al a/use o' e"s. And t!at

'urt!er 18T did not!ing to sto illegal a$ti(it*. =am/ro,a 'urt!er notes t!at in at

least t"ent* eig!t do$umented $ases& mem/ers o' t!e oli$e or lo$al troo

E1 Petro(s)*-$!tern& Ima$t o' Russian Rig!t& age 330

E3 Wein/erg& age E3

E% I/in& age E4

39


30/45

regiments "ere leaders or instigators o' ogroms.E4 !e oli$e and militar* "ere

o'ten not 6ust arti$iants o' ogroms /ut t!e leaders o' t!em as "ell.

!e resonses o' Russias $,ars to t!e ogroms are imortant to understand sin$e

t!e rioters o'ten t!oug!t t!e* "ere doing t!eir $,ars orders to /rutali,e e"s. !e

indi(iduals "!o $ommitted t!e ogroms 'ollo"ing Alexander IIs assassination

$on(in$ed t!emsel(es t!at not onl* "ere t!e ogroms moral /ut t!e* "ere

san$tioned /* t!e ne" $,ar& Alexander III. Alexander III is o'ten ainted in !istor* as

a ra/id Anti-emite "it! no s*mat!* 'or t!e lig!t o' !is e"is! su/6e$ts /ut I

#i$!ael Aronson suggests t!at t!e +,ar $ould not /e so easil* igeon!oled. As earl*

as Aril 3Bt!& 1881& Alexander "as said to !a(e la/eled t!e anti-e"is! riots as (er*

delora/le and t!e next da* !e re'erred to t!e arti$iation o' a militar* oJ$er in

t!e riots as disgra$e'ul.EHAlexander III $annot /e exonerated 'or t!e ogroms

sin$e as $,ar and t!ere'ore auto$rat o' t!e Russian mire !e !ad /ot! t!e

$redi/ilit* and t!e o"er to $all out u/li$all* t!e ogroms and (iolen$e against t!e

e"s. I' t!e rioters& man* o' "!om t!oug!t t!e* "ere a$ting in t!e $,ars name !ad

/een told t!at t!e $,ar disaro(ed o' t!eir a$tions and "as !orri7ed /* "!at !e

!eard& t!eres argua/l* a ossi/ilit* t!at t!e (iolen$e against t!e e"s "ould !a(e

/een $ut do"n in Alexander IIIs reign. ut Alexander III did not $all out t!e rioters

u/li$all*. Aronson suggests t!at "!ile Alexander "as !orri7ed /* Anti-e"is!

(iolen$e& in one instan$e& !e /lamed t!e e"s t!emsel(es sa*ing t!at t!eir

exloitation o' +!ristians !ad led to t!e trou/les /et"een e"s and +!ristians. EE

E4 =am/ro,a Pogrom #o(ement in Russia& age 31E

EH Aronson& age %

EE Aronson& age %

%0


31/45

Alexander III must /e $riti$i,ed sin$e !e s!ould !a(e 7rstl* diselled an* rumors o'

a dire$t order /* !im to atta$) e"s and t"o& !e s!ould !a(e $lari7ed immediatel*

t!at t!ere !ad not /een a e"is! lot to )ill !is 'at!er "!i$! is "!at man* o' t!e

earl* rioters "ere moti(ated /*. Alexander IIIs sin "asnt en$ouraging t!e ogroms

rat!er it "as t!at !e did not use !is o"er to $ondemn t!e (iolen$e against t!e

e"is! eole on strong terms.

Alexander IIIs son and su$$essor& 2i$!olas II& li)e !is 'at!er 'a$ed ogroms in

!is reign /ut 2i$!olas IIs resonses to anti-e"is! (iolen$e di5ered 'rom !is

'at!ers. 2i$!olas II& li)e man* o' Russias elite sa" t!e e"s as /eing /e!ind t!e

re(olutionar* mo(ement. ergei Pod/oloto( "rites 2And the Entire 3ass of (oyal

People (eapt 4p5 The Attitudes of Nicholas 66 to#ards Pogroms7 t!at at a meeting in

earl* 190B t!at 2i$!olas II told t!e ;erman am/assador t!at a mass union o' e"s

and #asons "ere /e!ind t!e 190H Re(olution. 2i$!olas II 'elt t!e e"s "ere art o'

an international $onsira$* to ta)e !is o"er. W!ere 2i$!olas most di5ered 'rom !is

