PW 7100 Term Three

Introduction, Chapters 1-3, Bibliography

Colleen Burghardt

Professor Maura MacNeil

October 18, 2014

The Decline of Literacy in College Students – Curricula of Convenience?

Introduction

Is the education system failing to adequately equip students with basic grammar skills?

Has essential substance vacated the curricula necessary to ensure student literacy? Many

educators, scholars and policy makers aren’t mincing words – they say that’s entirely the

problem. "We teach students skills in physical education class so they can play sports; we teach

them skills in music class so they can play instruments. But somehow, since the revolution of

'66, skills have been seen as an enemy to writing."1 Today more than ever, students are entering

college unprepared and severely lacking in basic literacy skills. Whether it's due to complacency

on the part of the student, the educational system, or the move toward fractured views of

language driven by technology, the future of effective communication is in peril.

Commissioned by Statistics Canada, an Adult Literacy and Life Skills survey taken in

2003 showed university educated 26-34 year olds possessed significantly lower scores than the

comparable cohort in 1994. The analysts of the government literacy survey went a step further to

estimate literacy scores of preceding “synthetic cohorts” if comparable surveys had been

conducted in 1985 and 1976. They concluded the “literacy levels of university-educated 26-34

year olds has been declining continuously since 1976.” 2 What’s even more distressing is to

admit that this trend continues today.

If the downward literacy trend has been steadily worsening over the past 30 to 40 years,

what’s fueling the decline? And why haven’t we been able to arrest it? Some may argue the days

of adept literate skill have passed while those passionately committed to articulate and coherent 1 Budra, Paul. “The Case for Teaching Grammar”. Education Canada, Volume 50 N4. ERIC. (2010): Web.

2 Green, David A., Riddell, Craig W. Literacy and the Labour Market: The Generation of Literacy and Its Impact on Earnings for Native Born Canadians. The Centre of Education Statistics Division, Statistics Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Industry, November 2007. Print.

expression resist capitulation and cannot bear the thought of literacy erosion. Some scholars

ponder whether we’ve ever truly enjoyed “a golden age of academic excellence” 3but

unequivocally assert grammatical principles as we once knew them, are weakening. Literacy

decline analysts theorize the reason we haven’t been successful in effecting a reversal is the very

notion that the traditional importance attached to grammar as an essential classroom curriculum

element is being undermined by the desire to support social promotion and classroom

mediocrity.

Academic assessment reveals evidence of weakening grammar, expository and oral

communication skills is plentiful and perhaps one of the only consoling elements of the bleak

assessment is the remorse with which it is presented. Advocates for reversing the decline and

improving overall student literacy acknowledge the urgency of the issue and are making a plea

for change. “Let us try to re-introduce grammar to students at some point in their K-12

experience. I know it won’t be easy; our schools are largely staffed by teachers, like me, who

were never taught these basic writing skills themselves in high school or, indeed, at university.”

(Budra, 2010).

To dismiss the importance of reversing the trend or to suggest futility is clearly not an

option. The decline in student literacy skill has far more dramatic ramifications than poor

academic performance. One’s ability to form articulate expression, to engage in stimulating

conversation or to create meaningful, clear and concise messaging can have a tremendous

influence on career development. To be functionally illiterate or to perform in a manner that

confuses not only your intended audience but your employer as well, will serve only to threaten

employment security and isolate one’s career options. “The new hire had a strong technical

3 Carter, Michael J., Harper, Heather. “Student Writing: Strategies to Reverse Ongoing Decline”. Vol. 26, Issue 3 (Sept. 2013): 285-295 Academic Questions. Web. Oct. 30, 2013.

resume, enthusiastic references, and (theoretically), the skills needed to translate IT directions

into the simple English prose required by the firm’s customers. Yet the services director

repeatedly found himself editing this individual’s work. After sufficient warning he felt he had

no choice but to let the employee go.” 4

And yet here’s another example of the business implications resulting from poor

grammar. In today’s business climate, “more than two thirds of salaried jobs require a significant

amount of written communication, and top organizations spend upwards of $3 billion per year on

training to bring employee writing ability up to a baseline standard.” That’s according to

Grammarly CEO Brad Hoover. Grammarly is an automated online proofreader site that’s said to

be able to check for 250 common grammar errors in any submitted copy. Hoover’s statement

isn’t one to take lightly because poor grammar can translate into huge financial ramifications.

Rogers Cable, a cable provider in Canada, was forced to pay an extra $2.13 million to telephone

company Bell Aliant in 2006 to lease power poles because a writer put a comma in the wrong

place. This is how the statement read:

"This agreement shall be effective from the date it is made and shall continue in force for a period of five (5) years from the date it is made, and thereafter for successive five (5) year terms, unless and until terminated by one year prior notice in writing by either party."5

Rogers Communications claimed the placement of the second comma stated the contract

was good for at least five years, while Bell Aliant understood the comma to mean the deal could

be terminated before if one year's notice was given. Canada's telecommunications commission

4 Simkin, Mark G., Crews, Janna M., and Groves, Mary J. Student Perceptions of Their Writing Skills: Myth and Reality. Western Decision Sciences Institute. Reno: University of Nevada, (2010). Print.

5 http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/comma-quirk-irks-rogers/article1101686/

found in favour of Bell Aliant. The commission said the comma should have been omitted if the

contract was intended to last five years in its shortest possible term. As a result, Bell Alliant

saved over $2 million by ending the deal early. The lesson learned is that grammar skill is far

more valuable than many people may admit and to dismiss it, one does so at his or her peril.

There is a wealth of literature that expounds in great detail causal factors associated with

literacy decline in students. The problem appears to be a global issue that is clearly not

geographically defined. One must take a closer look at the variables affecting literacy aptitude. Is

the trend more prevalent amongst particular socio-economic conditions or is it reliant on the

dominance of social media pressures? Have we become a society obsessed with accommodation

so much so that to exclude those with lesser skills from entering college appears to be

insensitive? Some academics suggest the shift toward market-based logic in education combined

with lowered standards, grade inflation, and remedial test formats contribute to inadequacies in

literacy skill. Realizing that there exists increased pressure on institutions and instructors to

manage time and resources, it will be a challenge to accomplish much in the way of reversing the

literacy decline but endeavor they must. “Students need to be told why their writing is incorrect,

and be shown how it can be corrected and improved. Today’s students need to know why a

sentence that lacks a subject and a predicate is a fragment. Scribbling frag in a paper’s margin is

not enough.”6

Concerns about declines in writing ability have existed for several years. Prevailing

literature on the subject confirms the problem. Indeed, in Carter’s journal article noted above, he

suggests writing skills can be traced back to a significant downward trend beginning in 1970.

