ABSTRACT

The variety of teaching and learning methods which is used within a course is an important

ingredient in creating a course with interest to students. For effective teaching to take place, a

good method must be adopted by a teacher. A teacher has many options when choosing a style

by which to teach. Few of the method (Project, Role Play and BrainStorming) will be discussed

in this assignment

PROJECT METHOD

A voluntary undertaking which involves construction effort eventuated into objective results

The modern teaching methods make provision for activity and co-operation between members of

a class. This method is based on the philosophy of Pragmatism and the principle of „Learning by

doing‟. In this strategy pupils perform constructive activities in natural condition. A project is a

list of real life that has been imparted into the school. It demands work from the pupils. The class

may be divided into 4-6 groups and each group could be assigned one part of the project

depending on their interest, ability and skill. Care should be taken to see that no pupil is left

without a piece of work

Various Definition

The term project has been defined by a number of educators in their own way. The popular

definitions worth considering are:

1. According to Kilpatrick

“A project is a whole- hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment”.

2. According to Stevenson (1908)

“A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting”.

3. According to Ballard

“A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into the school”.

4. According to Thomas and Lang,

“A project is a Voluntary undertaking which involves constructive effort or thought and

eventuates into subjective results”.

PROJECT METHOD IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES

i. Learning by doing.

ii. Learning by living.

iii. Children learn better through association, cooperation and activity

THE PROJECTS MAY BROADY BE CLASSIFIED AS

Individual and Social (Group) projects:

In individual project every students solve the problem in their own according to their interest,

capacity, attitude and needs. It develops the problem solving qualities individually and not the

social qualities. In the other hand Group projects the problem is solved by the group of pupil in

the class. Here the social, citizenship qualities and synergism are develops. Individual projects

are to be carried out by individuals where as social projects are carried out by a group of

individuals.

Simple and Complex project:

In the simple projects the students are completing only one work at a time. They are also focus

the work in the one subject or one area only. It gives the deep information about the project in a

one angle. The students get deeper knowledge about the problem deeper and broader.

In the complex project the students are carried out more than one work at a time. They are

focuses on the work in various subject and angles. Here the students get the knowledge about the

work in various activities and dimensions.

According to Kilpatrick there are four types of projects. They are:

1. Constructive project:

Practical or physical tasks such as construction of article, making a model, digging the well and

playing drama are done in this type of projects.

2. Aesthetic project:

Appreciation powers of the students are developed in this type of project through the musical

programmes, beautification of something, appreciation of poems and so on.

3. Problematic project:

In this type of project develops the problem solving capacity of the students through their

experiences. It is based on the cognitive domain.

4. Drill project:

It is for the mastery of the skill and knowledge of the students. It increases the work efficacy and

capacity of the students.

Principles

1. Principle of Purposefulness

The project should be purposeful, and that should have some main objective. The

objective should give the enthusiasm and work to the students, otherwise that will be a wastage

of time and energy.

2. Principle of Utility

The project should be useful to the students and the society. It will give some value to the

students. From the good project the students as well as the society get the benefit a lot.

3. Principle of Freedom

The students are free to select the topic and execute the work according to their well and

wish, interest, attitude and capacity. The teacher just a guide and give a guidelines to execute

that.

4. Principle of Activity

Project means the purposeful activity, at the end of the project the students gain

knowledge through their activity. It is based on the principle of learning by doing.

5. Principle of Reality

Project should be real and related to the life situation of the students and the society. Only

then they would be able to complete the project naturally and really. Imaginary problems are not

taken up in the project.

6. Principle of Social Development

A good project focuses society needs, social development, and usefulness to the society.

A single project solves the problem of the thousands of the people or the society.

7. Principle of Planning

The student develops prior planning in advance about the project. They find solutions for

- How? When? What? Where? Why? So, good project develops the problem solving capacity

and prior planning for the execution.

`STEPS

Project method has the following steps:

1. Creating Situation

In the first step teacher creates the proper situation to the students in the class. He puts up

the knowledge about the project method procedure, steps, and uses to the students. After that he

should give the proper motivation through conversation about the day to day life problems to the

students. A project should arise out of a need felt by pupils and it should never be forced on

them. It should be purposeful and significant. It should look important and must be interesting.

2. Selection of the problem

Then the teacher helps the students to select the problem and guide them. Here the

students are having freedom to choose the topic or problem based on their interest and ability.

Before choosing the topic the principles should be taken in to an account.

School tasks are to be as real and as purposeful as the tasks of wider life beyond the

school walls.

They are of such a nature that the pupil is genuinely eager to carry them out in order to

achieve a desirable and clearly realized aim.

Teacher should only tempt the students for a particular project by providing a situation

but the proposal for the project should finally come from students. The teacher must

exercise guidance in selection of the project and if the students make an unwise choice,

the teacher should tactfully guide them for a better project.

3. Planning

The teacher discuss with the students about the problem in various angles and points. He

should create the situation to the discussion with the students and they are allowed to talk freely

and openly. After the free expression of the students‟ opinion about the problem, the teacher

writes down the whole programme of action stepwise on the blackboard. The grouping is made

by the teacher based on the interest and ability of the students. In the process of planning teacher

has to act only as a guide and should give suggestions at times but actual planning be left to the

students.

4. Execution

Once the project has been chosen and the details of the project have been planned, the

teacher should help the students in executing the project according to the plan. The students are

stating their work in this step. They are collecting the relevant information/data and materials at

first. The teacher should give the time and right to the students according to their own speed,

interest and ability. During this step the teacher should carefully supervise the pupils in

manipulative skills to prevent waste of materials and to guard accidents. Teacher should

constantly check up the relation between the chalked out plans and the developing project and as

far as possible spot changes and modification be avoided. If need arises, he will provide the

necessary help and guidelines to the students. He demands the groups to complete the project in

the particular time.

