THE EFFECT OF STORYTELLING AND SELF-MOTIVATION

ON STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ABILITY

(A Quasi-experimental Research at the Eighth Grade

of SMP Insan Rabbany, BSD, South Tangerang)

THESIS

Completed as Partial Requirements for a Completion of Master Degree

at Graduate Program of English Education Department

Faculty of Educational Sciences

Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta

WILDA AKMALIA

21150140000014

GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

2019

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declared that the thesis entitled “The Effect of Storytelling and Self-Motivation on

Students‟ Speaking Ability” (A Quasi-Experimental Research at the Eighth Grade of SMP

Insan Rabbany) represents my original work and that I have used no other sources except

as noted by citations. All data, tables, figures and text citations which have been

reproduced from any other sources have been explicitly acknowledged as such. I have read

and understood the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) of Indonesia‟ decree No 17

Year 2010 regarding plagiarism in higher education, therefore I am responsible for any

claims in the future regarding the originality of my thesis.

Jakarta, September 2018

Wilda Akmalia

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ABSTRACT

Wilda Akmalia (2018) :

The Effect of Storytelling and Self-Motivation

on Students‟ Speaking Ability (A Quasi-

Experimental Research at the Eighth Grade of

SMP Insan Rabbany – South Tangerang)

The objective of this research is to prove empirically the effect of storytelling and self-

motivation on students‟ speaking ability at the eighth grade of SMP Insan Rabbany, BSD,

in South Tangerang, academic year 2017/2018. Conducted by using quasi-experimental

method, the data was collected through questionnaire, test, and documentation. The

population in this study was all students of SMP Insan Rabbany, while the target

population is all the eighth graders which consist of 127 pupils. Meanwhile, the sample of

this study were two classes of grade eight; one class as the experimental group and the

other as the control group. The intake group sampling technique was used under the

reason not to interfere the school system and structures that have been established there.

The students‟ speaking ability data was obtained through speaking test where the scores

were interpreted using speaking assessment rubric. Meanwhile, the data of students‟ self-

motivation was gained through the „AMTB‟ adapted from R.C. Gardner. The results of

this study revealed that: (1) there is significant difference on students‟ speaking ability

between those who are taught by storytelling and dialogic reading, (2) there is significant

difference on students‟ speaking ability between those who have high self-motivation that

are taught by storytelling and dialogic reading, (3) there is significant difference on

students‟ speaking ability between those who have low self-motivation that are taught by

storytelling and dialogic reading, and (4) there is no interaction between storytelling and

self-motivation on students‟ speaking ability. Overall, about 91.7 percent students of

experimental group have gained the „Excellent‟, „Well Done‟, and „Very Good‟ predicate

on their speaking test. This means that through this technique, the students‟ speaking

ability is improved.

Keywords: Storytelling, Self-motivation, Speaking Ability

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ABSTRAK

Wilda Akmalia (2018) :

Pengaruh Storytelling dan Motivasi Diri pada

Kemampuan Speaking Siswa

(Penelitian Kuasi Eksperimen pada Siswa Kelas

Delapan SMP Insan Rabbany – Tangerang

Selatan)

Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk membuktikan secara empiris pengaruh bercerita

dan motivasi diri terhadap kemampuan berbicara siswa di kelas delapan SMP Insan

Rabbany, BSD, di Tangerang Selatan, tahun akademik 2017/2018. Dilakukan dengan

menggunakan metode eksperimen semu, data dikumpulkan melalui kuesioner, tes, dan

dokumentasi. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah semua siswa SMP Insan Rabbany,

sedangkan populasi target adalah semua siswa kelas delapan yang terdiri dari 127 siswa.

Sementara itu, sampel penelitian ini adalah dua kelas delapan; satu kelas sebagai kelompok

eksperimen dan yang lainnya sebagai kelompok kontrol. Teknik intake group sampling

digunakan dengan alasan agar tidak mengganggu sistem dan struktur sekolah yang telah

diterapkan di sana. Data kemampuan berbicara siswa diperoleh melalui tes berbicara

dimana skor siswa diinterpretasikan menggunakan rubrik penilaian speaking. Sementara

itu, data motivasi diri siswa diperoleh melalui 'AMTB' yang diadaptasi dari R.C. Gardner.

Hasil penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa: (1) ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada

kemampuan berbicara siswa antara mereka yang diajar dengan storytelling dan dialogic

reading, (2) ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada kemampuan berbicara siswa antara

mereka yang memiliki motivasi diri tinggi yang diajarkan oleh storytelling dan dialogic

reading, (3) ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada kemampuan berbicara siswa antara

mereka yang memiliki motivasi diri rendah yang diajarkan oleh storytelling dan dialogic

reading, dan (4) tidak ada interaksi antara storytelling dan motivasi diri pada kemampuan

berbicara siswa. Secara keseluruhan, sekitar 91,7 persen siswa dari kelompok eksperimen

memperoleh predikat 'Sangat Baik', 'Bagus', dan 'Sangat Bagus' dalam tes berbicara

mereka. Hal ini berarti bahwa melalui teknik ini, kemampuan berbicara siswa meningkat.

Kata Kunci: storytelling (bercerita), motivasi diri, kemampuan berbicara

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الملخص

التحدثتأثري رواية القصص والدافع الذايت على قدرة الطالب على )البحث عن جتربة شبو لطالب الصف الثامن من مدرسة إنسان رباين

جنوب تاجنريانج( –املتوسطة

(:8102وايلد أكماليا )

من الثامن الصف يف التحدث على الطالب قدرة على الذايت والدافع القصص رواية تأثري إثبات ىو البحث ىذا من اهلدف SMP Insan Rabbany ، BSD ، South Tangerang ، year 2017/2018. مجع ومت ، جتريبية شبو طريقة باستخدام إجراؤىا مت

طالب مجيع الدراسة ىذه يف السكان كان. والوثائق واالختبار االستبيان خالل من البيانات طالب مجيع ىم املستهدفني السكان أن حني يف ، كمجموعة واحدة فئة. الثامن الصف من فئتني الدراسة ىذه من عينة كانت ، نفسو الوقت ويف. تلميذا 721 من يتألفون الذين الثامن الصف مت اليت واهلياكل املدرسي النظام يف التدخل عدم سبب حتت السحب جمموعة العينات أخذ تقنية استخدام مت. املراقبة جمموعة باسم واآلخر جتريبية

. التكلم تقييم منوذج باستخدام النتائج تفسري مت حيث التحدث اختبار خالل من للطالب التحدث قدرة بيانات على احلصول مت. ىناك تأسيسهاخالل من للطالب الذايت التحفيز بيانات اكتساب مت ، نفسو الوقت ويف "AMTB" من تعديلها مت اليت R.C. أوضحت. احلديقة عامل

وجود( 2) ، احلوارية والقراءة القصص سرد يدرسهم الذين بني التحدث على الطالب قدرة يف معنوي فرق وجود( 7: )يلي ما الدراسة ىذه نتائج ، احلوارية والقراءة القصص سرد خالل من تدريسو يتم الذي احلافز. عالية ذاتية مهارات لديهم من بني التحدث على الطالب قدرة يف معنوي فرق

، واحلوار القصص سرد طريق عن تدريسهم يتم منخفض ذايت حافز لديهم الذين أولئك بني التحدث على الطالب قدرة يف كبري فرق ىناك( 3) من املائة يف 77.1 حوايل حصل ، عام بشكل. التحدث على الطالب قدرة على الذايت التحفيز و القصص سرد بني تفاعل يوجد ال( 4) و

ا جيد" و" اإلعداد حسن" و" ممتاز" التقييم على التجريبية اجملموعة من الطالب ، التقنية ىذه خالل من أنو يعين وىذا. احملادثة اختبار على" جد التحدث على الطالب قدرة حتسني يتم .