What is emerging now is a fear that these lowered standards have become entrenched to the

6 Carter, Michael J., Harper, Heather. “Student Writing: Strategies to Reverse Ongoing Decline”. Vol. 26, Issue 3 (Sept. 2013): 285-295 Academic Questions. Web. Oct. 30, 2013.

extent that drastic revision to teaching methods will be required. As low levels of literacy are

permitted to pervade the educational system, influences that didn’t exist decades ago are also

distracting the focus on stronger writing skills. The most recent and relevant material addressing

this research problem identifies those influences as changes in society that include technology,

media, television, social connections and the internet.

Government policy creators are the primary recipients of this research paper but

educators, literacy advocate lobbyists, as well as students were also solicited as essential

audience participants. Encouraging audience members to participate in a collaborative

exploration and interviewing scholars or professors regarding their most recent experiences and

perspectives adds immense value to the study of literacy decline. This paper focuses on the

generation that remembers when a higher standard of grammar curriculum existed and

encourages them to ponder how we can relate the value of articulate expression and grammatical

standards to today’s youth. Academics, high achievers and those seeking stimulating discourse

are likely to see the value in this thesis but the key will be how the premise is connected to the

younger generation of teachers and students who are complacent about relaxed literacy

instruction. Business leaders who are expressing concern about how ineffective some of their

employees are at communication also have a stake in the research. They can provide some

insight as to challenges they are facing and what communication skills are lacking in their

employee base.

Aligning with like-minded individuals who share a passion for preserving essential

standards in grammar instruction is essential. Scholars, academics, business leaders, and policy

creators admit there’s a problem. There’s value in this research because it collects evidence and

presents it in a focused format that’s appreciated by an academic audience. It creates a forum for

discussing the causes of literacy decline with particular attention to specific trends we may be

able to address. The idea is to direct the opinions, observations and research into a provocative

yet simply conveyed call to action. The research provides a clear assessment of the value of

grammar instruction and how its decline is affecting our society but does it in such a way as to

provide a comprehensive collection of ideas.

Chapter One

Could Literacy Scores Be Spelling Disaster?

The meaning of literacy

The concept of literacy may evoke many images, most of which conjure up notions of

articulate speech, well-crafted prose, the correct use of punctuation and an appreciation for the

eloquence of an expansive vocabulary. In broader terms, literacy can simply refer to one’s ability

to read and write. Literacy is of great societal importance because the degree to which we are

functionally literate has economic and social implications. To perform successfully in business,

to express ourselves with clarity and to elicit a meaningful relationship with others is largely

dependent on how well we communicate. That’s why most governments make it a practice to

measure, monitor and evaluate literacy rates.

But establishing basic literacy, that is, reading and writing as a means to satisfy basic

needs, doesn’t form a comprehensive basis for success. A joint Statistics Canada, Organization

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) study takes a step further to define

functional literacy as:

the ability to understand and employ printed information in daily activities at home, at work, and in the community—to achieve one’s goals and to develop one’s knowledge and potential.7

Basic literacy focuses on the acquisition of reading and writing skills but not necessarily on how

people may apply those skills as they live and work in society. While more complex views of

functional literacy will demand a correlation between literacy and class, gender, ethnicity and

religion, it’s acknowledged these factors influence performance. For the purposes of this paper,

we’ll take a closer look at basic literacy levels and the degree to which they are achieved and

demonstrated in the classroom, (assuming English is a student’s first language and curriculum

standards are applied consistently throughout the province).

7 Canadian Council on Learning, State of Learning report, 2007.

It should be noted that literacy is measured on a 500-point scale that’s broken down into

five levels of skill where level 1 is the lowest and level 5 is the highest. The OECD has set level

3 as the widely considered minimum standard at which people must perform in order to function

successfully in a modern society and economy.

What is to be gained by measuring literacy and advocating for its improvement? As our

global economies grow and become more closely intertwined, the level of interaction amongst

societies as they compete to build wealth and knowledge, also increases. Postsecondary students

must grasp and attain acceptable levels of literacy so they’re better prepared to enter the labour

market as skilled and literate workers. It’s not enough to rest on the laurels of technology with an

attitude that assumes computer aids will supplement or substitute for what’s considered by some

to be an overly arduous mechanical review of language.

The numbers

Government statistical surveys that observe literacy trends aren’t commissioned on a

routine or regular basis. Therefore we’ll rely on the most recent studies on literacy rates in

Canada that were presented as a result of two international surveys: the 1994 International Adult

Literacy Survey (IALS) and the 2003 International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey (IALSS).

Both surveys studied literacy skills in adults aged 16 to 65. The skills of particular interest as

they relate to college-level literacy include prose literacy and document literacy. According to

the surveys, prose literacy is defined as the knowledge and skills needed to understand and use

information from texts, including editorials, news stories, poems and fiction. Document literacy

refers to the knowledge and skills required to locate and use information contained in various

formats, such as tables, graphs, schedules, charts, forms and maps.

The 1994 IALS found that Canada ranked fifth out of 20 countries on the prose literacy

scale. The survey revealed 42 per cent of Canadian adults scored below the OECD level 3

threshold on the prose scale (16.6 per cent at level 1 and 25.6 per cent at level 2)8. The results

were similar when measuring document literacy.

