qualitative research methods by paulino silva - ecsm2015

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Paulino Silva ISCAP – IPP

8th july 2015

AGENDA •  Introduction to Qualitative Research •  Research Design •  Research Question(s) •  Collecting Evidence

–  Qualitative interviews –  Observation –  Texts and documents –  Audio and video

•  Case studies •  Data analysis •  Some tips for an effective qualitative research •  Conclusions

PAULINO SILVA -‐ QRM -‐ 8.JUL.2015 2

WHO ARE YOU?


FOR DISCUSSION

•  What is Qualitative Research?

•  How different is Qualitative Research from Quantitative Research?


QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

What is it? What is not? Mo9va9ons, emo9ons Non-‐quan9fiable data analysis Round table Personal interviews Focus groups, case studies Casual conversa9on Well-‐being Individualiza9on, needs Sensibility Answer the ques9ons How? and Why?

Data analysis Empirical studies What is not qualita9ve Use of surveys More concrete and objec9ve studies Points of view Numerical ra9ng

Source: Responses from the course "Qualita6ve Research Methods"


WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? •  Many attempts to define qualitative research in the social sciences and to differentiate it from quantitative research (Bryman, 1988, 2001; Hammersley, 1992; Silverman, 2001);

•  No consensus on these questions, as qualitative research cannot be considered a unified set of techniques or philosophies, and has developed from a wide range of intellectual and disciplinary traditions (Mason, 2002).


WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

•  Qualitative research is commonly associated with certain schools that are known for developing an interpretivist sociological tradition (Mason, 2002).



•  Anthropologists have been using qualitative research in the form of ethnography;

•  Psychologists, more associated with quantitative research methods, have developed research based on content analysis and psychoanalysis;



•  Educators have conventionally used case study methods;

•  Historians have developed an approach to the use of qualitative methods in the writing of oral and life histories;



•  Media and cultural researchers rely heavily on qualitative ways of knowing;

•  Health scholars also support strongly their research on qualitative research.


FROM WIKIPEDIA...

Source: h:p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualita6ve_research


FROM WIKIPEDIA...

Source: h:p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualita6ve_research


Qualita9ve research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, tradi9onally in the social sciences, but also in market research by the business sector and further contexts including research and service demonstra9ons by the non-‐profit sectors. Qualita9ve researchers are involved in studies of almost any imaginable phenomenon, and their studies o`en require ins9tu9onal human subjects approvals "in the field”.

FROM OTHER WEBSITES...

Source: h:p://www.qrca.org/?page=wha6squalresearch





Qualita've research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and the percep6ons that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It uses in-‐depth studies of small groups of people to guide and support the construc6on of hypotheses. The results of qualita6ve research are descrip6ve rather than predic6ve.

From ‘Qualitative Research Consultants Association’




Qualita've research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences: sociology, anthropology and psychology. Today, qualita6ve methods in the field of marke6ng research include in-‐depth interviews with individuals, group discussions (from two to ten par6cipants is typical); diary and journal exercises; and in-‐context observa6ons. Sessions may be conducted in person, by telephone, via videoconferencing and via the Internet.

From ‘Qualitative Research Consultants Association’


Source: h:p://www.qsrinterna6onal.com/what-‐is-‐qualita6ve-‐research.aspx


From ‘QSR International - NVivo’

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? •  It is a type of scientific research that consists of an investigation that: –  Seeks answers to a question (especially if it is a Why or How question);

– Uses a predefined set of procedures to answer it; –  Collects evidence; –  Produces findings that were not determined in advance;

–  Produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study.


QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE

“The distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods is not entirely clear-cut, and all researchers should think very carefully about how and why they might combine any methods, whether qualitative, quantitative, or both.”

Mason (2002: 6)


RESEARCH TAXIONOMY

Cri9cal Research

Interpre9ve Research

Posi9vist Research

Subjec1vism (nature of social sciences)

Objec1vism (nature of social sciences)

Radical Change (approach to society)

Regula1on (approach to society) Source: (Hopper & Powell, 1985)


POSITIVIST RESEARCH

Use a theore9cal model to formulate hypotheses

Test the hypotheses

Generalize the results


INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH

Use field work

Study the phenomena in the natural environment

Development of holis9c theories


FINDING A FOCUS AND KNOWING WHERE YOU STAND •  Normally, it’s not very difficult to find a broad topic or area for research;

•  It’s more challenging to design an effective project with a clear, relevant and intellectually worthwhile focus to explore the topic!