5. Evaluation

Evaluation of the project should be done both by the pupils and the teachers. Here the

students evaluating their task. They determine whether the objects are achieved or not. After that

they criticize and express their feeling about the task freely. The evaluation of the project has to

be done in the light of plans, difficulties in the execution and achieved results. They report the

planning, selecting the task, execution and the entire thing are discussed in the class. The entire

things are collectively reported to the teacher. This step is very useful because as a result of the

project the pupils know the values of the information.

6. Reporting and Recording

It is the last step of the project method in which each and every step of the work are

reported. The reported things are recorded in a certain order in a book form. The record is useful

for the further use and future reference about the project. It reveals many ideas about the concern

project.

It should include the proposal, plan and its discussion, duties allotted to different students and

how far they were carried out by them. It should also include the details of places visited and

surveyed guidance for future and all other possible details. The book formatted report is

submitted to the teacher at the end.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

1. In project method of teaching the role of a teacher is that of a guide, friend and

philosopher.

2. He helps the students in solving their problems just like an elder brother.

3. He encourages his students to work collectively, and co-operatively.

4. He also helps his students to avoid mistakes.

5. He makes it a point that each member of the group contributed something to the

completion of the project and in his process helps the shy and weaker students to work

along with their classmates.

6. If the students face failure during execution of some steps of the project the teacher

should not execute any portion of the project but should suggest them some better

methods of techniques that may be used by them next time for the success of the project.

7. Teacher should always remain alert and active during execution step and see that the

project goes to completion successfully.

8. During execution of the project teacher should maintain a democratic atmosphere.

9. Teacher must be well – read and well-informed so that he can help the students to the

successful completion of the project.

ADVANTAGES

It is a method of teaching based on psychological laws of learning.

It is students centered, activity based method.

Students involves whole-heartedly in the learning process according to their needs,

attitude, interest and ability.

This method is related to the life situation of the students.

This method develops the problem solving ability to the students.

It imbibes the spirit of cooperation as it is a cooperative venture. Teacher and students

join in the project.

Stimulates interest in natural as also man made situations. Moreover, the interest is

spontaneous and not under any compulsions.

It develops self-confidence and self-discipline and spirit of enquiry.

A project can be used to arouse interest in a particular topics as it blends school life with

outside world. It provides situations in which the students come in direct contact with

their environment.

It makes the students as independent.

It gives the real work experience to the students.

It develops the social qualities and synergism in the students‟ heart.

It develops the responsibility realization of the students.

By this the students organizes the planning things in an order.

LIMITATIONS

It is a time consuming method.

It is difficult to complete the prescribed syllabus in a particular time.

It is a very costly method as it involves tours, excursions, purchase of apparatus and

equipments etc.

All topics are not able to teach through this method.

It is not applicable for all the schools.

Good textbooks on these lines have not yet been produced.

The method of organizing instruction is un-systematized and thus the regular time table

of work will be upset.

Sometimes the projects may be to ambitions and beyond pupils capacity to accomplish.

In the project planning and execution of the project the teacher is required to put in much

more work in comparison to other methods of teaching.

It needs so many materials for the execution

CONCLUSION

The project method provides a practical approach to learning of both theoretical and practical

problems. This method is more suitable for Primary and Middle classes. A restircted use of this

method can also be made for High or Higher Secondary classes. This method may be tried along

with formal class-room teaching without disturbing the school time-table.

ROLE PLAYING

INTRODUCTION

The presently popular technique, role playing, traces back to the psychotherapy of the 1930s.

From that narrow beginning, role playing has spread to many and varied forms of education from

the primary levels of the elementary school to the upper echelons in managerial training of

business executives. Many teachers confuse role playing and drama. Although they are similar,

they are also very distinct in style. Perhaps the most strategic point of difference is the handling

of the subject matter: genuine drama usually requires a script, whereas role playing retains the

element of spontaneous or at least extemporaneous reaction.

Role may be defined as the way one behaves in a given position and situation. In this students are

allowed to imitate the experiences of the others. Pupils are assigned roles without any practice

and pupils play the roles. This method gives a recreation to the pupils and emotions of the pupils

are also expressed In teaching subjects like history, civics, literature and sciences this method is

used successfully. By using this method, cognitive and affective objectives can be achieved.

DEFINITION

Morris (2003) has suggested that “students feel empathy regarding events in the past when they

act out the situation, and make connections between the character they play and real situations”

(p 48) empathy is vital for students to make learning meaningful.

The Dictionary of Education explains role-playing as "an instructional technique involving a

spontaneous portrayal (acting out) of a situation, condition, or circumstances by selected

members of a learning group." The situation to which the person responds may be either

structured or unstructured.

Aronson and Carlsmith described the role playing study as, “An experiment in which the subject

is asked to behave as if he [or she] were a particular person in a particular situation- (1968, p.

26).

The principle behind role-playing is that the student assumes a particular personality of a

different person, such as a historical character. Role-playing goes by many names: acting,

improvisation, dramatic play, pretend play, socio-drama, etc. Role playing as a teaching

methodology is the conscious acting out and discussion of the role in a group. In the classroom a

problem situation is briefly acted out so that the individual student can identify with the

characters.

McDaniel (2000) says there are four basic elements that are essential for the success of any

role-playing activity (p 357).

1. The first element is that the activity builds on knowledge the students already possess about a

particular historical context (McDaniel, 2000, p 357). A teacher cannot expect students to role-

play about something they have no prior knowledge of.

2. The second element is to design the roles yourself to maximize student involvement and

student conflict. Having conflicting perspectives is a must (McDaniel, 2000, p 358).

3. The third element is to set up a specific situation. Do not let the students go without giving

them a focal point for debate (McDaniel, 2000, p 359).