Nine years later, the IALSS (2003) published literacy rates that didn’t change much from

the IALS. “The average prose score increased by only two points from 278 to 280 and in both

surveys 42 per cent of Canadian adults possessed skills below level 3 on the prose scale.”9 What

is perhaps more alarming is that while the number of adults functioning below the acceptable

literacy rate stayed the same, Canada’s adult population size grew. That means the poor literacy

rate of working-age adults became a bigger problem. “In 1994, 18.4 million working-age adults

were living in Canada. By 2003, the number increased by three million.”10

The IALSS indicates 48 per cent of Canadians (including seniors) have low literacy skills

and according to the Canadian Council on Learning, even though people believe that adult

literacy in Canada will get better over time as more students are exposed to higher education, the

reality is the proportion of Canadian adults with low literacy skills will remain virtually

unchanged through 2031.11

Looking to the future

What does this say about how we will communicate as a literate society fifteen years

from now? If literacy rates stay the same and population rates continue to rise dramatically, what

could the consequences be of such a trend? Academic experts predict that unless we take action 8 Statistics Canada and Human Resources Development Canada, Reading the Future: A Portrait of Literacy in Canada (Ottawa: 1996), Table 1.39 International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey (IALSS), 2003.10 International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey (IALSS), 2003.11 Reading the Future: Planning to meet Canada’s future literacy needs (Ottawa:2008)

now to reverse the direction the literacy dilemma is headed, Canada will be faced with dramatic

challenges for its social well-being and economic prosperity. “Research shows that adults with

low literacy experience more health problems, are more likely to experience medication errors,

have more workplace accidents, earn less income, live shorter lives, and are more likely to be

unemployed.”12

A decade later, literacy skills have failed to improve. In fact, they’re getting worse. The

most recent survey that studied adult literacy skills in Canada, the Programme for the

International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), was conducted between November

2011 and June 2013. Even though the PIAAC is based on a broader format (it considers the use

of digital texts), the results were very close to those gathered by IALS and the IALSS. “Results

have deteriorated at both extremes of the literacy scale, with more Canadians scoring at level 1

or below in 2013 than in 2003, and fewer Canadians scoring at levels 4 and 5 in 2013 than in

2003.”13 Even though Canadians who’ve completed post-secondary education tend to perform

better in literacy assessments, the Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario (HEQC) says it’s

clear that overall, Canadians’ literacy scores aren’t improving neither in Ontario nor at the

national level.

Tracking how students’ academic success can tell us a lot about literacy trends. The

OECD realized this back in 2000 when it commissioned the Programme for International Student

Assessment (PISA). Its purpose is to compare educational attainment levels around the world

and is administered every three years to measure how well 15-year-old students perform in

reading, math and science. PISA is measured on a scale to 700 and uses the same five-level

system employed by OECD. The results for 2009 showed that Canadians students achieved a 12 Canadian Council on Learning, State of Learning report, 2007.13 Higher Education Council of Ontario. Making the Grade? Troubling Trends in Postsecondary Student Literacy. Issue Paper No. 16. October 31, 2013.

mean combined reading score of 524 that was well above the OECD average of 496.14 The data

suggests that those who score higher will be more inclined to pursue a university degree. This is

not to suggest they will perform successfully in a post-secondary environment, rather, they will

already be on a path to higher education.

Provincial standards

In the province of Ontario, the high school curriculum lists three required levels of

reading and writing expectations (see table below).

Reading 1 Understanding explicitly stated information and ideasReading 2 Understanding implicitly stated information and ideas (i.e., making references)

Reading 3 Making connections between information and ideas in a reading selection and personal knowledge and experience (i.e., interpreting reading selections by integrating the information and ideas in a reading selection with personal knowledge and experience)

Writing 1 Developing a main idea with sufficient supporting details

Writing 2 Organizing information and ideas in a coherent manner

Writing 3 Using conventions (i.e., spelling, grammar, punctuation) in a manner that does not distract from clear communication

15

In addition to the expectations noted above, every secondary student must write the Ontario

Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT). Most students attempt to complete the test in grade 10

and if they aren’t successful the first time, they must make sure they complete it before

graduation in grade 12. What’s interesting to note is the apparent “learning paradox”. That’s the

contradiction identified by the Canadian Council on Learning. It says despite Canada’s

reputation for being home to one of the most highly educated populations in the world, 42 per

14 Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. Making the Grade? Troubling Trends in Postsecondary Student Literacy. Issue Paper No. 16. October 31, 201315 Education Quality and Accountability Office, 2011b

cent of Canadian adults don’t have the basic literacy skills to compete in the global economy.

That, combined with curriculum standards aimed at building student competency in reading and

writing in high school, still doesn’t elevate performance to acceptable levels.

The HEQC suggests the reason is the existence of conflicting literacy standards for

students entering postsecondary education. The OECD sets level 3 as the minimum literacy

proficiency required for high school graduation. Provincial curriculum sets its own standard and

then there is the standard applied by high school teachers in terms of how they actually evaluate

the students. When a student enters the postsecondary environment, once again he or she must

adapt to yet another standard. Without a consistent and enforced level of literacy attainment, any

attempt to influence improvement will be frustrated. The latest report issued by the HEQC

recommends that two things need to happen:

postsecondary institutions need to define the literacy standard they expect, and assessments of students both entering and leaving undergraduate programs should

be conducted in order to determine if desired outcomes are being achieved.The statistics don’t lie so who’s to blame?

And the problem goes even further than variances in expectations. Some professors

blame high school teachers for failing to equip students with necessary skills. “Undergraduate

student writing is awful. Teachers are afraid to teach grammar, they know the rules instinctively,

but they can’t teach them.”16 Whether teachers aren’t teaching or students are receiving inflated

grades, the blame for the low literacy performance on the part of college students continues to be

painted across a broad canvass of culprits. The reality is that even if a good number of students

who scored well on their PISA are entering universities, a great deal more students are attending

postsecondary institutions with much lower literacy aptitudes. Colleges either need to raise their

16 Gilmour, M. Students can’t write. Maclean’s. (2010, November).

literacy expectations and communicate the same or come up with a way to educate those who

aren’t proficient.

More employers are voicing their dissatisfaction with the lack of reading and writing

skills exhibited by new hires and it’s not just a Canadian issue. “When asked to rate American

college graduates’ writing skills in a scale of 1 to 10, 37 per cent of employers ranked them in

the range of 1 to 5, with only 26 per cent ranking them between 8 and 10.”17 The statistics are

sobering. If employers continue to push for a workforce that possesses strong literacy skills,

graduates who haven’t embraced the value of higher literacy might find themselves losing more

employment opportunities to global candidates that can demonstrate higher proficiencies.