'at!er "as !is resonses to t!e ogroms !o"e(er. Follo"ing t!e /rutal Dis!ine(

ogrom& one o' 2i$!olas IIs asso$iates >uoted t!e $,ar and t!e $,ars interior

minister& I !eard 'rom Ple!(e as "ell as 'rom t!e tsar t!at e"s needed to /e gi(en

a lesson t!at t!e* !ad /e$ome too $on$eited and t!e* are leading t!e re(olutionar*

mo(ement. LPod/oloto( 198M 2i$!olas IIs resonse to t!e Dis!ine( ogrom s!o"s

!e !ad little s*mat!* 'or !is e"is! o' all ages su/6e$ts "!o "ere /eing /rutali,ed.

2i$!olas IIs (ie"s on t!e ogroms did e(ol(e in t!e lead u to World War I.

Pod/oloto( $ites anot!er one o' 2i$!olas IIs ad(isers "!o >uotes t!e $,ar as sa*ing

in etem/er 1911& W!at a nig!tmare to ta)e re(enge uon t!e guiltless mass 'or

t!e guilt o' one e".EBGet 2i$!olas II still made !imsel' an all* o' Russias Anti-

EB Pod/oloto(& age 300

%1


32/45

emiti$ 'or$es. ergei Pod/oloto( "rites t!at a $ount 'rom @dessa and one o' t!e

$,ars 'a(orites $omlained to t!e $,ar a/out t!e la$) o' s*mat!* s!o"n to"ards

"!at !e $alled atriots& t!e emeror assured t!e man !e t!oug!t t!e $ourts "ere

too !ard on t!e arti$iants too and !e "ould so'ten t!e senten$es uon etition.E8

2i$!olas IIs a$tions s!o" t!at t!is "as realit* and not mere r!etori$. A$$ording to

Pod/oloto( t!e $,ar granted $lemen$* to rioters 'or 1&B1% $ases seen in t!e re$ord&

a strong ma6orit*.E92i$!olas IIs resonses to t!e ogroms em/oldened (iolen$e

against t!e e"is! eole sin$e !is s*mat!ies "ere entirel* "it! t!ose "!o

$ommitting t!e (iolen$e and !e o5ered (er* little in t!e "a* o' $ondemnation.

!e resonses /* go(ernment $i(il ser(ants and oJ$ials to t!e ogroms in

t!e late nineteent! and earl* t"entiet! $enturies need to /e understood. ome o'

Russias imerial oJ$ials resonded to t!e ogroms "it! surrising s*mat!* 'or

t!e e"is! eole. I #i$!ael Aronson "rites t!at tate e$retar*& .A Peretts& in a

diar* entr* dated 2o(em/er 1Et!& 1883& a$$used ex #inister o' t!e Interior& Ignatie(

and ot!ers o' !a(ing "anted t!e almost destru$tion o' t!e e"s.B0Ignatie( "as a

noted Anti-emite "!o !ad la*ed a /ig role in lending $reden$e to t!e $onsira$*

t!eor* t!at e"s !ad /een /e!ind t!e murder o' +,ar Alexander II. ergei Witte

seemed li)e an unli)el* $riti$ o' Anti-emitism and Russian oli$ies to"ards t!e

e"is! eole sin$e !e !ad /een a $areer long u/li$ ser(ant and ser(ed as t!e 7rst

Prime #inister o' t!e emire in 190H. !lomo =om/ro,a "rites t!at Witte !ad

reeatedl* urged t!e go(ernment to /egin a gradual ro$ess o' e"is!