4. The last element is the instructor‟s limited involvement and willingness to be flexible. The

instructor needs to guide the students along, but not overbear the conversation and let the

students take their own path to understanding (McDaniel, 2000, p 360).

By following these four basic elements, any educator can have a successful role-playing activity.

Principles for Effective Role Playing

As a teaching technique, role playing is based on the philosophy that meanings are in people, not

in words or symbols. If that philosophy is accurate, we must first of all share the meanings, then

clarify our understandings of each other‟s meanings, and finally, if necessary, change our

meanings.

In the language of phenomenological psychology, this has to do with changing the self concept.

The self concept is best changed through direct involvement in a realistic and life-related

problem situation rather than through hearing about such situations from others.

Creating a teaching situation which can lead to the change of self concepts requires a distinct

organizational pattern. One helpful structure for role playing follows:

1. Preparation

a. Define the problem

b. Create a readiness for the role(s)

c. Establish the situation

d. Cast the characters

e. Brief and warm up

f. Consider the training

2. Playing

g. Acting

h. Stopping

i. Involving the audience

j. Analyzing the discussion

k. Evaluating

The teacher must identify the situation clearly so that both the characters and the audience

understand the problem at hand. In casting the characters, the wise teacher will try to accept

volunteers rather than assign roles. Students must realize that acting ability is not at stake here

but rather the spontaneous discharge of how one thinks the character of his role would react in

the defined situation.

Players may be instructed publicly so that the audience knows what to expect or privately so that

the audience can interpret the meaning of their behavior. Be sure to allow for creativity of the

actors within their character roles and do not overstructure the situation.

The discussion and analysis of the role playing situation depends upon how well we involve the

audience. Key questions may be asked by the leader and/or buzz groups may be formed. All

members of the group (actors and the audience) should participate, and the reactions of the actors

may be profitably compared to those of the audience.

The audience is just as much involved in the learning situation as the actors are. In the analysis

and discussion time, the audience should provide possible solutions to the realistic problem

situations which surface.

It is important to evaluate role playing in the light of the prescribed goals. Categorizing behavior

is often overdone and gets in the way of the learning process. Evaluation should proceed on both

group and personal levels, raising questions concerning the validity of the original purpose.

Throughout the entire process it will be necessary to deal with certain problems which arise in

role playing situations. The backward, silent member must be encouraged to contribute. Create

an atmosphere in which he is unafraid to share ideas, confident that no one will laugh at his

contributions or harshly criticize his conclusions.

The overbearing monopolizer must be curtailed in the discussion phase of role playing lest he

dominate the group and thereby quash the dynamic, Solving this problem may require some

personal counseling outside of class. Tension and conflict in the group may not always be bad.

Sometimes these elements act as a stimulant to thinking. There is such a thing as “creative

tension,” and it is frequently found in a role playing situation as group dynamic emerges.

At the end of the discussion time the group should collectively measure its effectiveness in

reaching biblical solutions to the role problem posed at the beginning. The techniques of role

playing afford another approach to involving students in their own learning process toward the

clarification of self concepts, evaluation of behavior, and aligning of that behavior with reality.

Role Play is used in a variety of ways:

a) A small group enacts a role-play about a situation while other learners observe. A discussion

follows that enactment. In this use, it is similar to a demonstration where learning occurs through

observation. Such role-play can be enacted by the trainers themselves, a few outsiders, or a

handful of learners, with or without trainers.

b) Secondly, role-play is used to stimulate discussion on complex issues. A brief enactment by

trainers or learners or both can be used to stimulate further group discussion on similar issuer and

experiences that learners share. This method of learning is essentially group discussion where

role-play merely acts as a stimulant or catalyst for the discussion that follows. In this use, it is

similar to an aid like charts, video clipping, etc.

c) In certain situations, a role-play is also used to practice some skills. For example. The adult

education instructor can be trained to practice how to motivate adult learners by enacting

different roles. The prime method of learning here is by practicing and receiving feedback from

learners and trainers after that practice.

d) In the fourth way, a role-play is a re-enactment of past experiences. In this sense, all

learners are involved to enact an issue or a situation about which they are familiar in their past.

For example, a group of 25 illiterate women learners can be divided into 5 sub-groups to prepare

and re-enact the experience of being a wife in the family. Since all the learners share this

experience and all of them are involved in re-enactment, learning occurs here

through the twin steps of preparation and re-enactment.

This approach is particularly useful where learners share a somewhat similar experience and that

experience or issue is difficult to recall because of its emotional valence. It can also be used

where the possibility of recall of past experience is likely to be uneven among learners. This use

of re-enactment as role-play is particularly apt for issues dealing with complex emotional and

attitudinal aspects of learning. Obviously, the choice of a particular use of role-play depends on

the learning agenda, group of learners and trainer's capacity. But it is important to remember that

the fourth type of use mentioned above implies learning from re-enactment of past experience,

which can be a powerful method if the focus of learning is awareness

ADVANTAGES

•It encourages individuals, while in role, to reflect upon their knowledge of a subject. As such,

role-play is an excellent teaching method for reviewing material at the end of a course of study.

It is energizing. It gives life and immediacy to academic material that can be largely descriptive

and/or theoretical.

• It helps the suppressed and illiterate to express their feelings

• It is simple and low cost

• It focuses on problems which are very real in nature

• It presents complex issues simply and in a short while

• It does not need material or advance preparation

Individuals are required to use appropriate concepts and arguments as defined by their

role. As roles change, so might relevant concepts and arguments. Students may come, as

a consequence, to appreciate more fully the relevance of diverse opinion, and where and

how it is formed.

Participation helps embed concepts. The importance of creating an active learning

environment is well recognized if the objective is one of deep, rather than surface

learning. Role-playing can make a valuable contribution in this process.