It’s problem that extends beyond borders

Policy analysts who advocate for changes to both curriculum design and teaching

methods appear skeptical about the immediate prospect of literacy rate improvement. They

predict stagnant literacy levels and in some areas dramatic decline. In fact, in the U.S. the

problem is getting worse. The U.S. National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) survey

reported 31 per cent of college graduates in 2003 scored at the proficient level. That went down

40 percent from 1992. Overall, the NAAL reported average prose literacy decreased for all levels

of educational attainment between 1992 and 2003.18

In the absence of more up-to-date literacy surveys, some American educators are taking

on the assessment job themselves. Mary Willingham, a learning specialist at the University of

North Carolina, researched the reading levels of 183 UNC athletes who played for the school

17 Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Inc., 200818 U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey and 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy.

from 2004 to 2012. What she found was astounding. Sixty per cent of the students read between

a grade four and grade eight level. And even more disappointing – between eight and ten per cent

of the athletes read below a grade three level.19 It comes down to market-based education and it’s

a concept we’ll explore further in this paper. Low-level college literacy isn’t simply about a lack

of grammar instruction, swelling student class sizes or social media influences (which certainly

are relevant factors to consider), there’s the notion of economics. How do we justify the financial

gains from bloated enrolment at the expense of accepting and enrolling athletes without basic

readings skills who’ve no hope of succeeding at college?

Chapter Two

English Language Curriculum – Why We Aren’t Walking the Talk

Those who use literacy, take it for granted – but those who cannot use it are excluded from much communication in today’s world. Indeed, it is the excluded who can best appreciate the notion of “literacy as freedom”.

~ UNESCO, Statement for the United Nations Literacy Decade, 2003-2012

Curricula versus Convenience

Rhetorical expressions articulating the value of literacy and how its demise could topple

social practices, relationships, language and culture, are fueling the grand aspirations for higher

standards in language curriculum. But are they empty words? Literacy is important – upon that 19 Ganim, S. Some college athletes play like adults, read like 5th graders. CNN analysis. (2014, January).

much, educators agree. But whether their efforts to deliver effective language instruction are

successful, the answer is far less certain. The UNESCO statement noted above is strategically

placed as the preamble to several of Ontario’s language curriculum documents. Surely if such

lofty notions of commitment are promoted, student writing proficiency won’t be neglected.

Sadly, in the face of entrenched principles aimed at elevating student literacy, college-level

writing skills exhibit no immediate sign of improvement.

Anecdotal complaints by professors lamenting over the “wretched state” of English

grammar in student expositions continue. Why can’t students write? Young people are

communicating with ferocious appetites, absorbing the immediacy of Facebook, Twitter,

Snapchat and Instagram. They’re hungry for a constant and open stream of communication with

their peers. But the content of such messaging is fraught with colloquial expressions, idioms and

acronyms. The thoughtful and eloquent vocabulary so desired by professors is absent. That

combined with little or no teaching of grammar may be why students have no clue where to

begin when it comes to crafting an essay or research paper.

Ontario’s University of Waterloo is now one of several Canadian universities that

requires students to pass an English language exam as a condition of graduation. The failure rate

for the test has jumped over the last few years from 25 to 30 per cent. The university’s managing

director of the proficiency exam, Ann Barrett, says poor grammar is the primary reason for

failure. Barrett has noticed students don’t understand articles, prepositions and verb tenses.

Clearly she says, students are no longer being taught grammar.

Paul Budra, an English professor and associate dean of arts and science at Simon Fraser

University in British Columbia agrees and says student writing is horrid. “Commas are sprinkled

around like parmesan cheese and students seem to have absolutely no idea what an apostrophe

is.” Budra says since grammar instruction isn’t occurring at the lower levels, he’s had to take on

the job himself. But if teaching grammar is part of the secondary school language curricula in

many provinces, what’s causing the gap? Barrett says the answer could be related to the fact that

universities simply don’t collaborate with secondary schools. In Ontario, the Ministry of

Education doesn’t have any mechanism in place for the communication of university

expectations.

Complacency is another problem. It’s not just that high schools aren’t communicating

with universities. It is apparent secondary school teachers either lack the skills to impart the

subtleties of grammar or simply don’t want to spend the time. Retired Western University

Astronomy Professor John Landstreet says it’s a cultural problem. Secondary schools have been

doing such a good job embracing integration, they’ve lost sight of the social implications of

sensitivity. Teachers want to be liked, they want to foster a sense of inclusiveness. Advocating

for the prescriptive elements of grammar isn’t likely to win over students, he says. Instead,

teachers want to fit in with the students. After all, writing should be fun, an exercise in creativity,

not one of arduous adherence to mechanical principles of grammar. That’s tedious, not inspiring.

This is the attitude Landstreet believes is at the root of flawed teaching models today.

Elementary and Secondary School Curricula – Taking a look at the fine print

Before we take a look at how students are being exposed to grammar, let’s examine

Ontario’s elementary and secondary school curricula for greater detail about the standards.

During their formative years in the elementary school system, students are to have embraced

concepts in punctuation, grammar, diction and vocabulary throughout grades one to eight.

According to The Ontario Curriculum, Grade 1-8, language development is central to students’

intellectual, social, and emotional growth, and must be seen as a key element of the curriculum.

The guidelines categorize the knowledge and skills students need to become literate in four

strands – Oral Communication, Reading, Writing, and Media Literacy.

In the writing strand of the grade eight language curriculum, there is one sentence

dedicated to grammar standards. It reads, “By the end of grade eight students will use parts of

speech correctly to communicate their meaning clearly, with a focus on subject/verb agreement

and the use of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions.”20 The writing strand has

four main expectations that students learn to:

write for an intended purpose and audience, draft and revise their writing using a variety of informational, literary, and graphic

forms and stylistic elements appropriate for the purpose and audience, use editing, proofreading, and publishing skills and strategies to correct errors,

refine expression and present their work effectively, and reflect on and identify their strengths as writers and areas for improvement.

What’s interesting to note about the curriculum is that it also includes a specific statement

about the importance of relating the material to the students on a personal level. “The language

curriculum is based on the understanding that students learn best when they can identify

themselves and their own experience in the material they read and study at school.”21 This theme

is revisited often throughout the secondary curriculum content as well.

20 Ontario Ministry of Education. “The Ontario Curriculum – Language, Grades 1-8” (2006). Web. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca.21 Ontario Ministry of Education. “The Ontario Curriculum – Language, Grades 1-8” (2006). Web. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca.