WHERE YOU STAND

26

WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT •  Explain to others briefly but specifically what your research is about. – Not a over-‐general version – Not a long and detailed version of your research focus

•  The middle course between the previous two;

•  Be able to articulate what is the ‘essence’ of your enquiry.


FIVE ESSENTIAL TOPICS

1.  The Social ‘Reality’: Your Ontological Perspective

2.  Knowledge and Evidence: Your Epistemological Position

3.  Your Broad Research Area 4.  Your Intellectual Puzzle 5.  Your Research Questions


WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT 1.  What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or

social ‘reality’, that you wish to investigate? 2.  What might represent knowledge or evidence of

the entities or social ‘reality’ that you wish to investigate?

3.  What topic, or broad substantive area, is the research concerned with?

4.  What is the intellectual puzzle? What do you wish to explain or explore? What type of puzzle is it?

5.  What are your research questions?


RESEARCH QUESTIONS •  Research questions will form the backbone of your research design;

•  Qualitative approaches usually require formulating questions to be explored and developed in the research process, rather than hypotheses to be tested by empirical research;

•  A research question is one which the research is designed to address (it is nothing to do with a question an interviewer might ask an interviewee);


RESEARCH QUESTIONS •  Research questions are the formal expression of your intellectual puzzle;

•  Research questions should be formulated clearly (even if changes may occur during the research process);

•  Research questions can be refined during the process of research;

•  Many research topics can lead to several research questions, but we need to decide which of them is the main research question.


DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH •  After formulate research questions your research is

already set on certain tracks in relation to its design and strategy because you have started to position it ontologically and epistemologically;

•  Now it’s time to think about the methods to use to generate data in order to help you to answer your research questions;

•  Focus your thinking about creating links between methods and research questions;

•  Think strategically (for example, the interview method can be a component in a range of different methodological strategies – it is not a strategy itself).




•  Now it’s time to think about the methods to use to generate data in order to help you to answer our research questions;




WHICH METHODOLOGY TO USE?

45

FROM ONTOLOGY TO METHODOLOGY?

The selection of the most appropriate research methodology is dependent on the nature of the phenomenon being researched...


... IN PARTICULAR...

Ontology

• Assump1ons which the researcher holds regarding the nature of the phenomenon’s reality…

Epistemology

• … will affect the way in which knowledge can be gained about that phenomenon…

Methodology

• … and this in turn affects the process through which research can be conducted.


METHOD: WHAT IS IT?

•  The word method comes from the Greek word μέθοδος (méthodos, way to come to an end).

•  “a procedure, technique, or way of doing something, especially in accordance with a definite plan.”

In Dictionary.com


RESEARCH METHODS

•  What are research methods?

– Research techniques that allow specific analyzes according to the methodology followed by research in which they are used.


RESEARCH METHODS

•  Examples: –  Interviews – Observation – Texts and documents – Audio and video


RESEARCH METHODS

•  Combination of methods (examples): – Management: Interviews + Documents – Anthropology: Participant Observation + Interviews

•  One single study can combine the use of all four methods;

•  Any method can be used in quantitative research (but not often).


INTERVIEWS


“QUALITATIVE” INTERVIEWS

•  Normally semi-‐structured or open interviews;

•  Similar to normal conversations; •  Researcher – interviewee / group of people; •  In person, by phone, internet, video-‐conference;

•  During a month, or several years; •  In a small or large number.


WHY “QUALITATIVE” INTERVIEWS?

•  They can be the only adequate way to give a deep response to research questions.


PREPARE THE INTERVIEW

•  Think carefully about the set of questions to use (these questions can come up from other previous interviews or from other method used previously);

•  Think about the best way to approach interviewees in order to obtain their permission (e-‐mail, telephone, etc.);


PREPARE THE INTERVIEW

•  Think carefully the best way to approach some sensitive topics, in order to avoid interviewee retraction;

•  Prepare to manage adequately the interview (in order to obtain responses to the questions previously prepared, control the recording, if it is the case, etc.).


EVEN WITH THE BEST PREPARATION...


INTERVIEW SCRIPT (EXAMPLE)


INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTION (EXAMPLE)


INTERVIEWS DETAILS (EXAMPLE)

Source: Silva and Ferreira (2010)


INTERVIEW: THE WRONG APPROACH


INTERVIEW: THE RIGHT APPROACH


OBSERVATION


OBSERVATION •  Watch activities made by interviewees and other professionals;

•  Watch social actions, behaviours, relations, etc.; •  Observation is very used to try to understand other cultures;

•  Can be combined with other research methods (ex: participation in meetings, observe the reaction of interviewees during an interview).