كلمات البحث: رواية القصص ، والدافع الذايت ، والقدرة على التحدث

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ACKNOWLEGMENT

In the name of Allah, The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful. All praises and

gratitude be to Allah SWT for the health and strength, so that the writer is able to complete

this final project. Piece and salutation be upon to our prophet Muhammad SAW, the most

inspiring human in this universe.

This thesis is presented to Department of English Education Department, Faculty

of Educational Sciences, State Islamic University (UIN) Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta as

the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Master Program in English Language

Education.

The writer realizes that this thesis would not finish well without support, suggestion

and help from her husband, mother, daughter, sisters, lecturers, colleagues, and also her

friends. Based on this reason, the writer wants to thank for all of them who have

helped her until finished this final project.

Furthermore, the writer‟s deepest gratitude and respect goes to her advisors, Dr.

Fahriany, M.Pd. and Dr. Sita Ratnaningsih, M.Pd., for their helpful advices and guidance

during this thesis completion. Also, to Dr. Ratna Sari Dewi, M.Pd. and Fuad Fachruddin,

M.Sc., Ph.D., for all constructive advices and guidance during the thesis revision of trial

result examination. The writer would not be able to finish her theses without their help.

The writer also would like to express her gratitude to:

1. Prof. Ahmad Thib Raya, M.A., the Dean of Educational Sciences Faculty.

2. Dr. Fahriany, M.Pd., the Head of Graduate Program of English Education.

3. All the lecturers in Graduate Program of English Education for their valuable

guidance and encouragement during the writer‟s study.

4. Teachers and staffs of SMP Insan Rabbany for their helpful assistance during the

research data collecting.

Jakarta, January 2019

Wilda Akmalia

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ADVISOR APPROVAL FORM ............................................................................. i

EXAMINER APPROVAL FORM ......................................................................... ii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALIY ......................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ......................................................................................... vii

TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. x

LIST OF CHARTS ............................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1

A. Background of the Research .............................................................................. 1 B. Identification of the Problem .............................................................................. 3 C. Limitation of the Problem ................................................................................... 4 D. Research Questions ............................................................................................ 4 E. Objective of the Research ................................................................................... 4 F. Significance of the Reseach ................................................................................ 5

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 6

A. Speaking ............................................................................................................ 6 1. The Definition of Speaking ........................................................................ 8 2. Speaking as a Language Ability ................................................................. 9 3. Teaching Speaking ..................................................................................... 10 4. Assessing Speaking ................................................................................... 13

B. The Nature of Storytelling ................................................................................. 17 1. A Brief History of Storytelling ................................................................... 17 2. The Definition of Storytelling .................................................................... 19 3. Storytelling and Teaching Speaking ........................................................... 24

C. The Dialogic Reading ......................................................................................... 29 1. The Reading Aloud .................................................................................... 29 2. The Dialogic Reading ................................................................................ 29

D. The Concept of Self-motivation .......................................................................... 31 1. The Definition of Self-motivation ............................................................... 31 2. Types of Motivation .................................................................................... 32 3. Enhancing Motivation ................................................................................ 34

E. Previous Related Study ....................................................................................... 38 F. Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................... 39 G. Theoretical Hypotheses ....................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................... 42

A. Place and Time of the Research ......................................................................... 42 B. Research Design ................................................................................................ 44 C. Population and Sample ...................................................................................... 45

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D. Research Instrument .......................................................................................... 46 1. Test Instrument, Speaking Ability Test ....................................................... 46 2. Non-Test Instrument, Students‟ Self-Motivation Questionnaire .................. 50

E. Technique of Data Collection ............................................................................ 53 F. Techniques of Data Analyses ............................................................................. 53 G. Statistical Hypotheses ........................................................................................ 54

CHAPTER IV. FINDING AND DISCUSSION ................................................... 56

A. Research Finding .............................................................................................. 56 1. Data Description ....................................................................................... 56 2. The Prerequisite Tests for Data Analysis ................................................... 69

B. Discussion ....................................................................................................... 77

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ........................................... 83

A. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 83 B. Suggestion ......................................................................................................... 83 C. Implication ........................................................................................................ 84

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 85

APPENDIXES ......................................................................................................... 89

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Speaking Rubric ....................................................................................................... 34

Table 2.2 Grading Scale of Speaking Test – Weighting Table .................................................. 36

Table 2.3 Grading Scale of Speaking Test – Conversion Table ................................................. 36 Table 3.1 Timeline of the Research .......................................................................................... 40

Table 3.2 Research Design ....................................................................................................... 43

Table 3.3 The Aspect Measured and Indicators of Speaking Ability ......................................... 45 Table 3.4 Speaking Rubric ....................................................................................................... 46

Table 3.5 The Aspect Measured and Indicators of Students‟ Self-

motivation ................................................................................................................ 48

Table 3.6 Validity of Students‟ Self-motivation Questionnaire ................................................. 50 Table 3.7 The Reliability Index of Students‟ Motivation

Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 51

Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistic Data ......................................................................................... 54 Table 4.1.1 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability by Using

Storytelling .............................................................................................................. 55

Table 4.1.2 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Using Dialogic Reading ...................................................................................................... 57

Table 4.1.3 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability with High

Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 58

Table 4.1.4 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability with Low Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 60

Table 4.1.5 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability with Low

Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 61 Table 4.1.6 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by

Using Storytelling with Low Self-motivation ............................................................ 63

Table 4.1.7 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by Using Dialogic Reading with High Self-motivation .................................................. 64

Table 4.1.8 Frequency Table of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by

Using Dialogic Reading with Low Self-motivation ................................................... 66

Table 4.1.9 Paired Sample T-test of A1 (Storytelling) ................................................................. 67 Table 4.1.10 Paired Sample T-test of A2 (Dialogic reading) .......................................................... 68

Table 4.2.1 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test ................................................................... 69

Table 4.2.2 The Calculation of Homogeneity Test for Speaking Ability…………………………………………………………… 70

Table 4.2.3 ANOVA Table (X1 towards Y) ................................................................................. 72

Table 4.2.4 ANOVA Table (X2 towards Y) ................................................................................. 73

Table 4.2.5 ANOVA Test (2x2) .................................................................................................. 74 Table 4.2.6 Post Hoc Tests of Multiple Comparisons .................................................................. 74

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LIST OF HISTOGRAMS

Figure 4.1.1 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability by Using

Storytelling ............................................................................................................... 56

Figure 4.1.2 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability by Using Dialogic Reading ....................................................................................................... 57