Much like the elementary language curriculum that precedes it, the secondary curriculum

gives a sparse account of grammar expectations. Grammar, diction, vocabulary, punctuation, and

proofreading skills are specified for each grade level but are combined with an emphasis on oral

communication, literature and media studies.

Grammar 3.4 use grammar conventions correctly and appropriately to communicate

their intended meaning clearly and effectively (e.g., use a variety of sentence structures correctly to communicate complex ideas; use transitional words and phrases to write coherent paragraphs; incorporate parallelism and balance in paragraph structure to enhance clarity and style; use pronoun case, number, and person correctly; select singular or plural verbs to agree with subjects containing collective nouns, as appropriate for their intended meaning; use the active and passive vice appropriately and effectively for their purpose and audience; use unconventional grammar for effect.)

Proofreading 3.5 regularly proofread and correct their writing (e.g., consult print and

electronic resources as necessary to verify that their spelling, vocabulary, punctuation, and grammar are accurate and/or appropriate; assess the validity of the feedback provided by a partner who has proofread their work by consulting print and electronic resources, and make corrections where necessary.)22

Each year a student is obligated to participate in one compulsory English course. Students can

choose from three types of English instruction: university preparation, college preparation and

workplace preparation. The three streams of instruction will vary in intensity and focus. The

rationale behind the university preparation courses is that they equip students with the skills

necessary to meet the entrance requirements for university programs. Since there doesn’t appear

to be any formal consultation between the two levels of education, the course names amount to

pure window dressing. And if as Barrett indicates, even the so-called academic elite graduates

can’t pass a University of Waterloo entrance test, teachers in the secondary school setting aren’t

making the grade when it comes to effective writing instruction.

22Ontario Ministry of Education. “The Ontario Curriculum – English, Grade 11 and 12”. (2007): Web. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca.

This sentiment is echoed by many parents and some of them have decided the solution is

to supplement their children’s’ education. Complaining about little to no spelling or grammar

instruction in both elementary and secondary institutions, some parents say it’s time to return to

an “old-school approach.” Eight years ago Scott Sylvestre opened a Kumon tutoring centre as a

way to help boost student skills and today he owns two locations with over 300 children in the

Windsor area. Slyvestre says his business is growing because the basics are “glazed over.”

“Believe it or not, we have teachers bring their own children to us, so something’s missing.”23

Amanda Coughlin, an Oxford Learning Centre franchise owner shares a similar story.

She calls her tutoring service There and Back Again, as a salute to a back-to-basics teaching

plan. “I’m finding that drilling, as old fashioned as it is, if you drill and practice, practice,

practice, it starts coming easily,” she says. Coughlin believes teachers are doing their best to

address the curricula but given its broad scope, they tend to make a brief stop visiting the basics

and move on quickly.

Susan Holloway is an associate professor at the University of Windsor’s education

faculty who studies literacy. She says it’s not just that students aren’t being taught the basics, we

have to acknowledge that learning models are directly connected to our technological evolution.

Holloway suggests students aren’t writing as well because they are reading less. In this digitally-

saturated environment, schools are heading in a direction that embraces social networking and

group workshops as a means to studying grammatical skills. According to Holloway this isn’t

necessarily a bad thing. Instead of memorizing long lists of words and grammar rules, teachers

are encouraging students to adopt a group-led, discovery-based approach where they apply basic

grammar principles in their own writing. This concept ties back to the central curricula

23 Cross, Brian. “Are kids still learning the basics?” The Windsor Star. Windsor: 10, May. 2013, Print

statements that refer to using “unconventional grammar for effect.” The idea is to challenge

prescriptive concepts and expand creativity in collaborative settings in order achieve greater

resonance with students.

How is grammar being taught in schools?

The fact is, grammar isn’t being taught in schools. Teachers may talk about it, but they’re

not teaching it. Principles of grammar, well that conveys a snobby, needless atttention to what’s

traditionally been considered good, proper and correct. Equating good English with correct

grammar tends to alienate both teachers and students. For that reason, educators are more

comfortable with an informal exposure to the concepts of grammar and in many situations

choose to ignore the subject altogether. Shelly Stagg Peterson, a former Alberta elementary

school teacher and associate professor at the University of Toronto’s Ontario Institute for Studies

in Education says the bulk of what could be called grammar instruction is now focused solely on

student editing sessions with a few brief tutorials on common grammar mistakes. The goal is to

avoid obsessing over every error, encourage students to express their thoughts on paper and

weave in short grammar lessons when needed. The problem is, this “unsystematic approach”

isn’t really working. The notion that grammar can be absorbed intuitively by removing the

structure is not only naïve, it’s futile.

The importance of structure isn’t lost for Jessica Perciasepe. She’s a newly graduated

teacher from Ontario’s Niagara region and one of the first things she did after receiving her

graduate degree in professional studies at Niagara University’s College of Education was to

publish a prezi on how to get back to grammar basics for the Ontario College of Teachers.

Perciasepe says grammar is one of the most controversial teaching strategies among teachers.

“Some people believe that it’s a waste and some believe it’s an important part of the reading

process. If a student doesn’t know the structure of the language, how can they confidently read?”

asks Perciaspe. The answer? Perciaspe suggests choosing two major grammar concepts per week

and one lesson followed by daily practice on the rule or principle. After five weeks, students

would then write an in-class assignment using the two daily concepts. In addition to this

systematic approach, every day teachers should generate a grammar question that’s threaded

through a reading lesson. Students would be asked to skim literary passages looking for

examples of grammar rules.

Not all teachers are willing to approach grammar with a prescriptive lens. Some are so

averse, they refuse to highlight any errors at all and instead will “teach” grammar by having

students imitate models of good writing. This may mean reading classic literature and then

having students try to reproduce the style and content within their own experiences, or it could

refer to “modelled writing”. This approach is based on the notion that teachers demonstrate the

act of writing and the thoughts behind it while students observe the process and product rather

than contribute toward it. Another writing strategy recommended by Ontario’s Ministry of

Education is called “rapid writing”. See figure 1 below:

figure 1.