E8 Pod/oloto(& age 304

E9 I/in& age 30H

B0 Aronson& age 4

%3


33/45

eman$iation. ?e "as $on(in$ed t!at e"s !ad to /e ele(ated to t!e osition o'

Russian $iti,en& "it! e>ual rig!ts and ri(ileges.B1Witte in !is memoirs $ondemned

#inister o' t!e Interior Pl!e(es oli$ies to"ards e"s. Get& as I learned 'rom man*

tal)s "it! Ple!(e& !e !ad not!ing against e"s and !e "as intelligent enoug! to

reali,e t!at t!is oli$* "as in$orre$t& /ut !e )ne" t!is oli$* leased ;rand Cu)e

ergei Ale)sandro(i$! and e(identl* !is ma6est* as "ell& and !e tried to lease.B3

Wittes memoirs suggest t!at Russian go(ernment oJ$ials su$! as Ple!(e

em/ra$ed Anti-emiti$ oli$* not out o' rin$ile /ut /e$ause t!e* )ne" it "ould

$urr* 'a(or "it! t!e t!en $,ar& 2i$!olas II "!o "as Anti-emiti$. Witte "as one o'

t!e 'e" rominent insiders in Russias go(ernment to understand t!e ro/lems t!e

ast treatment o' e"s !ad $aused. =om/ro,a "rites "!ile Witte $ondemned e"is!

in(ol(ement in re(olutionar* oliti$s& !e understood "!* t!e* "ere dra"n to radi$al

oliti$s in resonse to t!eir treatment and e(en exressed to ionist leader&

!eodor ?er,l t!at !e /elie(ed t!e e"s "ere too oressed. Witte "as a modernist

"!o sa" (iolen$e to"ards e"s as /eing detrimental to"ards t!e ro$ess o'

moderni,ation.

!e resonses o' go(ernment aut!orities to t!e rise o' ogroms and Anti-

emitism "erent al"a*s as s*mat!eti$ as Wittes. #onte 2oam Pen)o"er "rites

t!at 'ollo"ing t!e Dis!ine( Pogrom t!e go(ernment 7rst denied t!e massa$re in

Dis!ine( and t!en instru$ted its am/assador to /lame t!e e"s 'or starting t!e

$oni$t in t!e 7rst la$e.B%!e am/assador "as not t!e onl* rominent Russian

B1 !e sarist ;o(ernment and Pogroms& =am/ro,a& age 389

B3 Witte& age %80

B% Pen)o"er& age 190

%%


34/45

oJ$ial to /lame t!e e"s 'or t!e massa$re. Ple!(e& t!e #inister o' t!e Interior&

'alsel* said t!e in$ident started "!en a e"is! $arousel o"ner !it a +!ristian "omen

and (iolen$e ensued. Pen)o"er also "rites t!at Ple!(e reeatedl* re'used e"is!

re>uests /ot! to end t!e ogrom and to re(ise anti-e"is! oli$ies.B4Russian

oJ$ials s!o"ed t!at t!e* $ould /e s*mat!eti$ to t!e lig!t o' t!e e"s or "illing to

'a/ri$ate e(ents to 6usti'* (iolen$e.

!e Russian rig!t "as long tied "it! t!e monar$!* and !ostilit* to"ards e"s

in t!e Russian emire. It "as t!e Russian rig!t "ing ress t!at sread The Protocols

of Elders of Zionas 'a$t. Follo"ing t!e ogroms& t!e rig!t "ing ress )et on

atta$)ing e"s and demoni,ing t!em as to 6usti'* t!e (iolen$e and !ostilities. !e

editorialist 'or ,ir8hevyevedomosti $omared e"s to t!e sout!ern grain /eetle&

"!ose deredations !ad su$! a disastrous e5e$t on t!e lo$al e$onom*.BH!e

de!umani,ation o' t!e e"s /* t!e udeo!o/e ress "or)ed as a means to

$on(in$e non-e"is! readers t!at not onl* "ere t!e e"s not "ort!* o' rote$tion

/ut t!e* "ere /arel* !uman. It "as a ta$ti$ later used /* 2a,i roagandists during

t!e !ird Rei$!. !e $reation o' t!e state Cuma 'ollo"ing t!e Re(olution o' 190H did

little to $!ange Anti-emiti$ attitudes on Russias rig!t. A ma6or roosal in t!e

Cuma o' 190E "as to grant e>ual rig!ts to Russias e"s. #an* on Russias rig!t in

t!e Cuma oosed t!is measure "rites !muel ;alai in t!at during t!e 7rst Cuma&

Prin$e 2.. ol)ons)ii: ?e said t!at& as 'ar as !e )ne"& no"!ere !ad t!e e"is!