OBSERVATION (MASTER STUDENT EXAMPLE) •  “Direct observation, allowed to understand how the

activities, behaviours, relationships, social activities and events held and / or communicated by observed. The observation was carried out for long periods of time, since the company under case study work by shifts, thus allowing the presence of the researcher. The reactions of respondents was collaborative. It was not observed negative behaviours. Observations notes were registered after leaving the company.”

•  This observation allowed the student to be aware of what really was going on in the factory and to validate some information collected through interviews.


TEXTS AND DOCUMENTS


TEXTS AND DOCUMENTS •  A method widely used in qualitative research; •  Variety of documental sources: legislation, newspapers, magazines, newsletters, textbooks and other publications, mailing (physical or electronic), projects, reports, diaries, memos, historical archives, commercials, contracts, websites;

•  Can be part of a wider research strategy or be the only method used (example: study dating back to a distant past).


DOCUMENTS REGISTRATION


AUDIO AND VIDEO


AUDIO AND VIDEO •  Rarely used in quantitative research, mainly because of the difficulty in quantifying data generated by this method;

•  Widely used in qualitative research. For example, recorded interviews are more reliable than researcher manual notes;

•  It allows the review of the content, as needed; •  Sometimes it is difficult to get permission for this type of method.


AUDIO AND VIDEO •  Very relevant when we want to understand how individuals express themselves, either by conversation (audio recording) or by body language (video recording);

•  It may not be suitable in certain places (example: manufacturing facilities with noise hinder audio recording);

•  It requires great availability of time (example: transcription of recorded interviews).


AUDIO AND VIDEO •  It allows more reliable information, but can constrain the professionals;

•  The researcher needs to gain the trust of the professional, which may not be easy;

•  There are situations when respondents refuse to recording interviews;

•  It is common for respondents to explain further their positions / opinions after the recorder be turned off.


METHOD TRIANGULATION

•  Sometimes different methods are part of the same research strategy;

•  It is common to use several different methods, namely, interviews, texts and documents, observation, audio -‐ all of them to enable triangulation of the data collected.


WHAT IS TRIANGULATION?

•  Enable to test validity of data gathered using different research methods.


WORK / DISCUSSION

•  Make a SWOT Analysis of Qualitative Research Methods – Strengths – Weaknesses – Opportunities – Threats


CASE STUDIES


CASE STUDY: WHAT IS IT?

•  It is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-‐life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are nor clearly evident.

Source: Yin (2009)


TYPES OF CASE STUDIES

•  Descriptive case studies; •  Illustrative case studies; •  Experimental case studies; •  Exploratory case studies; •  Explanatory case studies.


DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDIES

•  Used to describe systems, techniques and procedures followed in practice;

•  Were especially popular in the 80s, when the researchers sought to obtain exhaustive descriptions of what was done in companies;

•  Currently they are used, particularly by professional bodies to describe best practice adopted by the most successful companies.


ILUSTRATIVE CASE STUDIES

•  They seek to illustrate practices, supposedly innovative practices, developed by companies described as excellent;

•  The knowledge of these practices is very important to understand to what extent the theory and prescribed techniques are followed by companies.


EXPERIMENTAL CASE STUDIES •  They are the result of techniques, procedures and practices developed conceptually by researchers in order to be applied to companies and analysed its impacts;

•  Useful for studying problems in implementation and benefits of using one or more techniques;

•  Widely used in the 1970's when there was the will to design sophisticated techniques, which then would not be much used in practice.


EXPLORATORY CASE STUDIES

•  Allow the researcher to explore the reasons for certain practices;

•  With this type of study, hypotheses are obtained to test in future studies (either through other case studies, or through other methods of research);

•  Usually they represent a preliminary phase of the research.


EXPLANATORY CASE STUDIES •  They intend to study and explain the existence of

certain practices; •  The emphasis is in particular not in generic, unlike the

case of exploratory studies; •  The existing theory is used to explain the practices

observed by the researcher; when the existing theory does not explain satisfactorily, it is necessary to modify the existing theory or develop new theories;

•  For many researchers only this type of case studies allow develop the full potential of research method based on case studies.