Figure 4.1.3 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability with High

Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.1.4 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability with Low

Self-motivation ......................................................................................................... 60

Figure 4.1.5 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by

Using Storytelling with High Self-motivation ............................................................ 62 Figure 4.1.6 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by

Using Storytelling with Low Self-motivation ............................................................ 63

Figure 4.1.7 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by Using Dialogic Reading with High Self-motivation .................................................... 65

Figure 4.1.8 Histogram of Students‟ Speaking Ability Taught by

Using Dialogic Reading with Low Self-motivation ................................................... 66

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design .................................................................... 34

Figure 3.1 The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design .................................................................... 42

Figure 4.2.1 The Scatterplot of Storytelling towards Students‟ Speaking Ability ....................................................................................................... 70

Figure 4.2.2 The Scatterplot of Self-motivation towards Students‟

Speaking Ability ....................................................................................................... 71 Figure 4.2.3 The Scatterplot of Storytelling and Self-motivation

towards Students‟ Speaking Ability .......................................................................... 71

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AMTB Attitude/Motivation Test Battery .............................................................................. 2

B.C.E. Before the Common Era or Before the Current Era

(equivalent to BC –Before Christ) ............................................................................

6

C.E. Common Era or Current Era (equivalent to AD –

Anno Domini, the year of the Lord) ...........................................................................

7

CLT Communicative Language Teaching .......................................................................... 1 EFL English as a Foreign Language .................................................................................. 1

ESL English as a Second Language ................................................................................... 2

NCLRC National Capital Language Resource Center ............................................................. 10 29

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Research

Speaking is one of productive skills that students should learn, especially in

English class. It is also an important skill as we speak everyday with people around

us. From the context of teaching English as second language, speaking skill is seen as

priority for many EFL learners in the world (Sharma, 2018, p. 99). Whereas, the

expected target of learning speaking English as foreign language is for student to

communicate effectively since this skill is the basic for communication (Zyoud, 2016,

p. 1). Furthermore, from the context of Indonesian curriculum policy, the expected

target of learning speaking English is to promote students to understand and to use the

language in the classroom. Based on the statement above, the teaching learning

activities in the classroom should use effective and interesting technique to make

students‟ speaking skill good so that they would be able to speak with people around

them confidently.

However, teachers in the classroom mostly use activities such as doing grammar

exercises and workbooks, and also reading aloud, in which it is including to textbook

centered activities. To make an effective English speaking environment, teachers can

introduce storytelling as the teaching technique to the students. In line with this

statement, the National Curriculum (2013) of Indonesia concerns English language

teaching to use Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in its objectives.

According to Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011, p. 115), CLT has a broad

objective of making communicative competence as the goal of language teaching.

Furthermore, according to the Curriculum, the purpose of teaching English in

Indonesia is for students to be able to understand and use the language in unexpected

situations, based on their curiosity of a real phenomenon, relating to general

knowledge, technology, culture and art. In this main competency of the Curriculum

also stated that students have to learn all the language skills (reading, writing,

listening, speaking, and even drawing and counting) in English. These goals are

desirable to be acknowledged and encouraged the use of storytelling.

Furthermore, the most popular teaching methods implemented in English language

classrooms at the junior-high level in Indonesia are textbook-centered and teacher-

directed. The National Curriculum Guide recommends the use of participatory

approach to teach in the classroom, such as the use of games and role-plays, in which

they promote active and creative language learning and are not often used yet. Instead

of using them, teachers often use whole-group instruction in their class. Other

activities that appeared to be used by teachers were grammar exercises, the use of

workbooks and reading aloud. These textbook-centered and teacher-directed strategies

used by most teachers indicate that many English language teachers in Indonesia may

not implement those suggested strategies of the English language objectives of the

National Curriculum in their classroom.

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The other factors that become an obstacle in implementing English speaking class

are lack of preparation in teaching. According to Fahriany (2014) most teachers

doesn‟t realize that they are facing a huge amount of students in a classroom with

different capabilities, learning style, and socio-economic culture. In this case, teachers

should be more prepared well to deal with students with different personal

background. For instance, teachers should find interesting activities to be used in their

English class.

Aside from problems happen to English language teachers, more problems happen

to students. Students are expected to have a good reading and writing ability as well as

listening and speaking, as stated in the National Curriculum mentioned previously.

Yet, some students of junior high school, especially the eighth graders still have

problems in their English skills, particularly in their speaking ability. They maybe

don‟t know that many simple classroom activities that could improve their speaking

ability, for example practicing a storytelling. If students learn English language by

using this technique, they would see how English materials –such as vocabulary,

pronunciation and grammar, could be learned and practiced enjoyably as well as

interestingly.

The other problems that arise at school are some students who have low self-

motivation in learning English. Some of them often feel shy when they are asked to

say some sentences in English, and some other often feel worried if they said

something mistakenly or mispronounced. To some extent, the students even feel doubt

about their ability to do the English conversation or to do more English speaking,

particularly when they are asked to speak up in front of the class. Moreover, there are

some students who have an extremely nervous feeling until they could not even say a

single word in front of the class. In this case, they only would be able to speak up in

front of their teachers face to face.

Dealing with those motivational and anxious problems that happen to some

students in the class, there are some ways to check the students‟ attitude and

motivation at the same time. In line with this, students‟ self-motivation could be

measured by using Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) designed by Gardner

(2004, p. 1). Researchers can use this questionnaire because the questions are mostly

about students‟ self-confidence in using English, their action when they are faced by

English circumstances in their daily life, their interest in learning English, their feeling

about learning English, their view about native speakers, and also their parents‟ view

about learning English. By using this questionnaire, it is expected that language

teachers will gain a better understanding of the reasons underlying their students'

different academic outcomes and thus may help them find ways to enhance

appropriate instructional design for English language learning, particularly on

speaking ability.

Regarding to storytelling, some previous researches have been done. According to

Palacio (2010, p. 73) one of the many effective strategies that teachers can use to help

ESL (English as a Second Language) students improve their speaking skills and class

3

participation is storytelling. The results of her research indicated that both

communicative and social strategies as well as exposure to independent reading help

ESL students improve their communicative skills and class participation in the middle

school, North Carolina, the United States of America. The difference between the

previous study and this study is the researcher in this study tries to investigate the

effect of storytelling and students‟ self-motivation in their speaking ability.

Meanwhile, the previous study only focus on the effect of storytelling on students‟

vocabulary and another study was focus on the effect of storytelling to class

participation. Furthermore, in this study the researcher will use 2 classes which will be

given different treatment and will be divided as experimental group (storytelling) and

control group (text-based dialog practice). The objective of this study is as same as the

previous study which is to see the improvement of students‟ speaking ability and to

know which treatment gives significance effect. The method will be used in this study

is quasi experimental research.