>uestion /een 'ull* sol(ed. * tr*ing to sol(e it immediatel* in Russia& !e $ontinued&

t!e Cuma mig!t do more !arm t!an good to so$iet*. ?o"e(er& t!e (ast ma6orit* o'

deuties re6e$ted ol)ons)iis (ie"s& $onsidering t!e a/olition o' t!e legal

B4 I/in& age 190

BH Dlier& age 140

%4


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restri$tions on e"s to /e a simle matter& and o/6e$ted to an* dela* in rearing

t!e /ill on $i(i$ e>ualit*. Indeed& 'rom t!at moment on"ard& t!e lig!t o' Russian

e"r* /e$ame t!e main argument in 'a(our o' urgent romulgation o' t!e /ill.BE

@onents o' e"is! e>ualit* li)e ol)ons)ii ignored t!e 'a$t t!at in man* arts o'

t!e emire t!at e"s "ere still /eing su/6e$t to (iolen$e and >uestions o' t!eir

lo*alt* !ad ersisted not $eased. (en a'ter t!e !ea(* de/ates in t!e Cuma a/out

e"is! e>ualit*& Anti-emiti$ attitudes and /elie' in e"is! $onsira$ies "ere oular

on Russias rig!t. Go!anan Petro(s)* $!tern notes t!at on Ce$em/er 3nd& 1911&

2i)olai (gene(i$! #ar)o( II ad(o$ated 'or t!e remo(al o' all e"is! soldiers 'rom

t!e militar* and argued t!at an* e"is! soldier li)e all o' Russias e"s 'ollo"ed t!e

di$tates o' a se$ret e"is! go(ernment /ased on t!e almud. #ar)o( II "ent e(en

'urt!er /* alluding to The Protocols of Elders of Zion*99#ar)o( IIs oinions

reresented man* on t!e Russian rig!t "!o "ere $on(in$ed o' a great e"is!

$onsira$* 'or glo/al domination and o' in!erent e"is! dislo*alt* to Russia. #ar)o(

II later "ent on to /e a suorter o' t!e !ird Rei$! in *ears 'ollo"ing t!e Russian

Re(olution.

!e resonses o' Russias le't to"ards gro"ing Anti-emitism and (iolen$e

to"ards e"s are more diJ$ult to measure gi(en t!e Russian le'ts range 'rom

li/eral demo$rati$ $aitalists to radi$al so$ialists and man* "!o "ere in /et"een.

A $ommon resonse o' man* li/erals in t!e ne"s media "as to atta$) t!e idea o'

t!e Pale itsel' 'ollo"ing t!e earl* ogroms in t!e earl* 1880s. o!n Co*le Dlier

"rites t!at a: A -oloseditorial o5ered a li/eral t"ist o' a legal erse$ti(e: t!e

'ault la* in t!e legal status o' t!e e"s t!at $on7ned t!em to t!e Pale and 'or$ed

BE !muel ;alai& !e e"is! uestion as a Russian uestion& age 4H

BB Go!anan Petro(s)*-$!tern& Ima$t o' Russias Rig!t& age 31B

%H


36/45

t!em to /e a /urden to t!e neig!/ors.B8o man* Russian li/erals t!ere'ore t!e

ro/lem "as t!at e"s "ere 'or$ed into li(ing in t!e Pale. Narodnaia volia& t!e 'ar

le't grou /e!ind t!e assassination o' +,ar Alexander IIs resonse to t!e earl*

ogroms is interesting gi(en t!at e"s !ad /een lin)ed "it! t!e grou and

$onsira$* to )ill t!e $,ar /* $onsira$* t!eorists. !e


37/45

suggested t!at t!e go(ernment and $lerg* )ees t!e eole in a state o' ignoran$e

and 'anati$ism.81olstoi t!oug! did en$ourage t!e e"s to adat (irtuous li(ing.83

?o"e(er ot!er Russian le't "ingers su$! as #axim ;or)i "ere more adamant in

t!eir $ondemnation& ;or)i railed against t!e )illers and instigators and $alled on

men o' $ons$ious to !el Russias e"s in a series o' essa*s designed as a

'undraiser 'or t!e (i$tims.8%!e


38/45

!e e"is! resonse 'rom "it!in t!e Russian emire is imortant to

understand as "ell. ome relies "ere religiousl* /ased. !e seli!ot ser(i$e !ad

e(ol(ed in e"is! $ommunities o(er $enturies as a resonse to t!reats and $rises.

