8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

1/39

PSYC1020

Part A :weeks 3 & 4

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

2/39

Overview of Part A (John)

weeks 3 & 4

Week 3

finish Paradigms begin Research Methods

Week 4 more Research Methods

*Note: only material covered up to (and including) Lecture 4will be on the mid-semester on-line quiz

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

3/39

The Five Most Prominent

Paradigms in Contemporary

Psychology

Behavioural

Cognitive

Biological

PsychodynamicHumanistic

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

4/39

Having some perspective on paradigms

Asking Which paradigm is best?, oreven Which paradigm is true? is notlikely to be answerable or useful.

Asking What are the uses andlimitations of each paradigm? is a

better question

Consider the old story of The bl indmen and the elephant

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

5/39

The Behavioural Paradigm

Subject matter General definition of the field:The scientific study of

behaviour

Specific focal topics:Learning Methods:Experimental (mostly animal)

Language and Concepts:Stimulus, Response,Conditioning, Reinforcement, Shaping

Root Metaphor:Blank slate, Lump of clay

Intellectual Influences Prior:Mentalism

Contemporary:Other sciences, especially DarwinianBiology

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

6/39

The Cognitive Paradigm

Subject matter General definition of the field:The scientific study of

mental processes (as shown in behaviour)

Specific focal topics:Perception, Attention, Memory,Thinking

Methods:Experimental (mostly human)

Language and Concepts:Input, Output, Codes,Serial Processing, Memory Stores

Root Metaphor:Programmed Computer Intellectual Influences

Prior:Mentalism, Behaviourism

Contemporary:Computer Science, especially ArtificialIntelligence

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

7/39

The Biological Paradigm

Subject matter General definition of the field:The scientific study of

the biological basis of behaviour

Specific focal topics:Behavioural topics, Cognitive

topics Methods:Experimental (where possible), Case Study,

Correlational

Language and Concepts:Biological terms,Behavioural terms, Cognitive terms

Root Metaphor:Biological machine Intellectual Influences

Prior: Behaviourism

Contemporary:Neuroanatomy and Physiology,Cognitive Perspectives

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

8/39

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

9/39

The Psychodynamic

Paradigm

Subject matter General definition of the field:The study of conscious

and unconscious processes as seen in mentalillness

Specific focal topics:Mental Illness Methods:Case History

Language and Concepts:Ego,Id, Superego,Defence Mechanisms: Repression, Projection etc.

Root Metaphor: surface: Mental Illness deeper: fluid dynamics Intellectual Influences

Prior:Philosophy

Contemporary:Victorian culture, Medicine, Darwinianstruggle to survive

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

10/39

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

11/39

The Humanistic Paradigm(Maslow, 1960s)

Subject matter General definition of the field:The study of conscious

human experience

Specific focal topics:Individual awareness, Consciouschoices, Well-being

Methods:Case History

Language and Concepts:Personal growth, Self-actualisation, Awareness, Transcendence, Free will,

Human potential Root Metaphor:Growth

Intellectual Influences Prior:Psychodynamic, Behavioural

Contemporary:1960s culture, Existentialist and

Eastern philosophies

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

12/39

How would each of these

paradigms approach

biological

behavioural

depression

cognitivepsychodynamic

humanistic

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

13/39

Enough of PARADIGMS, now on

to METHODS..

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

14/39

PSYC1020

Part A: Week 3-4 Methods

(see also chapter 2 of text)

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

15/39

Lecture 4:

Research Methods

Introspection

Naturalistic Observation

Case History

Survey

Test

Correlation

Experiment

less

CONTROL

more

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

16/39

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

17/39

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

18/39

Introspection

Looking within

The systematicobservation of ones own

consciousness, generally accompanied by averbal report of ones observations

Non-scientific paradigms of earlymentalistic psychology

(but still underlying some contemporaryself-report methods)

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

19/39

Naturalistic Observation

Objectivelystudying events as they

naturally occur, without intervention

Often a good starting point and used in

some applied research

Similar to, but distinct from the ParticipantObservation method in Anthropology

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

20/39

Case History

Biographical information pertaining to

a single individual, obtained

retrospectively and often throughinterview

Mostly Biological, Psychodynamic andHumanistic paradigms

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

21/39

Example: Phineas Gage

leaving him in a

temperamental and

unsociable state.