Furthermore, another research undertaken by Al-Mansour and Al-Shorman (2011,

p. 74) found that teacher‟s storytelling techniques implemented on elementary

students improved their reading comprehension in Saudi Arabia. This research

showed that there is a significant difference effect on students‟ reading

comprehensions of those who are taught by storytelling technique and those who are

taught by traditional way or the like. The results showed that the experimental group

performed better than the control group on the final result. Furthermore, another

research had been conducted by Mokhtar, Abdul Halim & Syed Kamarulzaman in

2011. According to them (2011, p. 168), there are some language aspects that could be

improved through storytelling, one of them is the students‟ communication skills. The

result showed that there are several improvements on students‟ communication skill,

particularly in speaking and vocabulary –which after some practices, students knew

when and where to use words and phrases.

Considering the problems above, it is essential to do a research on the

effectiveness of particular teaching technique and learning motivation so that students

can be optimally facilitated and interested in language learning. Thus, this study aims

at examining the effect of storytelling and self-motivation on students‟ speaking

ability. Hence, this study will be conducted under the title: The Effect of Storytelling

and Self-Motivation on Students‟ Speaking Ability at the Eighth Graders of Insan

Rabbany Junior High School in BSD, South Tangerang, in 2017-2018 academic

years.

B. Identification of the Problem

Based on the background of the research mentioned above, some problems could

be identified as follows:

1. Teaching method used by teachers is textbook-centered and teacher-directed.

2. Storytelling could be one of technique preferences to be used in the classroom.

3. Teachers often lack preparation in teaching.

4

4. Students of junior high school may not now about storytelling.

5. Students of junior high school may not have a good speaking ability.

6. Students maybe don‟t know about their self-motivation in learning English.

7. Some students of junior high school of SMP Insan Rabbany have low motivation

in learning English.

C. Limitation of the Problem

To avoid the research from being overbroad, the limitation of the problems is

decided as follows:

1. Teaching method used by teachers is textbook-centered and teacher-directed.

2. Students of junior high school may not have a good speaking ability.

3. Some students of junior high school of SMP Insan Rabbany have low motivation

in learning English.

D. Research Questions

In line with the limitation of the problem above, four research questions were

addressed as follows:

1. Is there any difference on students‟ speaking ability between those who are

taught by storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic reading?

2. Is there any difference on students‟ speaking ability between students who

have high self-motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are

taught by dialogic reading?

3. Is there any difference on students‟ speaking ability between students who

have low self-motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are

taught by dialogic reading?

4. Is there any interactional effect between storytelling and self-motivation on

students‟ speaking ability?

E. Objective of the Research

In line with the formulation of the problem, the objectives of this research are to

obtain the empirical evidence about:

1. the effect on students‟ speaking ability between those who are taught by

storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic reading.

2. the effect on students‟ speaking ability between students who have high self-

motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic

reading.

3. the effect on students‟ speaking ability between students who have low self-

motivation that are taught by storytelling and those who are taught by dialogic

reading.

4. the interaction between storytelling and self-motivation on students‟ speaking

ability.

5

F. Significance of the Research

The results of this research are expected to give some benefits theoretically and

practically, to:

Firstly, the results of this research are very useful for teachers. Theoretically, they

can get valuable information about how storytelling and self-motivation may effect on

students‟ speaking ability. This information would enrich their knowledge in that

field, especially in understanding storytelling as one of their teaching strategies.

Practically, they can use this information to improve their teaching technique.

Teachers can create some activities that will improve students‟ speaking habit as it

will lead into their improvement in speaking ability. This study will also provide some

insight to the teachers to promote the effective teaching of English by employing a

variety of approaches or methods.

Secondly, the results of this research are useful for the institution or school

principals. Conceptually, they can release school policy with respect to promote the

effective teaching of English through innovative ways or creative teaching English. It

is then may enrich their information about their students‟ motivation in learning

English. Practically, this information can be used as a reference to make another

innovation and improvement in their school as they are the decision maker. In this

case, the school might provide some teachers training on teaching strategies or

teaching techniques to their employees, particularly the English teachers, so that the

school will have their own standard in implementing effective teaching. By doing this,

students would be able to overcome their problem in learning English, particularly in

improving their speaking ability.

Lastly, the results of this research are useful for researchers. Conceptually, they

can use it as a comparison with other studies in this field. Practically, they can use the

information to do further research relating to this issue, or perhaps to do further

research about other aspects that might contribute to speaking ability improvement.

The more research is conducted, the varied the findings will be.

To conclude, by doing this research, hopefully both teacher and student will have

enjoyable English speaking class as storytelling is designed to create interesting

learning environment and to enhance students‟ self-motivation in learning English.

6

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Speaking

Nowadays, speaking is one of the four English skills that should be mastered by junior

high school students in Indonesia. Beside of its existence in the National Curriculum,

speaking is also a tool to communicate to each other, so that students need to learn how

to do it correctly as well as communicatively. Dealing with speaking, Khan and Ali

(2010, p. 3576) took Laver‟s view and stated that speech is the prime means of

communication, especially in society. Therefore, if we failed to develop communication

through speech in our society, the structure of the society itself would be substantially

different. For instance, there will be no an Independence Day‟s celebration because the

people of particular society are not talking, collaborating, and cooperating to each other.

From this statement, it can be concluded that speaking is seen as the central skill to

communicate with others through speaking the target language fluently and correctly.

Aside from its function as the prime means of communication, speaking also stands as

an interactive process to construct meaning. In line with this, Idrissovaa, Smagulovaa,

and Tussupbekova (2015, p. 278) took Brown‟s view that “speaking is an interactive

process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing

information.” From this view, it is clear that there are some processes happen on

speaking, namely: producing, receiving, and processing information. These three

processes create form and meaning which are dependent on the context in which it

occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical

environment, and the purposes for speaking. Those form and meaning in speaking –

participants, experiences, and environments, are often spontaneous, open ended and

evolving or other often say it as unpredictable. However, speech is not always

unpredictable. Language functions that tend to be repeated in certain discourse situations

(e.g.: declining and invitation, requesting time off from work) can be identified and

charted.

Speaking requires not only that learners know how to produce specific points of

language, such as grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also

that they understand when, why and in what way to produce language (sociolinguistic

competence). In line with this statement, Boonkit (2010, p. 1306) took Zhang‟s view that

students who study EFL usually have limited opportunities to speak English outside the

classroom and also limited exposure to English speakers or members of the international

community. This might be one reason for teachers to provide more situations and

activities for students to strengthen their speaking competence.

Another problem underlying some difficulties in speaking faced by students is stated

by Jordan (1997, p. 193-204). He stated that one of the biggest difficulties for students is

expressing themselves in speaking. There are some situations in which students usually

find that it is difficult for them to speak up:

1) Asking questions in lectures;

7

Some students mostly ask many questions during review sessions at the end of each

major division of topic or chapter rather than asking those questions in the day when

the topic is being discussed. Furthermore, in most classroom communities, students

could signal that they wanted a turn to talk but had to wait to be recognized by the

teacher. In this case, teachers need to be more aware of their students‟ condition, so

that those who are seemed having a question could be pleased to have a question to be

asked.

2) Participation in seminars/discussions;

The main purpose of a discussion is to give students opportunities to ask questions

and to give new information. Meanwhile, the teacher‟s role in a discussion is to guide

the discussion, which is seen to be the most important student role, followed by

listening and note-taking. Some language functions that will be learnt by the students

in a discussion are interrupting; asking questions; expressing general comments;

agreeing; disagreeing; expressing criticism, objections, and doubt; making

suggestions; and expressing opinions.