in$e& in t!e e*es o' t!e religiousl* ort!odox& disasters and erse$utions "ere a

di(ine unis!ment 'or t!e sins o' t!e $ommunit* aeals 'or 'orgi(eness mig!t& in

t!e "ords o' /elie(ers& a(ert t!e e(il de$ree.8E;i(en t!e imortan$e o' religion in

t!e e"is! $ommunit*& it is not surrising t!at man* e"s turned to ra*er in

resonse to (iolen$e. Get ot!er e"s resonded "it! a more ragmati$ aroa$! and

t!is "as emigration. o!n Co*le Dlier "rites #ost o' t!e e"is! re'ugees "!o

e(entuall* arri(ed in Ameri$a "ere t!e la*t!ings o' 'ate. !e* !ad little ideologi$al

moti(ation& /ut onl* a desire to es$ae t!e (iolen$e and destru$tion o' t!e ogroms

and to 7nd e$onomi$ oortunit* in a ne" land.8B(i ;itelman "rites !o" t!e

ogroms $aused massi(e e"is! emigration 'rom t!e Russian mire. et"een

1830 and 18B0 onl* some B&H00 Russian and Polis! e"s !ad gone to settle in t!e


39/45

exile oulations t!at used t!e o"er o' a 'ree ress to /ring to t!e attention o' t!e

rest o' t!e "orld t!e situation in Russia.

It is not surrising t!at !eodor ?er,l 7rst started to ad(o$ate ionism during

t!e eriod o' t!e ogroms. ionist ideas rose in t!e Russian mire during t!is time

as (i ;itelman "rites. Cistressed /* an emigration "!i$! t!e* regarded as trading

one exile 'or anot!er& t!e* dare to roose a se$i7$all* e"is! solution& one "!i$!

"ould entail urose'ul emigration "it! t!e goal o' 'ounding a e"is! state t!ere/*

a$!ie(ing international rese$ta/ilit* 'or e"s.89!e ionist ideas us!ed /* ?er,l

and ot!er earl* ionists "ould e(entuall* result in t!e 'orming o' t!e state o' Israel

/ut long a'ter t!e ogroms. e"is! intelle$tuals also resonded to t!e ogroms

and in$reased !ostilit* to e"s in t!e emire. te!en +assed* "rites t!at * its

une H& 1881 issue Ra,s(et !ad gro"n e(en /older. It ran a lead stor* in "!i$! it 7rst

asserted t!at t!e easants arti$iating in t!e ogroms t!oug!t t!e* "ere a$ting in

a$$ordan$e "it! oJ$ial oli$*& and t!en $!ided t!e go(ernment 'or 'ailing to ta)e

a$tion against t!e rioting mo/s.90!e e"is! intelle$tual $ommunit* "it!in Russia

"as a"are o' t!e 'alse allegations t!ro"n against t!e e"is! eole and too) t!e

/old ste o' resonding to t!ose allegations.

@t!er e"s in t!e emire resonded "it! $alls 'or sel'-de'ense. o$ialist-

ionist ideologue 2a!um *r)in "rote an arti$le in Giddis! urging 'ello" e"s to go

out to t!e street "it! "eaons in !and. Poalei ion a$ti(ist #i$!ael ?elern& under

t!e rall*ing $r* Remem/er t!e s!ameO organi,ed e"is! 7g!ting grous in ilna

and ot!er to"ns. In Die(& nineteen-*ear-old Pin!as Cas!e(s)*& "it! t"o ot!er le't-

89 I/in& age 18

90 te(en +assed*& Russian-e"is! Intelle$tuals +on'ront t!e Pogroms o' 1881-83&

age 14E

%9


40/45

"ing ionist student 'riends& aut!ored a letter $alling 'or resistan$e.91#an* e"s

'rom outside t!e Russian emire also /elie(ed t!at sel'-de'ense "as a solution to

t!e ogroms. A letter 'rom an lias #argolis "rote A gun in t!e !and o' a Russian

e" ma* sa(e !is 'amil* 'rom deat!& !is "oman 'rom a 'ate "orse t!an deat! or "ill

at least gi(e !im t!e ;od-gi(en rig!t to do die li)e a !ero in de'ense o' !is o"n.93It

is eas* to understand "!* an Ameri$an e" li)e #argolis "ould 'eel t!is "a*. !ere

"ere 'e" rote$tions against t!e ogroms 'or t!e e"is! eole as t!e oli$e !ad

s!o"n a relu$tan$e to rote$t t!em and in some $ases e(en 6oin t!e rioting and

murdering. !e ogroms and t!e Russian go(ernments ina$tion and in man*

$ases e(en s*mat!* to"ards Anti-emiti$ (iolen$e !ad understanda/l* radi$ali,ed

man* e"s.