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

22/39

Survey

Quantitative measureof responses

to questions (interview or

questionnaire) asked of a largesample

Easily done, easily distorted

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

23/39

Test

Quantitative measureof

performancerelative to some pre-

established norm

E.g., mid-semester exam

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

24/39

Correlation

Statistical calculationof the direction anddegree of relationshipbetween any two ormore observed variables

The coefficient of correlation, r is the mostcommon statistical measure of this relationship.

The value of r ranges from -1 to +1

Positive values indicate a direct relationship,negative values an inverse relationship

Values close to 0 indicate a weak relationship

N.B. Even when correlation is very strong, we cannot infer causality.To do so is to fall victim to the correlational fallacy

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

25/39

E.g., 1. Fatigue and driving errorsstrong +ive correlation

2. Age and running speed for adultsstrong -ive correlation

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

26/39

Experimental Method

Method of manipulatingone set ofvariables (independent variables: IV), whileobserving and measuring the effectonanother set of variables (dependentvariables: DV), with other factors equivalent(random and control variables)

If the DV changes significantly when we

manipulate the IV, we may infer that the IVhas a causalrelationship to the DV

Mostly Behavioural, Cognitive (e.g., TheStroop Effect) and Biological paradigms.

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

27/39

slower

D.V.

faster

I.V.

Coloured bars Mismatched coloured

words

E.g., The Stroop effect

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

28/39

Common Sources of Bias

(Distortion) in Research

Sampling Bias

Subject Bias

Experimenter Bias

Operational Definitions

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

29/39

Sampling Bias

Is the sample studied representativeof the population of interest?

For example

Affects generalisability of conclusions

Solution: careful designdont justtest anyone/everyone

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

30/39

Subject Bias

Hawthorne or placebo effectso Early (1920s) research in the applied

area of Industrial Psychology

o What environmental factors affect

worker productivity? (Hawthorne was

the name of the production company)

o The main experiment related to

workplace lighting

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

31/39

Hawthorne Effect

high

D.V.:

Productivity

low

I.V.: Lighting

low high

?

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

32/39

Subject Bias

Hawthorne or placebo effects

Were the subjects responding to their

expectations, rather than to theexperimental manipulations?

Remember, the experimenters were with

the subjects when changes were made

Solution: single blind research subjectsare less aware of whats going on

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

33/39

Experimenter Bias

Rosenthal effects (Robert Rosenthal)o 1960s

o Initial studies were on classroomstudents

o Student experimenters observed thelearning behaviour of rats in two

conditions: dull versus smart rats

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

34/39

Rosenthal Effect

high

D.V.:

Learning

low

I.V.: dull smart

rats rats

!

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

35/39

Experimenter Bias

Rosenthal effects

Are the researchers influencing the

behaviours they are observing?

Favours one group over the other

Solution: double blind research

experimenter and subjects less aware of

whats going on

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

36/39

Operational Definitions

Defining variables in terms of the

operations (methods) used to

observe/measure/manipulatethem

Needs to be veryclear what youare measuring

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

37/39

E.g., Relaxation as measured by

- Heart rate decrease

- Brain activity - encephalograph

- Self-report scale

E.g., Perception as measured by

- Reaction time

- Self report

E.g., Intelligence as measured by

- IQ test- Self report

*** Remember the levels of control ***

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

38/39

Bias overall

Obviously should be avoided

Just as importantly, shows how muchcare needs to be applied to designing,

running, andinterpreting experiments

8/10/2019 PSYC1020 Weeks 3 & 4 Sem 2 2012

39/39