At first glance, rapid writing seems to embody a rather remedial methodology. It’s clear

the intent isn’t to draft, edit and create text while adhering to established structure. The

exercise is meant to spur creativity and produce the most words in the least amount of

time. It’s represents the first stage of the writing process where students are encouraged

to generate ideas in the most intuitive fashion possible.

Another approach that teachers in the Halton District School Board recommend is the

practice of sentence combining. The teacher presents the students with a series of simple

sentences. The students then work on putting the words together into complicated compound,

complex, and compound-complex sentences. Working in groups, students will exchange their

completed sentences and then reverse the process to break the sentences down again into simpler

phrases. The aim is to teach students about the complexity of sentence structure.

Engaging students in group related grammar exercises seems to be common theme.

Placing grammar in the context of a student’s perspective can be a positive way to connect to the

material. Asking students to write in pairs, to draft a persuasive paragraph with and without

action verbs, auxilliary verbs or conjnctions can help them better identify parts of speech. The

topic might be about learning to drive a car or why American Horror Story is an awesome show.

Teachers say they have more success when students’ personal interests serve as the grammar

template. It’s also a good way to open up the conversation about active and passive voice. For

The Writing Process

Generate Ideas

Develop and

OrganizeRevise

and Edit

example a teacher might divide a class into a couple of groups. One group would be assigned the

sentence, “Coldplay’s hot lead singer played the guitar.” The second group would work with the

passive version, “The guitar was played by Coldplay’s hot lead singer.” Each group would write

a narrative that ends with the sentence. The exercise would conclude with a class discussion

about the effectiveness of active versus passive voice and why active voice may be far more

powerful in certain situations.

A central argument surrounding the value of grammar instruction clearly lies in the

restrictive manner in which it has traditionally been presented. The “drill and kill” approach

refers to the relentless and repetitive exercises and grammar usage quizzes. In 1985, the National

Council of Teachers of English formally condemmed the practice in favour of a broader

language arts focus. But middle-school teacher Amy Benjamin cautions against an outright

denouncement. “If you come to believe in the value of grammar as a liberal art, you won’t worry

about the immediate utilitarian purpose of your instruction. You will trust that language is

valuable for its own sake. If you use sound pedagogy, you will see that your students are

interested and involved in grammar lessons, maybe even more so than they are in other kinds of

lessons in the English classroom.”24

In the words of former editor of English Journal, Leila Christenbury, “One thing that’s

certain, regardless of the approach a teacher chooses, grammar cannot be taught effectively if

students see no real need for it and if teachers cannot persuade them to see a need.”

24 Benjamin, Amy. Tom Oliva. Engaging Grammar: Practical advice for Real Classrooms. National Council of Teachers of English. 2007. Print.

Chapter Three

The Perspective from Higher Education

Navigating Through the Wreckage of Bad Grammar

It is a familiar lament. Students are entering University without basic writing

and grammar skills because teachers are afraid to teach grammar. Professors across

Canada say it’s a big problem that isn’t likely to be solved if we aren’t prepared to place

blame where it belongs – the failure of secondary school teachers and their curricula.

Not only are teachers ill-equipped to foster greater appreciation for the value of

prescriptive grammar principles, there’s a growing complacency toward writing

standards in this digital age. According to Paul Budra, the associate dean and English

professor at Simon Fraser University, High school teachers are failing students.

“There’s this emphasis on expressing yourself, on this idea that if you get it on the page,

it will be fine, it’s not.”25 High school students are getting entirely the wrong message.

It’s time students know that it’s not OK to write a paper filled with comma splices,

subject-verb disagreements, faulty parallelisms, dangling modifiers, mixed metaphors,

passive voice and run-on sentences.

By the time students get to university, it’s hoped that they have achieved a

reasonable level of writing ability because as University of Toronto political science

professor Richard Stren says Universities teach subject matter, not writing. When

writing ability inevitably falls short, “It’s assumed that by reading academic articles,

students will absorb how to write. It doesn’t work. I [give] out a lot of Cs,” he says.

Professor John Landstreet

Retired Western University Professor John Landstreet echoes the prevailing sentiment

concerning undergraduate writing skills. Following rules of grammar in one’s expository

expression is a practice very dear to his heart. But one wouldn’t immediately expect he’d

embrace the value of prescriptive grammar with such vigour because Professor Landstreet’s

background doesn’t stem from literature, language or communication. He’s an astronomy 25 Gilmour, Maggie. “Students can’t write.” Macleans. Toronto: 19, November 2010. Print.

professor who taught principles of molecular and nuclear physics. Landstreet credits his liberal

arts education for providing the foundation in humanities that ultimately fueled his passion for

articulate conversation.

Landstreet was born in Pennsylvania and grew up in New York. He received his BA in

physics from Reed College in Portland, Oregon but his passion for science led him to back to

New York where he earned a PhD from Columbia University. He left the U.S. in 1970 and

joined the faculty at Western University. Except for a few years in France, Landstreet based the

bulk of his academic career in Canada.

When he first arrived at Western, Landstreet says students thought he was from some

other universe. “I was famous for bleeding drafts. They were covered in red ink,” he remembers.

It wasn’t just that students didn’t understand grammar – they were incapable of producing a

narrative. The common failing Landstreet believes is at the root of ignorance, is the inability to

organize one’s thoughts. Aristotle’s model for coherent rhetorical discourse, the beginning,

middle and end – students can’t master it he says.

The cultural phenomenon

Why are writing standards so difficult to uphold? How can we account for the erosion of

grammar, syntax and vocabulary? Landstreet says it’s a cultural phenomenon not an educational

one. If we trace the roots of language, we see that children learn to speak in the playground (or

other similar social environments.) That was never more evident than in France where

Landstreet’s daughter Sarah spent her formative years learning French. Children spoke excellent

French, he says. “We didn’t hear a lot of discussion about the exact rules but standards were

revered,” Landstreet explains. Children could intuitively speak in perfect conditional subjunctive

because that’s the standard to which they were exposed. Even the vagabond on the street spoke

in an eloquent manner. The French have an extremely coherent view of discourse. It’s held in

high regard; therefore, children don’t hear anything else.

Here in Canada, schools are fighting a real uphill battle against the cultural norms of

language, Landstreet contends. There exists a complacent attitude about writing standards

because people want to write the way they speak. Could it be due to the greater diversity in

immigration? Or is it the desire to acquiesce to social sensitivities that plays a role in forming

this attitude? Landstreet suggests both may be factors in reinforcing poor writing skills. The

education system does a good job of integrating students, welcoming and accepting them.