Values of Role Playing

Role playing can be used with students of most ages. The complexity of the role situations must

be minimized in using the method with children. But if we keep it simple for their limited

attention spans, role playing can be used even in teaching preschoolers.

Role playing allows people to make mistakes in a nonthreatening environment. They can test

several solutions to very realistic problems, and the application is immediate. It also fulfills some

of the very basic principles of the teaching-learning process such as learner involvement and

intrinsic motivation. A positive climate often results in which one can see himself as others see

him.

The involvement of the role playing participants can create both an emotional and intellectual

attachment to the subject matter at hand. If a skillful teacher has accurately matched the problem

situation to the needs of his group, the solving of realistic life problems can be expected.

Role playing can often create a sense of community within the class. Although at first it may

seem a threatening method, once the class learns to share a mutual confidence and

commitment to the learning process, the sharing of analysis over the role situations will

develop a camaraderie never possible in monological teaching methods such as the lecture

DISADVANTAGES

• There is a possibility of it becoming entertainment which vitiates learning

• Participants can get too involved in their roles and later loose objectivity during analysis

• Acting can become an end in itself and participants can overact or distort the roles

• That the observers need to observe must be explained clearly or else the discussion, which

occurs later on the basis of this observation, will be inadequate.

Problems in Role Playing

Perhaps the major drawback to teaching by role playing is the insecurity of class members. Some

may react negatively to participating in a situation which will be discussed and possibly

criticized by other members of the class. And role playing takes time. The class discussion of a

five-to-ten-minute role playing situation may extend to several times the length of the situation

itself. Sometimes extremely beneficial results may accrue. At other times, because of ineffective

performance on the part of the players, or mishandling on the part of an unprepared teacher, the

outcome may only be a superficial rehash of what everyone already knows about the problem.

The relationship of the people in the group is a crucial factor in the success of role playing. At

times it may emerge as a negative factor. For example, previous interpersonal difficulties

experienced by group members may arise in class to corrupt the role playing situation. Also, if

the group has people of different status, they may be reluctant to become involved for fear of

being humiliated before the members of the class who are smarter or more popular.

These difficulties with the method are formidable, but they are not insurmountable. Nor are they

so extensive that they should prohibit us from experimenting with role playing. The potential

benefits of the method quickly overbalance the difficulties which seem so apparent in the initial

preparation stages.

Guidelines for Maximum Utilization

1. Design the situation being utilized in sufficient detail in advance of the class session.

2. Define the roles in terms of the situation, keeping in mind learner characteristics. (Actually,

doing both numbers 1 and 2 in written form will be worth the effort.)

3. The actors should be given a short time to get their thoughts together.

4. The class members who are to observe should take notes and be instructed in what to look for.

5. Upon completion of the activity, evaluation of the students' performance should take place.

6. Certain portions of the activity may be improved with re- enactment.

7. In a "hot" display in which emotions get out of hand, a simple reversal of roles can accomplish

much.

8. An atmosphere of freedom and security must exist in the classroom.

At the end of role-playing

Role-plays can become charged with emotion. Bringing people 'out' of their roles is of

paramount importance, otherwise negative or hostile feelings may persist, causing continued

discomfort and anxiety.

Techniques for doing this include:

• Engaging in discussion of a totally unrelated topic to promote interaction that brings the group

back to the 'here and now'

• Allowing further discussion of any issue of concern

• Allowing objective feedback on aspects of the portrayal of the roles and how real the situation

felt

• Asking actors and observers what they liked about the interaction and what might have been

done differently

• Asking the class what they learnt from the role-play

• Drawing the class' attention back to the objective, or to the main points that the role-play was to

demonstrate

BRAIN STORMING

INTRODUCTION

The teacher assigns some problem to the pupils all the pupils think over it independently and

give their views. It makes no difference whether the answers are correct or not. Teacher writes

the views of the children on the black board. Finally the answer is evolved. This method

increases the knowledge of the pupils and encourages independent thinking.

DEFINITION

Brainstorming is a technique for generating new ideas on a topic, usually a problem that seems

hard to solve. The rules for brainstorming are designed to help people be creative and

spontaneous in their thinking so that as many ideas as possible, are generated. It was invented in

1941 by Alex Osborn, an advertising executive, in his book "Applied Imagination", who wanted

to devise a method that would encourage people to spark off new ideas, without inhibitions. He

defined brainstorming as "a conference technique by which a group attempts to find a solution

for a specific problem by amassing all the ideas spontaneously by its members".

This process, he discovered, allowed far more ideas to be generated than in any normal

discussion and that by producing more ideas, people had a better chance of finding useful ones:

from quantity came quality. A key part of the process is to come up with wild or silly ideas

because these in turn can spark off really useful ones.

Brainstorming is effective for: -sensitive and controversial issues that need to be explored

-encouraging pupils who are quite and hesitant to enter into discussions

-generating a large number of ideas as quickly as possible.

Rules for Brainstorming

No Criticism: Allowed People tend to automatically evaluate each suggested idea--their

own as well as others. Both internal and external criticism are to be avoided while

brainstorming. Neither positive nor negative comments are allowed. Either type inhibits

the free flow of thought and requires time which interferes with the next rule. Write each

spoken idea down as it is given and move on.

Work for Quantity: Alex Osborn stated that "Quantity breeds quality." People must

experience a "brain drain" (get all the common responses out of the way) before the

innovative, creative ideas can surface; therefore, the more ideas, the more likely they are

to be quality ideas.

Hitchhiking Welcome: Hitchhiking occurs when one member's idea produces a similar

idea or an enhanced idea in another member. All ideas should be recorded.

Freewheeling Encouraged: Outrageous, humorous, and seemingly unimportant ideas

should be recorded. It is not uncommon for the most off-the-wall.