e"is! resonses a/road to t!e ogroms are anot!er 'a$tor sin$e

international ressure needed to /e alied on t!e Russian go(ernment to deter

(iolen$e. #onte 2oam Pen)o"er "rites Resonding to a $all 'rom t!e Allian$e

Israelite


41/45

testimon* to t!e enate /roug!t u t!e atro$ities $ommitted against t!e e"is!

eole in Russia.94e"is! re'ugee $ommunities outside t!e Russian emire !eled

/ring attention to t!e ogroms.

!e lega$* o' ogroms and Anti-emitism in Russia is imortant in

understanding not 6ust Russian !istor* 'ollo"ing t!e re(olution /ut "orld !istor* as

"ell. !e ogroms insired e"s to emigrate 'rom t!e Russian mire in large

num/ers and modern oliti$alionism "as /orn during t!is era. !e lega$* also

in$ludes Anti-emiti$ $onsira$* t!eories later em/ra$ed /* t!e !ird Rei$! "!i$!

ultimatel* $ulminated in t!e ?olo$aust /ut also ionism and t!e ultimatel*

su$$ess'ul e"is! sear$! 'or a !omeland. And e(en t!oug! t!e* !a(e long and

"idel* /een disro(ed& 'orgeries and t!eories a/out a se$ret e"is! $onsira$* /ent

on glo/al domination !a(e ersisted into t!e t"ent* 7rst $entur*.


42/45

1.M #argolis& lias& Relie' and Ce'ense& Ne# :ork Times! Ce$em/er %rd& 190H!is "as a !el'ul sour$e in getting t!e erse$ti(e o' e"is! immigrants

li(ing a/road a/out resonding to t!e ogroms.3.M Witte& ergei. The 3emoirs of Count Witte. Armon): #. !are& 1990.

Wittes memoirs "ere use'ul in understanding t!e inner $ir$le o' t!e

Russian go(ernment and t!eir to"ards /ot! e"s and ogroms.%.M N


43/45

@nl* used one essa* 'rom t!is and it "as t!e i/erian arti$le /* Dalmina

/ut it "as a use'ul arti$le.4.M Cietri$!-=o"e& ?ein,. NPogroms in Russia: xlanations& +omarisons&

uggestions.N"e#ish )ocial )tudies. 11. no. 1 L3004M: 1E-3%.

!is "as some"!at use'ul in seeing t!e role o' e$onomi$ resentment as a

'a$tor in (iolen$e ese$iall* to"ards "ealt!ier e"s.H.M ;alai& !muel. N!e e"is! uestion as a Russian Pro/lem: !e Ce/ates in

t!e First tate Cuma&N evolutionary ussia. 1B. no. 1 L3004M: %1-E8.I didnt use t!is sour$e t!at mu$! /ut ;alai did s!o" !o" relu$tant t!e

Russian rig!t "as a/out granting e"s e>ual rig!ts.E.M ;itelman& (i.A Century of Ambivalence. loomington: Indiana harkiv5


44/45

I onl* used t!e arti$le /* ?amm on D!ar)i( /ut as mentioned a/o(e t!at

"as extremel* use'ul in "riting a $oule o' aragra!s a/out a $it* t!at

/u$)ed t!e trends.11.M Dalmina& =illa& !e Possi/ilit* o' t!e Imossi/le: Pogroms in astern

i/eria& 'rom onat!an Ce)el-+!ens Anti&"e#ish +iolence ethinking the

Pogrom in East European


45/45

1E.M Petro(s)*-!tern& Go!anan. N+ontextuali,ing t!e #*ster*: !ree

Aroa$!es to t!e Proto$ols o' t!e lders o' ion.N E@plorations in ussian

and Eurasian

pogroms in russia 1880-1914

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