For some students, it will be hard for them to take a turn in a discussion because they

need to prepare the relevant topic as the topic being discussed, to think on their own

point of view related to the topic, and to be ready for their own performance.

3) Making oral presentations, answering questions/points;

Some problems that the students usually find in oral presentation are the different

audience, the repeated talk, and the limited time to speak up. Those previous problems

are then the one that could trigger their self-confidence. Overall, if the students

prepare well for their presentation, such as general introduction, information in detail,

and conclusion, there‟s nothing to be worried off.

4) Verbalizing data, and giving oral instructions in seminars/workshops/laboratories.

Students usually find it too hard in listening, understanding, and speaking, rather than

in reading and writing. They often feel hard to understand a text that contains

numerical data which it is hard to explain as well. In this case, they can use the

describing and drawing technique rather than to explain the original form of numerical

data in a table for example. It is good for them to provide all the data in histograms,

maps, or even plans.

In line with the speaking problems stated previously, Jordan (1997, p. 205) continued

his statement about the speech difficulty that faced by students in a classroom. He stated

that the difficulty in speaking may be caused by shyness and personality factors in which

they are not related to the language being used or the target language. While another

important factors that underlying the difficulty in speaking are the individual difficulties

with pronunciation, stress, intonation or overall rhythm. In one case, the students‟ speech

may be unintelligible to other students or teacher which then they should have a self-

access help to be performed on them. The self-access help could be achieved by working

independently in a language laboratory or resource center. In other word, the students

need to be trained to be self-critical and to monitor themselves so that they will probably

have an intelligible speech for the further time.

8

In brief, speaking is a skill or an ability that students nowadays should have because it

plays an important role in English language learning.

1. The Definition of Speaking

Speaking is one of the four skills in English learning that plays an important role. As

what speaking becomes the main role in learning English, talk also becomes an important

part in formulating a speech. Sidnell (2010, p. 1) stated that talk is at the heart of human

social life. He continued that it is through talk that human engages with one another in a

distinctively human way. Human use talk to argue, to complain, to woo, to please, to

commemorate, to denigrate, to justify, to entertain and so on. Furthermore, Cole (2007, p.

7) stated that talk is the first form of language most of us learn, but we are probably

unaware of how we learnt it, or the level and types of skills we possess. She continued

that when someone talks, his mind is dealing with large amounts of information, and it is

doing so with remarkable agility, speed and subtlety. It means that when someone talks,

he is in the process of getting the information in which it is very fast and easy at the same

time, and it also has an important detail but difficult to notice or to understand. This

process is unconscious and people rarely reflect on what involves in it. In brief, human

has his own way to talk and somehow to process the information through its process.

Human will always talk, in many ways of their own ability to do it; if human didn‟t talk,

they would never have the lives they do (Sidnell, 2010, p. 1).

Furthermore, speaking is also included to one of the Multiple Intelligences theory in

which it is categorized in the linguistics intelligence promoted by Howard Gardner, a

psychologist of Harvard University in 1983. It means that speaking plays an essential role

in building one‟s intelligences. Barbulet (2014, p. 21) explained that this is the

intelligence of language and communication. He continued that this intelligence includes

the ability to speak, articulate, express, and convey one‟s thoughts and feelings to the

outside world in one or more languages. This intelligence could be found in the form of

oral and written level, which also includes the ability to listen to and to understand other

people. In brief, speaking is an activity which comprehends the ability of listening and

understanding people‟s talk and finally uses their thoughts to tell people about the

information.

According to Luoma (2004, p. 9) when people hear someone speaks, they pay

attention to what the speaker sounds like automatically. And based on what they hear,

they make some tentative judgments about the speaker‟s personality, attitudes, home

region and even native/non-native speaker status. As speakers, consciously or

unconsciously, people use their speech to create an image of themselves to others. By

using speed and pausing, and some variations in pitch, volume and intonation, they also

create a texture for their talk that supports and enhances what they are saying and where

they are originally from. In brief, speaker‟s personality, attitudes, and even native/non-

native speaker status can be seen from their way of speaking style such as speed and

pausing, volume and intonation, and also their pitch.

9

Furthermore, regarding to the interactive and social features of speaking, Luoma

(2004, p. 27) stated that few people would question their relevance for understanding

what speaking is like. For example, from our own experience with speaking, we know

that conversations with different people turn out to be different even if we ourselves have

more or less the same things to say. It is because speakers react to each other and

construct discussions differently. Speakers‟ meanings are vague so that speakers or

listeners have different way of speaking or listening according to the situation. In brief,

our speaking topic with others might be similar, but it doesn‟t mean that our way of

speaking and conveying meaning of that topic is similar too. It happens because people

are speaking and listening differently according to the situation.

Regarding to speaking and writing as productive skills, Luoma (2004, p. 12) stated

that in speaking, the idea is transferred directly in that time and that makes speaking is

simpler than writing grammatically. Also, the listeners have to comprehend the idea in

the real time to respond to what the speakers said so that there will be a great

differentiation between producing idea in speaking and writing. In other words, although

speaking and writing has similarity as productive skills, their differentiation between

each other is that speaking will need faster respond in expressing idea rather than that in

writing.

2. Speaking as a Language Ability

Many language learners assume speaking ability as the measure of knowing a

language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much more

than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking as the

most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their

accomplishments in spoken communication. In line with this, Idrissovaa, Smagulovaa,

and Tussupbekova (2015, p. 278) took Xiaohong‟s view that speaking is “one of the most

necessary language proficiency”. Speaking, thus, seems to be the most important ability

in the process of English teaching and learning. In addition, today's world requires

students with well-improved communicative skill. Therefore, students can express

themselves and learn how to follow the social and culture rules. In other words, students

have to improve their speaking ability not only for expressing themselves in target

language but also for learning about social and culture rules of their countries.

According to the National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC) of the George

Washington University (2003), language learners need to recognize three areas of

knowledge which involves speaking:

Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary). In this first part, students

need to use the right words in the right order with the correct pronunciation so that

their utterances will be understandable.

Functions (transaction and interaction). After students have their best ability in

pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, they should know the function of those

language competences is used. They should know when clarity of message is

10

essential (transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not

required (interaction/relationship building).

Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses

between speakers, relative roles of participants). In this last part, language learners

should understand how to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what

circumstances, about what, and for what reason. This is what then the language is

completely to be.

From this statement, it is clear that in language learning especially in speaking,

students need to know about language components –or language machine, language

functions –or clarity and understanding of message, and social-cultural rules and norms –

or politeness, circumstances, etc.

In addition, the NCLRC (2003) stated that in the communicative model of language

teaching, instructors help their students develop this body of knowledge by providing

authentic practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. They help

their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected

sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts, and to do so using acceptable (that is,

comprehensible) pronunciation. In brief, instructors or teachers who use communicative

methods will prepare their students by helping them improve their ability in producing a

well-developed and connected sentences which suitable for any contexts and also in

producing a well-pronunciation words.

Hughes (2003, pp. 131-132) defined speaking ability through several measured aspect

which are seen from student‟s accent, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.