Brainstorming is an excellent strategy to:

Use in the inclusional classroom

Tap into prior knowledge

Give all students a chance to express their ideas

Eliminate fear of failures

Show respect for each other

Try something without fear

Tap into individuality and creativity

Eliminate the fear of risk taking

Here are some basic rules to follow when conducting a brainstorm in the classroom with a small

or whole group of students:

1. There are no wrong answers

2. Try to get as many ideas as possible

3. Record all ideas

4. Do not express your evaluation on any idea

brainstorming process

1. Define and agree the objective.

2. Brainstorm ideas and suggestions having agreed a time limit.

3. Categorise/condense/combine/refine.

4. Assess/analyse effects or results.

5. Prioritise options/rank list as appropriate.

6. Agree action and timescale.

7. Control and monitor follow-up.

In other words:

plan and agree the brainstorming aim

Ensure everyone participating in the brainstorm session understands and agrees the aim of the

session (eg, to formulate a new job description for a customer services clerk; to formulate a

series of new promotional activities for the next trading year; to suggest ways of improving

cooperation between the sales and service departments; to identify costs saving opportunities that

will not reduce performance or morale, etc). Keep the brainstorming objective simple. Allocate a

time limit. This will enable you to keep the random brainstorming activity under control and on

track.

manage the actual brainstorming activity

Brainstorming enables people to suggest ideas at random. Your job as facilitator is to encourage

everyone to participate, to dismiss nothing, and to prevent others from pouring scorn on the

wilder suggestions (some of the best ideas are initially the daftest ones - added to which people

won't participate if their suggestions are criticised). During the random collection of ideas the

facilitator must record every suggestion on the flip-chart. Use Blu-Tack or sticky tape to hang the

sheets around the walls. At the end of the time limit or when ideas have been exhausted, use

different coloured pens to categorise, group, connect and link the random ideas. Condense and

refine the ideas by making new headings or lists. You can diplomatically combine or include the

weaker ideas within other themes to avoid dismissing or rejecting contributions (remember

brainstorming is about team building and motivation too - you don't want it to have the reverse

effect on some people). With the group, assess, evaluate and analyse the effects and validity of

the ideas or the list. Develop and prioritise the ideas into a more finished list or set of actions or

options.

implement the actions agreed from the brainstorming

Agree what the next actions will be. Agree a timescale, who's responsible. After the session

circulate notes, monitor and give feedback. It's crucial to develop a clear and positive outcome,

so that people feel their effort and contribution was worthwhile. When people see that their

efforts have resulted in action and change, they will be motivated and keen to help again.

Brainstorming Sessions

Brainstorming sessions allow students to harness the power of groupthink and avoid the

frustration that comes along with an inability to think of a topic or solution. Brainstorming is an

effective technique commonly used when introducing concepts or beginning a project. While

brainstorming can take many forms, it traditionally consists of the composition of a simple,

group-created list. To brainstorm, teachers present a question or topic to the class and allow

volunteers to make suggestions, recording the ideas of the class on a poster or chalkboard. This

process not only serves as an effective way to create a comprehensive list, but also allows

students to see the process of thinking in action

Brainstorm Ideas for Creative Writing

Brainstorming is a creative problem solving technique that relies on the background and

experiences of students in the group. It can be performed as a classroom, small group, or

individual activity. One of the key objectives of brainstorming is to write down whatever comes

to mind, not focus on what the correct answers might be.

When using brainstorming to create a list of ideas for a creative writing assignment it is

important that students recognize that their imagination is more important that worrying about

what makes sense. Small groups may be more productive than individual or class-wide

brainstorming if the group is chosen so that at least one member is comfortable sharing ideas or

contributing unconventional answers.

An example of creating ideas using brainstorming would be to divide students into small groups

of no more than four, with one designated as the idea recorder. Then, give them one to two

minutes to write down everything that comes to mind about a topic, such as, “sailing.” At the end

of that time instruct students to arrange their ideas in order from dullest to silliest, craziest to

most boring, or another order that will enforce the idea of creativity without looking for a right or

wrong answer. Students would then choose one of the top three ideas around which to create

their writing assignment. Then ideas are written down or spoken, it gives them substance and

allows the brainstormer to more easily consider the validity of an idea. Even if a half-baked or

sloppy idea is thrown out, there is always the chance that this will lead to bigger, better, and

more well thought out ideas.

To brainstorm in a group, start with a problem or kernel of an idea. A simple idea to brainstorm

in a group is,What is art? It is a simple and esoteric question that can be a great start to any class

that alleges to teach art. Write down the ideas, perhaps checking ideas that are similar to those

already written down but in different words.

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF BRAINSTORMING

Structured Brainstorming

With this approach, every person in the team gives an idea as their turn comes up in rotation or

pass until their next turn. This approach is useful in 'encouraging' the more reluctant people to

participate but may create a certain amount of pressure.

Unstructured Brainstorming

Simply, team members give ideas as they come to mind. This method may be seen as more fun

and more relaxed. It risks being taken over by the more dominant team members - facilitators

need to monitor this.

Negative (or Reverse) Brainstorming

Negative brainstorming involves analyzing a short list of existing ideas, rather than the initial

massing of ideas as in conventional brainstorming. Examining potential failures is relevant when

an idea is new or complex or when there is little margin for error. Negative brainstorming raises

such questions as: "What could go wrong with this project?"

Reverse brain-storming is valuable when it is difficult to identify direct solutions to a

problem.

After clearly defining a problem or challenge, ask "How could I cause this problem?" or "How

could I make things worse?" As with brainstorming, allow ideas to flow freely without rejecting

any. Evaluating these negative ideas can lead to possible positive solutions

Nominal group technique

The nominal group technique is a category of brainstorming which is conducted in a way that all

participants are able to give an identical say in the process of gathering ideas.