Teachers are no longer disciplinarians. They want to be liked, and now more teachers are

speaking poorly because it’s more important to mimic the children than set an example for them.

Alas, the lure of the book, it’s waning…

Another major contributor to the decline in undergraduate writing ability is the decline of

the book’s popularity. Despite the fact that we have more “access” to the written word through

our iPads, iPhones and computers, we are reading less. The act of reading is in and of itself, a

discipline. A book is a long stream of continuity, Landstreet says. It tells a story with a

beginning, middle and end. But people are no longer disciplined to follow that process. Readers

have turned into scanners of short pieces of abbreviated text. “The idea of writing or reading a

continuous narrative, that has a complicated structure and makes an argument – that’s just not

familiar to us now,” Landstreet suggests. We read far less than 40 years ago and this is a cultural

problem that’s difficult for schools to address.

Grammar ain’t cool

If 50 per cent of secondary school graduates will likely attend university, schools will

make it easier for them. The trend today is to create a secondary school environment that’s

pleasant, socially focused and culturally inviting. The problem in Ontario according to Professor

Landstreet is that good English or grammar isn’t “cool”. We have lower writing standards

because it’s okay. It’s all part of an “inclusiveness” attitude. Instead of embracing grammar

because it’s fascinating and helps solve a problem, teachers aren’t buying into the “written

word.” And if they aren’t buying into it, they can’t sell it, Landstreet says.

Professor Sarah Wilner

Sarah Wilner is a marketing professor at Wilfred Laurier University in Waterloo. She

has a PhD in marketing from York University, Toronto; an MBA in marketing from SUNY

Buffalo; a post-baccalaureate in communication studies from Bentley University and an

undergraduate degree in cultural anthropology from Brandeis University with minors in

sociolinguistics and women's studies. Dr. Wilner is an accomplished marketer, having gained

considerable experience as a marketing and communications manager for several public sector

organizations. She’s originally from the U.S. and moved to Canada in 1995.

Dr. Wilner focuses her research on consumer behaviour from an ethnographic

perspective. She analyzes the notion of "consumer insight” using qualitative methods of inquiry

and investigating phenomena by being immersed in them. Currently, she is examining consumer

products firms' product design and development activities; issues related to sustainable new

products and services; the role of empathy in product development and the use of product design

to legitimize stigmatized consumption. Since ethnography is grounded in writing, Wilner has a

particular affinity for the interpretation and articulation of ideas.

English as the second language

Similar to Professor Landstreet, Dr. Wilner believes one of the complicated issues

schools are facing today is the large immigrant population. Students tend to write in a way that

echoes what they hear. Oral language has a huge impact on writing ability. If children are born

and raised in households where English isn’t the first language, they are at a significant

disadvantage in terms of mastering the subtleties of English grammar and expression.

Professor Wilner describes herself as a “qualitative” person. She asks students to draft

rhetorical essays and forces them to reflect on the arguments they make. She reviews

submissions in tracked mode and inundates the margins with her comments. Rhetorical skills are

acutely absent from most undergraduate student writing submissions, and Wilner constantly

challenges her students to prove their assertions.

It’s not about the rules, it’s about how grammar is being taught

Grammar has traditionally been promoted through rote memorization with a

concentration on the rules. But grammar is only one piece of the writing puzzle, says Wilner.

Teachers are the bigger issue. The key is how the message is articulated, conveyed and taught.

Curriculum is just the guide: it’s the car, and the teacher is the driver. Learning grammar is like

learning to drive. Through repetition we learn how to manoeuver a vehicle, to shift gears,

accelerate and to travel with ease. If we make a wrong turn, run a red light or crash into another

car, maybe we aren’t committed to following the rules. Or maybe we are simply bad drivers.

English teachers need to emphasize the rules of grammar and generate a passion for its value.

This intrinsic desire to learn Wilner says, is a function of a teacher’s grasp of the subject and

ability to transmit the concepts.

The reality is students are learning grammar far too late in the academic game. They need

to start embracing grammatical concepts in the elementary setting and then work on the

substantial development of those basic writing skills in the secondary school environment.

Wilner says what teachers should focus on is the “elegant proof”. Writers can change the entire

meaning of a sentence if improper grammar structure is applied. Recognizing this fact and

presenting the notion of grammar as a puzzle; now it’s an intriguing idea for students to explore.

If students think to themselves, “What’s the harm? It’s just an improperly placed apostrophe?”,

then they’re missing out on what’s important. We need to focus on the ideas and clear the

obstacles so we can see those ideas, Wilner explains. Punctuation offers a way of clarifying our

messages. “There’s a reason why students have a hard time writing. It’s unpredictable,” she

asserts.

Grammar is about order. There’s a right and a wrong, and that can be comforting – if we

understand and appreciate the rules. There is credibility to be gained when clarity is achieved and

a persuasive, reasoned and articulate message resonates with an audience. The ability to argue is

what sets a successful writer apart from communicators reluctant to embrace the value of

grammar. The proof is in the edits. Will teachers be up for the challenge?

Bibliography

Baer, Justin., Greenberg, Elizabeth., Kutner, Mark. “A First Look at the Literacy of America’s

Adults in the 21rst Century” Maryland: U.S. Department of Education. National Centre for

Education Statistics. (2005): Print.

Baron, Naomi S. “Adjusting the Volume: Technology and Multitasking in Discourse

Control”. 26 Jan 2006. Web. 21 Jun 2009.

---. “Alphabet to Email: How Written English Evolved and Where It’s Heading”. New York:

Routledge, 2001.

---. “Always On”. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Benjamin, Amy. Tom Oliva. Engaging Grammar: Practical advice for Real Classrooms. National

Council of Teachers of English. 2007. Print.

Boddington, Anne. “Onus on universities to halt decline in literacy”. The Toronto Star. Toronto:

20 Aug. 1992, Print.

Butler, Kate. “R txts 2 blame 4 a decline in literacy? Teachers and employers say writing

standards are slipping, but they can’t spell out the cause”. Sunday Times. London: 30 May

2010, Print.

Budra, Paul. “The Case for Teaching Grammar”. Education Canada, Volume 50 N4. ERIC.