It means that speaking ability of a student is measured by the way he is talking or

pronunciation, their sentence structures, the use of varied words, their pauses and flows,

and their understanding about what they are talking about. He continued that the

objective of teaching spoken language is to develop the ability itself in order to be able to

interact in that language, in which it involves comprehension and production (Hughes,

2003, p. 113). Based on this statement, it is concluded that speaking ability is an ability to

interact in the target language in which the development of its ability is seen from several

aspect such as the pronunciation of words, the grammar used in sentences, the varied

vocabularies used in sentences, fluency of a speech, and comprehension of a speech

uttered by other people.

Furthermore, Harmer (2008, p. 343) stated that if students want have a fluent English

speaking, they need to be able in pronouncing the words correctly, using appropriate

stress and intonation patterns, and speaking in a coherence speech. In addition, he added

that students will also have to be able in using a series of conversational and

conversational strategies itself to communicate effectively. It means that students need to

learn many things in order to be able to speak English fluently in the classroom and

outside the classroom. As explained previously, students also have to learn on how to

speak coherently and appropriately so that the information they sent to the listeners will

be received completely.

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To conclude, speaking ability is the ability to say the word correctly as well as

coherently in which it is seen from the pronunciation of the words, the stress and

intonation of the words, and the flow of sentences. As speaking is seen as important

ability for students, it is then needed to be learnt by students to communicate effectively

with people around them.

3. Teaching Speaking

The goal of teaching speaking is to make communication becomes efficient. Learners

should be able to make themselves understand, using their current proficiency to the

fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation,

grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each

communication situation. In line with this, Manurung (2015, p. 45) took Heaton‟s view

that in the teaching of speaking learners must master the three components of speaking;

fluency, accuracy, and comprehensibility or appropriacy. It means that there must be

efforts to choose effective techniques in teaching speaking and willingness to create and

design interesting instructional materials that facilitate the achievement of the three

speaking components.

Techniques in teaching speaking holds important role to improve the speaking ability.

The teaching of speaking must open up wide opportunities for learners to practice. In

addition, Manurung (2015, p. 45) took Harmer‟s view that the importance of

presentation, practice, and communication/production during the teaching of speaking in

order to meet the real purpose of the teaching cannot be neglected. Therefore, the role of

the English teachers is not only limited to the choice of effective techniques but also on

creativity and innovation to design and develop instructional materials.

According to Nation and Newton (2009, p. 19-22) there are five principles in teaching

listening and speaking for beginners, it is abbreviated as “MINUS”. Below is the brief

explanation about it.

a. Meaning; focus on meaningful and relevant language.

The main focus in language learning should be on language that the learners can use it

quickly for their purposes in society. Too much grammar explanation or too much

words that are not directly useful in particular circumstances are not suggested. Here

are some simple sentences that can be learnt by the learners on the early learning

phase so that they can use them straight away.

My name is ______________________________.

I come from _____________________________.

I live in _________________________________.

My address is ____________________________.

The teacher could present these sentences orally, one by one, with gestures and lots of

repetition and were able to involve to learners. With this technique, the sentences

could be formed in written versions for becoming the basic result on students‟ pair

work. The firs aim of this learning is enable learners to say these things about

themselves without looking at the written version, and to understand other learners

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when they use them. The second aim is to enable learners to link the written and

spoken forms of the words. For learners who are not very familiar with the written

from of English, recognizing the written form of their name and address is an

important early step in building literacy.

One way of checking the usefulness of a phrase or word is to use a computer

concordance to see how many examples of the item can be found in a collection of

spoken texts.

Doing a conversation focused on meaning with the students is also one way of useful

techniques in a listening and speaking class. The conversation itself may have many

different focuses such as in the classroom management, informal conversation,

recalling previous lessons, and finding out students‟ opinions and ideas. In the

classroom management, teachers can use day-to-day running of the classroom

dialogue in which they involves in organizing classroom work, in keeping control of

noise and behavior, in checking attendance, and in thanking and praising. In the

informal conversation, the teacher and students can talk about things that happen

outside school such as their hobbies, how they travel to school and maybe about their

favorite food.

In recalling previous lessons, teacher and learners can talk about the previous class to

see if they understood the lessons, and also to provide opportunities for them to revise

their understanding about the previous lessons. Lastly, in finding out students’

opinions and ideas, teacher can ask the students if they like the particular activity and

if they want to do more of it (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19-22). b. Interest; maintain interest through a variety of activities.

To maintain students‟ interest, classroom activities need to be short and varied, and to

involve the learners in responding to or using the language. There are various ways to

keep students interested in language learning, such as doing activities that involves

movement, using real objects and pictures, planning trips outside the classroom, using

songs and simple chants in between activities, and also introducing and practicing

new content through games (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).

c. New language; avoid overloading learners with too much new words.

Actually, there is only a little need to focus on grammar in the early parts of the lesson

for beginners. The lesson should focus on learning a set of phrases and words.

Teachers often make mistakes in introducing too much new words without giving

students enough opportunities to use the words often. A simple rule to keep in mind is

“learn a little, use a lot”. For example, if the goal is to learn the names for parts of the

body, it is better to focus on the most useful words such as head, neck, arms, and so

on, and to avoid less common words such as elbow and ankle. Note that introducing

elbow and ankle at the same time creates another problem: the similarities between

these words (e.g., they sound a bit the same and their meanings are related) is likely to

lead the students confused each word for the other.

13

To apply the principle of “learn a little, use a lot”, the body words need to be

practiced in a variety of ways. These could include picture games, information

transfer activities, action games (e.g., “Simon says …”), and bingo. The words can

then be used in simple sentence patterns and dialogues such as “How are you? Not so

good. My ____________ hurts” (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).

d. Understanding; provide plenty of comprehensible input.

Note that most of activities mentioned previously involve students in learning the

words though listening and doing before they deepen their learning to use the words in

guided speaking. If speaking is pushed too early, students may be more likely to

transfer L1 phonology and to concentrate on mechanical difficulties.

To understand the input, it requires the use of visual aids and conceptual support for

the new language in which it includes pictures, gestures, mime, objects, and

experiences out of class. Teachers also need to think carefully about the language they

use in class with the aim of keeping their talk simple but not simplistic or

ungrammatical. One way to do this is to always use one form for one meaning.

Therefore, for example, the teacher needs to decide whether to use “My name is

__________” or “I am _______”, but not both; “Where are you from?” or “Where do

you come from?”, but not both.

Early in the language classroom, students can also learn simple phrases for controlling

input such as, “Sorry, I don‟t understand”, “Please say it again”. These phrase should

be displayed on a large poster, thus it can make them readily available throughout the

language classroom.

It is known that students speak a variety of first languages, -such as Germany, Arabic,

bahasa Indonesia, etc., and it is possible if the teacher does not speak the students‟

first language. In this case, teaching beginner is easier if all students speak the same

first language and the teacher speaks the first language of the students. Using

translation to convey the meanings of words and phrases is very efficient and is well

supported by research as an effective way of communicating meaning. The main

disadvantage is that the teacher and students are tempted to use a lot of classroom

time using the first language instead of the second language. However, as long as the

teacher is aware of this danger, then using the first language is a good thing to do and

saves a lot of time.