Ideas are gathered in the nominal technique by confirming a level of anonymity. The ideas are

than communicated by the facilitator and thereafter voted by the panel of participants. This

process used is called distillation.

Post to distillation, the ideas which have been voted, and considered as highly vital should be

forwarded for further brainstorming sessions. For instance, the top ideas could be forwarded to

specialized brainstorming session in specific: departments, units or groups.

Group Passing Technique

This is a traditional technique of brainstorming used. It is constituted by a group of people who

meet together. Then all people will write their ideas on the same piece of paper. The piece of

paper will be passed to each member present. The participants will continue to contribute by

writing additional ideas on the piece of paper each time they receive it. The paper should be

handed-over to the person sitting at your side. This circulation of the piece of paper is usually

done in a clockwise direction. Once everyone have contributed their ideas, a broad solution or a

bunch of alternative solution might be disposable.

The” Idea Book”, uses the same technique, whereby a book is used to gather ideas. The first page

of the book gives a brief description of the problem. People will afterward contribute to solve the

problem by writing in the book once they receive it. This process shall continue until the list of

ideas becomes exhausted. The problem should thus be solved based on the alternatives gathered

in the “Idea Book”.

Team Idea Mapping Method

The team idea mapping method is based on association. The benefit of this method is that it

ensures a large volume of different ideas. It does also allow a broader perspective in the variety

of ideas.

The topic must primarily be meticulously defined. The methodology of team idea mapping is as

follows:

• Participant are suppose to brainstorm individually

• The ideas shall be gathered independently and then combined to form an immense map of

ideas, called an idea map.

Eventually, when all candidates are brought together to evaluate the idea map, a broader

understanding is established. The participant shall now share and communicate the purpose

(meaning) of each of their idea(s). At this phase even more ideas can be construed. The team can

lastly prioritize and take action based on the best ideas presented.

Online Brainstorming

Online brainstorming or simply electronic brainstorming is the modern version of brainstorming.

It is done virtually, whereby people can be connected from different region and countries. There

are many mediums available to perform such an activity. They are mainly:

• Email

• Forums

• Online forms

• Peer-to-peerChat

• software Internet

• Video-conferencing

Online brainstorming is conducted in the same way as traditional brainstorming the only

difference is the absence of physical or visual presence, assuming video-conferencing is not

being implemented.

In online brainstorming, the moderator does play a more pivotal role. The facilitator has to

communicate with each member, by sending the question, while the participant will usually

respond directly to the moderator. It is evident that traditional barrier, such as apprehension, is

removed but other aspects such as clarification can be made harder to elucidate. Electronic

brainstorming facilitates the coordination of a large group of participants in a session and can

thus be proven to be highly efficient.

Directed brainstorming

This is another type of brainstorming technique. Directed brainstorming can be performed

manually or with the use of IT (Electronic means). In this method the criteria and conditions for

evaluating an excellent idea is known before the session is conducted (Known as solution space).

As the criteria have already been established it can purposely hinder the process of ideation.

The participants are given a sheet of paper (if manually done) or an electronic form. The

brainstorming question (problem) is then communicated. The candidates are given a respond

time, once the respond time is over the papers are swapped to other member‟s conduction the

brainstorming. The other participant will evaluate the idea and try to improve the idea based on

the initial criteria. The swapping process is continued for at least three to four consecutive

rounds.

Individual brainstorming

Individual brainstorming is done independently. The most common method of executing

individual brainstorming is through free speaking, free writing, spider web, and free writing.

Individual brainstorming is often represented through diagrams. Individual brainstorming is

considered as more effective than traditional brainstorming.

PROCEDURAL STEPS

Preactive phase

Know why you want to run a brainstorming session. One of the first things you need to

determine is whether you need to use a brainstorming session at all. A brainstorming session

should be used for generating lots of new ideas and solutions.

It should not be used for analysis or for decision making. Of course you will need to analyze and

judge the ideas but this is done afterwards and the analysis process does not involve

brainstorming techniques.

SELECTION OF TOPIC:

A brainstorming session must be targeted to a specific topic or else you run the risk of

downgrading any future sessions. A topic or problem can be selected by the teacher or by the

class, but should be one that will elicit good response by the group or groups. It might best be

phrased as a question. You must define the problem area or the opportunity area you want to

create ideas for. You must draw up a specific probortunity (problem/opportunity) statement

which describes what you are trying to achieve. This statement must not even suggest what a

typical solution might be because this will hinder the idea generation.

It is perfectly acceptable to propose a brainstorming session to investigate a whole area of

interest which you wish to explore. You will have no fixed perceptions about the area and can

often discover new ideas and markets precisely because you didn't follow the normal training

path. Creative thinkers often suggest that before you do research in a specific area, you should

generate your own ideas because if you follow what everyone else has done, you will follow the

normal line of thinking and come up with the same or similar answers

Once you have an initial probortunity statement you should decide whether a brainstorming

session is appropriate. The time and costs spent brainstorming can sometimes be saved by just

implementing a currently known solution and spending your valuable time on more crucial

probortunities. Some problems are best solved by computer simulation or mathematical

calculations because they do not need a change in perception. If you are only going to ignore

what everyone else suggests then you shouldn't waste their, or yours.

Decide how you will run the session and who will take part

Assume you now have a probortunity statement describing what you are trying to achieve or

investigate. You have also decided that brainstorming is the most valid approach to your

investigation.

Now you need to decide how you will run the session and who will take part. It is important to

adjust the style and management of the session depending on the topic and the participants

involved.

First you should decide who will lead the session - the facilitator. This person needs to introduce

the session, to keep an eye on the time and to make sure the rules are obeyed. This person will

facilitate the session to make it run smoothly and ensure that the participants feel comfortable

and join in the process. They will also be responsible for restarting the creative process if it slows

down.