(2010): Web.

Canadian Council on Learning. “State of Learning in Canada: No Time for Complacency,”

Report on Learning in Canada 2007 (Ottawa: 2007).

Canadian Council on Learning. “The Future of Literacy in Canada’s Largest Cities,”

Reading the Future: Planning to Meet Canada’s Future Literacy Needs 2008 (Ottawa:

2008).

Carter, Michael J., Harper, Heather. “Student Writing: Strategies to Reverse Ongoing Decline”.

Vol. 26, Issue 3 (Sept. 2013): 285-295 Academic Questions. Web. Oct. 30, 2013.

Clark, Ian D., Trick, David, Van Loon, Richard. Academic Reform: Policy Options for

Improving the Quality and Cost-Effectiveness of Undergraduate Education in Ontario.

Queens Policy Studies, No. 115. Kingston: McGill Queens University Press, October

2011. Print.

Cornell, Camilla. “How is grammar being taught in schools? What’s going on grammatically in

your child’s classroom?” Today’s Parent. Web. 26 Sept. 2011.

Coulson, Andrew J. “Schooling and Literacy over Time: The Rising Cost of Stagnation and

Decline”. Research in the Teaching of English. Vol. 30, No. 3 (Oct., 1996): 311-327

JSTOR. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

Cross, Brian. “Are kids still learning the basics?” The Windsor Star. Windsor: 10, May. 2013,

Print.

Elbow, Peter. “The Shifting Relationships between Speech and Writing”. College

English 36.3 (1985): 283-303.

----. “Reflections on academic discourse: How it relates to freshmen and colleagues”. College

English 53.2 (1991): 135. Education Research Complete. EBSCO. Web. 4 Mar. 2011.

Ganim, S. “Some college athletes play like adults, read like 5th graders”. CNN analysis. Web.

Jan. 2014.

Green, David A., Riddell, Craig W. Literacy and the Labour Market: The Generation of

Literacy and Its Impact on Earnings for Native Born Canadians. The Centre of Education

Statistics Division, Statistics Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Industry, November 2007.

Print.

Gilmour, Maggie. “Students can’t write.” Macleans. Toronto: 19, November 2010. Print.

Hauptman, Robert. “Behind Graduates Low Literacy”. The Washington Post. Washington: 6

Jan. 2006: A19, Print.

Higher Education Council of Ontario. Making the Grade? Troubling Trends in Postsecondary

Student Literacy. Issue Paper No. 16. October 31, 2013.

International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey (IALSS), 2003.

Jameson, Daphne A. “Literacy in Decline: Untangling the Evidence”. Business Communication

Quarterly, Vol. 70, Number 1. (2007): 16-33 Print.

Johnson, Jeff. “Too many Canadians have lowest levels of literacy, numeracy.” The Globe and

Mail. Toronto: 10 Oct. 2013, Print.

Kelley, Susanna. “Texting, Twitter Contributing to Students’ Poor Grammar Skills, Profs Say”

The Globe and Mail, Toronto: 1 Feb 2010, Print.

Lingwall, Andrew. “Analyzing Student Writing Proficiency and Assessment Measures in

Programs of Journalism and Mass Communication.” AEJMC 2010 National Convention.

(March 31, 2010): Print.

McCann, Wendy. “Student literacy in alarming decline”. Canadian Press NewsWire. Toronto:

19 Jan. 1998, Print.

Marszalek, Jessica. “How to Spell Failure: Teacher Literacy Slammed.” The Herald-Sun.

Australia: 22 Oct. 2012, Print.

Merchant, Guy. “Electric Involvement: Identity Performance in Children's Informal Digital

Writing.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 26.3 (2005): 301-314.

ERIC. EBSCO. Web. 31 Mar. 2010.

Ontario Ministry of Education. “The Ontario Curriculum – Language, Grades 1-8” (2006). Web.

http://www.edu.gov.on.ca.

Ontario Ministry of Education. “The Ontario Curriculum – English, Grade 9 and 10” (2007): The

Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Print.

Ontario Ministry of Education. “The Ontario Curriculum – English, Grade 11 and 12”. (2007):

Web. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. “Final Report of the International

Adult Literacy Survey – Literacy in the Information Age”. Statistics Canada. Web. 2000.

Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Inc. “How should colleges assess and improve student

learning? Employers’ views on the accountability challenge.” Peter D. Hart Research

Associates. Washington: 2008. Print.

Perciasepe, Jessica. Phonics, Grammar & Whole Language: The Intermediate Years.” Ontario

College of Teachers. Web. 19 Jan. 2013.

Reedy, Jeremiah. “Cultural Literacy for College Students”. Academic Questions Vol. 20 Issue 1,

(2006): 32, EBSCO. Web. 28 Oct. 2013.

Robin, Sarah. “Facts and Arguments: How to correct the vertical hold the literacy rate of high-

school graduates as it remains dismally low. What keeps kids mired in mediocrity?” The

Globe and Mail. Toronto: 31 May 1996. Print.

Schmidt, Sarah. “Almost half of Canadian adults are lagging in literacy: Stats Can report”.

Standard – Freeholder. Cornwall: 12 May 2005, Print.

Statistics Canada and Human Resources Development Canada, Reading the Future: A Portrait of

Literacy in Canada (Ottawa: 1996), Table 1.3

Sykes, Charles J. “Dumbing Down our Kids: Why American Children Feel Good About

Themselves but Can’t Read, Write, or Add.” New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1995.

Simkin, Mark G., Crews, Janna M., and Groves, Mary J. Student Perceptions of Their Writing

Skills: Myth and Reality. Western Decision Sciences Institute. Reno: University of Nevada,

(2010). Print.

UNESCO, Statement for the United Nations Literacy Decade, 2003-2012

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education

Statistics, 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey and 2003 National Assessment of Adult

Literacy.

Wooley, Frances. “Should Spelling and Grammar Count?” Worthwhile Canadian Initiative.

(Nov. 6, 2011) Canadian economics blog. Web. Nov 1, 2013.

Zephyrhawke, Kate. “Addressing the Decline of Academic Performance Among First-Year

Composition Students: A Usability Analysis of Two Important Online Resources” (2011):

Graduate School Theses and Dissertations. University of South Florida. Web.

http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3420