If all students do not speak the same first language, and if the teacher does not speak

the first languages of the students, then the use of pictures, gestures and the use of

context need to be used to get the meaning understood across them. This is not as

difficult as it sounds, and if the students also have a well-illustrated course book, the

job is easier.

Older students may make use of bilingual dictionaries which give the meanings of

second language words in the learners‟ first language. These bilingual dictionaries

differ a lot in quality, but they are extremely useful as a learning aid. Learners need to

have a second language vocabulary of at least 2000 words before the can use

monolingual dictionaries where meanings are given in the second language. This is

14

because a vocabulary of around 2000 words is needed to write and understand

definitions (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).

e. Stress-free; create a friendly, safe, cooperative classroom environment.

In the early stages of learning a second language, learners may have successful and

low stress learning experiences. By paying attention to the first previous principles in

teaching listening and speaking for beginners, there is a very good chance to have

plentiful experiences. After that, the teacher will be meeting this fifth principle. Some

of the factors that contribute to a positive beginners‟ classroom are variety of learning

experiences, movement, physical comfort, frequent interaction, successful language

experiences, and opportunities for learners to experiment and make mistakes without

penalties (Nation and Newton, 2009, pp. 19–22).

4. Assessing Speaking

This research uses quantitative method, particularly with quasi-experimental as its

design. In this design the one-group pretest-posttest design will be used to measure the

effect of storytelling and motivation on students‟ speaking skill. In this kind of design, a

single group is measured and observed before and after being exposed to a treatment.

Therefore, the design will be “pretest-treatment-posttest”, as on the picture below.

Figure 2.1

The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

(Adapted from Jack R. Fraenkel, 2012, p. 269)

A frequent problem for teachers is when there are so many learners in one class that it

seems to make it unrealistic to assess speaking. With a list of criteria, teachers will be

easier to assess their students‟ speaking skill. Most teachers will be familiar with the

concept of grading with a rubric, a table with different criteria and a grading scale in

assessing speaking. Some criteria that need to be considered in assessing students‟

speaking skill are their vocabularies, pronunciation, fluency, and coherency.

In assessing speaking, one of the many categories that make it good is pronunciation.

In line with this, Luoma (2004, p. 11) stated that speaking is mostly about pronunciation

and the pronunciation itself consists of individual sounds, pitch, volume, speed, pausing,

stress and intonation. That‟s why assessing speaking covers not only the understanding of

a talk but also the accuracy of all pronunciation aspects. In addition, the coherence of a

talk is considered to be the fair judgment and assessment for students.

Furthermore, Hughes (2003, pp. 131–132) stated that several aspects to assess

speaking are accent, grammar, vocabulary and fluency. For example, to assess whether

the students‟ English accent is excellent, good, fair or even bad, teachers could see and

15

use these categories as a benchmark to decide whether the students‟ accent is good or not.

This guidelines rule of Hughes is also can be applied in assessing the students‟ grammar,

vocabulary and fluency. Here are the specific guidelines for assessing speaking as we

discussed above.

Table 2.1

Speaking Rubric

(Adopted from Arthur Hughes, 2003, pp. 131–132)

Measured

Aspects Indicators Score

Accent Pronunciation frequently unintelligible. 1

Frequent gross errors and a very heavy accent make

understanding difficult, require frequent repetition. 2

“Foreign accent” requires concentrated listening, and

mispronunciations lead to occasional misunderstanding and

apparent errors in grammar or vocabulary.

3

Marked “foreign accent” and occasional mispronunciations

which do not interfere with understanding. 4

No conspicuous mispronunciations, but would not be taken

for a native speaker. 5

Native pronunciation, with no trace of “foreign accent”. 6

Grammar Grammar almost entirely inaccurate except in stock phrases. 1

Constant errors showing control of very few major patterns

and frequently preventing communication. 2

Frequent errors showing some major patterns uncontrolled

and causing occasional irritation and misunderstanding. 3

Occasional errors showing imperfect control of some

patterns but no weakness that cause misunderstanding. 4

Few errors, with no patterns of failure. 5

No more than two errors during the performance. 6

Vocabulary Vocabulary inadequate for even the simplest conversation.

1

Vocabulary limited to basic personal and survival areas

(time, food, transportation, family, etc.) 2

Choice of words sometimes inaccurate, limitations of

vocabulary prevent discussion of some common

professional and social topics. 3

Professional vocabulary adequate to discuss special 4

16

interests; general vocabulary permits discussion of any non-

technical subject with some circumlocutions.

Professional vocabulary broad and precise; general

vocabulary adequate to cope with complex practical

problems and varied social situations. 5

Vocabulary apparently as accurate and extensive as that of

an educated native speaker. 6

Fluency Speech is so halting and fragmentary that conversation is

virtually impossible. 1

Speech is very slow and uneven except for short or routine

sentences. 2

Speech is frequently hesitant and jerky; sentences may be

left uncompleted. 3

Speech is occasionally hesitant, with some unevenness

caused by rephrasing and grouping for words. 4

Speech is effortless and smooth, but perceptively non-native

in speed and evenness. 5

Speech on all professional and general topics as effortless

and smooth as a native speaker‟s. 6

In addition to the aspects measured in assessing speaking, Hughes (2003, p. 131) also

made the grading scale for speaking test. This grading scale is divided into two different

numerical tables that arranged in so many ways, they are weighting table and conversion

table. The weighting table is used to make a total score of your students‟ overall speaking

assessment. The number 1 to 6 is referring to the score you just gave to your students,

and the numbers below those number is representing your students‟ real score to be

added to your students‟ total score, in which it is symbolized by the A letter on the very

last column. One last table, which is the conversion table, is used to state a criterion of

your students‟ level of speaking. These two tables are highly help teachers to do their job

in assessing their students‟ speaking ability because of two reasons. First, teachers do not

need to make any list or numerical score more since it is confusing with so many

numbers in formulating a valid score. Second, the grading scale formulated by Hughes

can be counted as a fair assessing tool or a valid grading score, not a subjective one.

17

Table 2.2

Grading Scale of Speaking Test

Weighting Table

(Adopted from Arthur Hughes, 2003, p. 131)

1 2 3 4 5 6 (A)

Accent 0 1 2 2 3 4

Grammar 6 12 18 24 30 36

Vocabulary 4 8 12 16 20 24

Fluency 2 4 6 8 10 12

Comprehension 4 8 12 15 19 23

Table 2.3

Grading Scale of Speaking Test

Conversion Table

(Adopted from Arthur Hughes, 2003, p. 133)

Score Rating Criteria

16-25 0+ Poor

26-32 1 Bad

33-42 1+ Enough

43-52 2 Fair

53-62 2+ Average

63-72 3 Good

73-82 3+ Very Good

83-92 4 Well done

93-99 4+ Excellent

B. The Nature of Storytelling

Sharing stories is an everyday memory activity common to most humans (Davies et

al, 2015, p. 10861). People tell stories with different styles and they choose different

stories based on the listener ages. Differences in storytelling ability and style have been

related to psychosocial and biological changes due to the listener ages. Stories told in

daily life may be about fictional events. Individuals also, however, regularly share non-

fictional stories such as retelling interesting stories they have read (e.g., prose/novel/book

recall), sharing stories about other people (e.g., gossiping), or telling friends and

colleague stories they have heard appeared in the media (e.g., the news). This section will

preserve storytelling technique in language teaching including its brief history, definition,

the use of storytelling, its advantages and disadvantages, and a bit knowledge of

relationship between storytelling and teaching speaking.