Next you should decide who will take part Group sizes are often number between 4 and 30

people. More people means more opportunity for diversity but can lead to nervousness or to

frustration if each person is not given enough individual time to suggest ideas.

Prepare the room and materials

The choice of room will obviously depend on what is available and we will leave this to your

creativity if the ideal room is not available. We make the following suggestions and you should

adapt them to your own conditions: to make brainstorming easy. You can use it to start your

search for new ideas and is the stimulus required to spark off an infinite number of new ideas.

Arrange people to be seated in a circle with no "head of the table". Ideally, a round- shaped table

is best, though a set of tables in a circle is the usual solution. Otherwise a broad U shape layout is

fine. This makes everybody feel equal and when people's ideas start to flow you will find that the

person initiating the session becomes part of the group and can play an equal role without

pushing any authority. You could have flipcharts just behind the members (approximately one

per two people) and with lots of coloured pens. Each person should also have a notepad and pen

so that they can write down their personal ideas at the same time as ideas shouted out by other

people are being written down elsewhere. Make sure no ideas are lost at any stage..

You may well need an overhead projector if you intend to display the probortunity description

and any background information or pictures

A room which has space around the table in which to move about, but not one which makes the

group feel small in comparison, is ideal. Comfortable chairs and tables coupled with

refreshments on a nearby table are useful. Providing an object in the middle of the circle gives

people something to fix on while thinking and removes the need to look into the face of someone

else while suggesting an idea.

A dedicated secretary (or two) whose only job is to grab and write down the ideas is extremely

useful. This releases some pressure on the facilitator who can spend more time guiding the

process.

Alterations for smaller groups:

Assign class members to different groups which are arranged eliminate any unnecessary

interference with one another. Effective operational size of each group to select a chairman and

one or more secretaries, the number of secretaries depending upon the size of the group. The

number should be adequate to assure that all individual responses will be recorded. Smaller

groups are easier to control but there are less people to keep the process moving smoothly

onward. Advanced techniques are very useful to kick start the flow of ideas.

A very small group is more like a quick-fire conversation and could be seated round a small table

with a large pad of paper covering the whole table surface. Everyone can add their ideas at the

same time. Try to move the group close together so they don't feel remote from each other.

Alterations for larger groups

With large groups it's impossible to arrange people in a circle without them being too far away to

feel part of the group. In this situation you will need to have a theatre-style seating pattern with

the facilitator at the front.. If you want to brainstorm with such a large group then you need to

have everyone write their ideas down on a notepad or on a computer, use some ideas as stimuli

to help people with their personal brainstorming and then gather the pads in afterwards.

Prepare the participants and issue invites

When you know who you will be inviting and where it is going to be held, you need to invite

everyone. Send out invites by post or by email telling people the time and the place and how

long the session will last. Suggest just the most suitable time and location for you and specify a

date by which they must have replied. Tell them you want a reply whether their answer is yes or

no. Let them know the topic of the brainstorming session and let them know how much you

appreciate their assistance. You may need to remind people to reply just before the deadline.

Thank everyone for replying and tell them the final meeting place and time and invite those who

say they cannot attend to turn up if they change their situation.

You are now ready to run your brainstorming session. Because of your initial preparation your

session will run a lot smoother. The next stages of this training course will tell you how to

actually run a successful brainstorming session.

Active Phase

Brainstorming sessions are meant to serve as a toll to produce „ideas‟ that are inspired through

creative means. When conducting a brainstorming session, consider the following as key

components necessary for an effective methodology: The team must create a set of rulesfor the

session. Ensure your team has read and understands the rules.

Conduct a practice session to teach these brainstorming techniques if most of your team

members are new to this concept. Brainstorming ideas for the practice session can be found by

clicking on the link

INITIATION: Being the discussion by making or by having the chairman make a positive

statement relative to the problem. This should serve to stimulate the “train of thought” for the

participants. Announce the objective. And explain the rules: No negativity. Add to ideas. Say it

rather than censor it- Write the objective, what you want to accomplish. Distribute it to attendees,

and post it for all to see during the session. Write the initial topic on a flipchart, whiteboard,

overhead as long as everyone can see it. The better defined and more clearly stated the problem,

the more likely that everyone will agree on the issue or statement being brainstormed

Different groups might work with the same or different topics. Insure a clear understanding of

the problem by all students. Provide examples where needed to insure comprehension. Allow

approximately 30 seconds after the problem has been presented to the group for each individual

to organize has thinking on the subject

Stating your challenge is the key component for an effective brainstorming session. Often,

participants are not aware of the issue at hand, which in turn leads to solutions that do not solve

the problem at hand. The goal should be to bring all participating members on the same platform

by clearly stating the challenge at hand. Be sure to ensure that the moderator is clear and concise

in addressing the challenge and running a effective session. Define the approach for the class

setting forth some anticipated outcomes of the brain storming session. Identify any problems that

might likely be encountered

Leave Criticism At The Door

In order to think like a creative, don‟t forget your confidence! It is vital that criticism be left

outside the session. It only harbors negativity and it will not result in any teamwork. It can also

prevent participants from producing ideas as well as sharing them in a group. The ideas that are

presented should be used as a benchmark to welcome an increase in discussion for a viable

solution.

Enthusiastic Facilitator

The chairman should maintain only a passive leadership role. He is responsible for keeping the

group on the subject, stopping any criticism of ideas and generally enforcing the rules prescribed

for the technique. The secretary or secretaries must record all comments that are made by

individuals within the group.

The facilitator sets the environment and the motivation for participants. An enthusiastic

facilitator will produce dynamic participation and ensure that the conversation remains on track.