SINGLE-CASE OR MULTIPLE-CASES? •  Single-‐case is suitable when:

–  The critical case in testing a well-‐formulated theory: decisive to test a well-‐formulated theory;

– An extreme case or a unique case: infrequent or unique situation;

– Representative or typical case: context and characteristics of a day-‐to-‐day situation;

– An revelatory case: phenomenon previously inaccessible;

– An longitudinal case: studying the same single case at two or more different points in time.


CASE STUDY: THE PROCESS

Plan Design

Prepare

Collect

Analyse Share

Source: Yin, 2009

A LINEAR BUT ITERATIVE PROCESS


PLAN

•  Identify research questions or other rationale for doing case study.

•  Decide to use the case study method, compared to other methods.

•  Understand its strengths and limitations.


DESIGN

•  Define the unit of analysis and the likely case to be studied;

•  Develop theory, propositions and issues underlying the anticipated study;

•  Identify the case study design (single, multiple, holistic, embedded);

•  Define procedures to maintain case study quality.


PREPARE

•  Hone skills as a case study researcher; •  Train for specific case study; •  Develop case study protocol; •  Conduct pilot case; •  Gain approval for human subjects protection.


COLLECT

•  Follow case study protocol; •  Use multiple sources of evidence; •  Create case study database; •  Maintain chain of evidence.


ANALYSE

•  Rely on theoretical propositions and other strategies;

•  Consider any of five analytic techniques, using quantitative or qualitative data or both;

•  Explore rival explanations; •  Display data apart from interpretations.


SHARE

•  Define audience; •  Compose textual and visual materials; •  Display enough evidence for reader to reach own conclusions;

•  Review and re-‐write until done well.


TESTING THE QUALITY OF METHOD 1.  Construct validity: use multiple sources of

evidence for the same variable in analysis; 2.  Internal validity: seek to establish a causal

relationship, whereby certain conditions are believed to lead to other conditions;

3.  External validity: define the domain to which a study’s findings can be generalized;

4.  Reliability: demonstrate that the operations of a study – such as the data collection procedures – can be repeated, with the same results. Source: Yin (2003)


QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS •  Qualitative research provides rich, detailed and contextualized information (this normally does not happen with quantitative research);

•  Qualitative research is less structured that quantitative research;

•  The ‘qualitative researcher’ should master, not statistical techniques (as the quantitative researcher), but the analysis of evidence, following procedures in order to articulate them with the theory adopted in the study.


QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS

•  The procedures of quantitative research are based essencially in statistical analysis, they are sequencial and well defined – conversely, the procedures of qualitative research are interactive, and sometimes as a result of the researcher criativity.


COMPONENTS OF THE ANALYSIS PROCESS

Evidence collec1on Building

displays

Conclusions

Evidence reduc1on

Source: Miles e Huberman, 1994, p. 12


IN CONCLUSION...


RESEARCH PROCESS

Statement of the obtained results

Analysis evalua9on

Data analysis

Evalua9on and restatement of the specific research ques9ons

Data collec9on

Evalua9on and restatement of the specific research ques9ons

Choosing of adequate methods and research plan

Selec9on of the research groups, whish will be based for the study

Statement of the main concepts

Statement of the specific research ques9ons

Statement of the general ques9on

Source: Adapted from Flick (2006), p. 48


QUALITATIVE RESEARCH SHOULD... •  Be systematically and rigorously conducted (no

excuses for doing different); •  Be accountable for its quality and its claims; •  Be flexible and contextual, strategically conducted; •  Involve critical self-‐scrutiny by the researcher, or

active reflexivity; •  Produce explanations or arguments, not presenting

only mere descriptions; •  Produce explanations or arguments that can

demonstrate some wider resonance; •  Not be seen as opposite to quantitative research.


SOME IMPORTANT REFERENCES


ABDC JOURNAL QUALITY LIST

•  The ABDC (Australian Business Deans Council) Journal Quality List comprises 2 767 different journal titles, divided into four categories of quality: –  A*: 6,9%; –  A: 20,8%; –  B: 28,4%; –  and C: 43,9% journals.


ABDC JOURNAL QUALITY LIST

Journals that have “Qualitative” in their title: 1.  Qualitative Research in Accounting and

Management 2.  Qualitative Research in Organizations and

Management 3.  Qualitative Research in Financial Markets 4.  Qualitative Market Research: an

international journal


TO THINK ABOUT…

“Not everything that counts can be counted,

and not everything that can be counted counts.”

Albert Einstein


Thank you very

much!

J

Questions?

[email protected]

qualitative research methods by paulino silva - ecsm2015

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