• Determine the session facilitator; generally the team leader facilitates the session but it could be

a Six Sigma Black or Green Belt if the team leader doesn‟t have experience in conducting the

session

Use Voice Recording

When ideas roll, they roll. It is very common for a great idea to be forgotten when repeated

twice. Therefore, it is always a great idea to record the brainstorming session. These recordings

can be used as a reference and analysis. • Determine prior to the session who will be writing

down the team‟s responses.

: All ideas presented should be recorded by the secretary or secretaries during the discussion.

Assist each group as needed in cooperation with the chairman. The discussion might continue for

from five to perhaps 30 minutes, depending upon the nature of the problem, the pace of the

group or groups and the enthusiasm of the participants. A one minute warning signal should be

given prior to the lapse of time

Comfortable Environment

Gather your team in a conference room. This is preferred to a classroom setting. A classroom

can be used by arranging the tables and chairs in a “U-Shape”. This encourages participationThe

environment can make or break your brainstorming session. Your participants should be in an

environment that has minimal distractions.

Keep To The Time Limit

Conduct a brainstorm session with a time constraint. It will build a high performance team

environment. The time constraint will give participants a sense of urgency to develop ideas that

provide results. Creativity requires a great deal of imagination and innovation, which are key in

brainstorming. The mind can only stay stimulated for a certain period of time. Which means, if

your sessions are stretched out to more then thirty minutes, it may not be as effective. However,

you can also consider splitting up the sessions over at different times throughout the day or

stretch it out over several days.

Post Active Phase

Ending the Session

After the designated time has elapsed, allow approximately two minutes for each group to

categorize its ideas and eliminate any overlapping suggestions. The chairman and other members

of the group should assist the secretary in synthesizing key ideas

After the session, collect all the responses and categorize them. Remove any repetitive responses.

The Affinity Diagram is a great tool for placing responses into appropriate categories. Then

compare the responses against the decision criteria to create a list of potential solutions. Team

voting is one way to determine the best possible solution

Discussion might be accomplished under teacher direction or with the active participation of

each group chairman. Briefly review and summarize the major ideas presented in the session.

Determine the extent to which objectives were met. Make appropriate application to the work

under study. Plan for any follow-up activities which might relate to the lesson. Record derived

from the experience.

Thank everyone. Clarify any points and get a consensus on which ideas should be taken further,

what the actions and timescales are. Make sure people know that ALL ideas will be kept and the

team leaves the session with the sense that "something has been achieved

Brain Storming Rules

No idea too stupid

There is an ideal solution to your problem and brainstorming is the key to finding it. However,

discussing, criticising or generally dismissing ideas as they come up reduces your chance of

finding the secret treasure and render your brainstorming session useless.

Watch the clock

A little time pressure is good for brainstorming, so agree a maximum time for brainstorming, say

10 to 20 minutes, and stick to it. Start and finish on time, and encourage a brisk pace to maximise

the time invested in this activity. Maybe assign a time-keeper to own this task.

Record your progress

All your good ideas are wasted hot air if they are not recorded methodically and more

importantly, legibly. Consider using brainstorming software such asMindManager © , post-it

notes, flip charts or other such methods for getting your ideas down. Whatever you choose, make

sure you bring all the necessary tools and materials with you!

Quantity not quality

The aim of brainstorming is to churn out as many ideas as you have time for BEFORE you do

any reality check on their merits. Through quantity you will find quality, even though it might

take some time and effort to get there. Ideas breed ideas.

. Encourage the right mindset and have fun

Consider using an ice-breaker or creativity exercise to get group members into the right frame of

mind and away from creativity blocking thoughts of unanswered emails, to-do lists and other

priorities. And once brainstorming has started, remember performance anxiety will dry up

creative juices quicker than a quick thing, so make sure the atmosphere is kept light and fluffy

and above all, fun.

Let no good idea go unheard.

Not everyone enjoys brainstorming and group problem solving. Shyness, fear of looking stupid

or silly may keep people quiet. Brush up on your facilitation skills and avoid the risk of great

ideas being un-spoken or unheard.

General precautions

Make sure you're focusing on the right challenge. Invite people with diverse points of view. Start

with a fun icebreaker to help change mindset. Establish "deep listening" as a ground rule. Model

it. Tell stories, play music, invite humor. Go offsite. Put a "meeting in progress" sign on the

door. Collect all PDAs/cell phones. Establish "no email" ground rule. Encourage individuality,

risk taking, and wild ideas. Ask people to leave their titles at the door.

Start with divergent thinking. End with convergent thinking. Explain that evaluation will happen

at the end of the session. Explain the follow up process.

Limitations:

Can be unfocused..Students may have difficulty getting away from known reality..

Value to students depends in part on their maturity level

The enthusiasm of individual members could cause the group to get out of hand or the discussion

to be monopolized and necessitate certain control measures.

Successful brainstorming depends in part upon the understanding of the procedure by the

participants and the careful selection of a topic and qualified chairman and secretary.

Little evaluation and constructive criticism of individual ideas takes place during the discussion.

The recording of all comments and statements during the session could slow the spontaneous

generation of ideas and the overall procedure.

Advantages

Listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas. Encourages full participation

because all ideas are equally recorded. Draws on group's knowledge and experience.

Spirit of cooperation is created. One idea can spark off other ideas Stimulates interest, the power

of association, a spirit of competition, free use of imagination and active participation.

Develops an understanding and an appreciation for the thoughts and points of view of others.

Is relatively economical in terms of time, does not necessitate any elaborate classroom

arrangements and can be effectively used with both small and large groups.

Eliminates time-wasting arguments during discussion and encourages participation by

all students without the possibility of destructive or cynical criticism by others.

In the brainstorming process, no idea is a bad one. Sometimes, a bad or difficult idea can lead to

another more pleasing or agreeable kind of idea or answer. The more ideas that are written down

and repeated, the easier it is to see the better idea. There must be quantity of ideas so the best

ones stand out like lights in the dark.