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1. A Brief History of Storytelling

Storytelling is one of the oldest human activities, possibly as old as language itself

(Sherman, 2011, p. xvii). He continued that the first to tell a tale is maybe a huntsman

that being proud of his skill or blowing up the reason for his failure to find humor, a

mother who told stories of beasts waiting in the forest to keep her children from playing

too far from home, or it might be a fortune teller who seek to explain the creation of the

world, the changing seasons, or the present of birth or death. There is no way to

determine the first individual ever to tell a story. The history of storytelling can be

tracked down only as far as the development of written language. The oldest survived

written records show that storytelling was leading by the second millennium B.C.E. It

was shown by the records of Egyptian storytelling date about 2560 B.C.E., when the sons

of Pharaoh Khufu entertained their father with stories.

Sherman (2011, p. xvii) continued that the first written stories are from the first

millennium B.C.E. Early examples show that the basic elements for a good story were

already in place by that time. The Egyptian tale called “The Prince and His Three Fates”,

which dates to about 1500 B.C.E., includes familiar themes such as the princess in the

tower, or in some versions, on the iced mountain, who can be saved only by a true hero.

And this story certainly is older than the written version. In general, by the time a story is

written down, it has been told and retold, possibly for centuries. One of the earliest

known storytellers is Greek poet Homer, who lived in the eighth century B.C.E. Homer

probably recited his Iliad and Odyssey in front of an audience long before these epics

were written down. Another storyteller from ancient Greece whose tales were later

recorded, the fabulist Aesop, lived in the fifth century B.C.E.

Furthermore, there are written stories from Greece, China, and India that date to the

end of the first millennium B.C.E. In the British Isles at that time, Celtic storytellers

wandered the countryside telling stories of gods, heroes, and clan histories. The earliest

Welsh storyteller for whom a name was recorded was Taliesin, who lived in the sixth

century C.E. In addition to this, storytellers‟ names were regularly recorded, and, by the

time of the Renaissance, individual storytellers were identified around the world

throughout the Middle Ages. In China, the first storyteller whose life was well

documented was Liu Jingting, who lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries C.E.

Aside from all the famous storytellers mentioned above, there were many storytellers –

unrecorded but very real, was taking place throughout these years. They are the mothers,

fathers, and grandparents who were telling stories to their families, the wandering or

amateur storytellers who were telling stories to villagers, and people in general who are

telling stories on the job, on breaks, and whenever the time was (Sherman, 2011, p.

xviii).

Traditionally, the oral stories have been handed over from generation to generation.

The storytelling history is quite ancient, lost in the mist of time. Nobody knows when the

first story was actually told. But it is believed that the origin of storytelling may have

come across as an excuse for failure. Perhaps stories were used long time ago to calm the

fears or doubts of a family. As families grouped with other families and formed clans, the

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storyteller, who was good at telling heroic events or other important events of the tribes,

began to reach position of respect and power. People found them exciting and started to

listen to them. Storytelling was considered important at that time.

Storytelling, as it was considered important since long time ago, has been developed

in many ways. Before man learned how to write, he had to lean on his memory to learn

anything. For this he had to be a good listener and a good speaker at the same time. A

good story teller was always respected. He could easily find an audience, eager to read

every exciting bit of information in their stories. These stories were also shared with

others in faraway lands. When people traveled, the stories traveled with them. When they

returned home, they brought with them exciting new tales of exotic places and people.

That is how the storytelling goes throughout the world.

As storytelling goes continentally from time to time, the history of storytelling reveals

that the stories came in all variety. Myths, legends of all kinds, fairy tales, fables, ghost

tales, hero stories, and epic adventures, these stories were told and then retold. Passing

down from generations, these stories reflect the wisdom and knowledge of early people.

Furthermore, it is believed by most historians and psychologists that storytelling is one of

the many things that define and bind our humanity. Humans are perhaps the only animals

that create and tell stories.

Storytelling has a power, especially in communicating language and delivering moral

values that must not be forgotten (Ellis and Brewster, 2014). They stated that the telling

of stories has been a vital mechanism ever since humans developed language –perhaps

the most vital in transferring knowledge of all sorts. The invention of writing, printing,

word processing and home computers means that we now have many other methods.

Even though there are many inventions of technology to send story and knowledge,

storytelling remains as a powerful and appealing tool. It means that even now human

have many tools in transferring information and knowledge, storytelling is still holding

an important role in transferring it to people.

To conclude, storytelling has its way to become an effective tool in delivering

someone‟s story, whether it is about his daily life or a heroic tale. Furthermore, as

storytelling goes its way from age to age, it is then can be called as the oldest technique

in passing both information and knowledge throughout the world.

2. The Definition of Storytelling

Storytelling is present in many aspects of human life. Stories are told by grandparents,

parents, and other family members. Professional storytellers share their tales at fairs,

festivals, schools, libraries, and other sites. Stories are integral to the mediums of

television, film, opera, and theater, and storytelling sessions sometimes take place in the

business world at special meetings. Campfire tales are meant to make campers shiver.

And urban legends, contemporary folktales that usually are attributed to a „friend of a

friend‟, are told and retold. No matter how unlikely the tale may be, the teller invariably

insists, “It‟s true!” (Sherman, 2011, p. xvii).

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According to Tangoy et al (2012: 123-124), storytelling is the art of describing real or

fictitious events in words, images, and sounds. They continued that stories are told for the

purposes of entertaining, teaching lessons, and even providing morals. From this point of

view, it can be concluded that storytelling is a way of delivery some real or unreal stories

by using words, images, and sounds to perform some beneficial purposes such as

entertaining, teaching as well as giving some lessons and moral values to people.

Furthermore, Tangoy et al added that storytelling is often considered as a crucial aspect

of humanity because in storytelling people use their verbal communication to teach,

explain, and entertain, in which they all are common in everyday life.

Another definition comes from Ellis and Brewster (2014, p. 25) that defined a

storytelling as telling a story to people who are willing to listen. This can be telling a

story from a book by reading it aloud, telling a story without a book by word of mouth in

the age-old oral tradition or telling an anecdote or even a joke. They continued that the

challenge of any storyteller is to maintain the listener‟s interest and attention. Telling a

story –whether reading it from a book or telling it in the oral tradition, brings out a

person‟s individuality and personality. Some people are natural storytellers. Most of us

are not, but we can all become good storytellers through practice and rehearsal and by

becoming aware of techniques we can use to bring a story alive.

To sum up, storytelling can be defined as a way of how a person tell a story to

someone or a group of people by using various ways of languages and gestures, including

intonation, mimics, sounds, and perhaps pictures, to make audiences or listeners get in

the story as well as understand of what is the story about.

Regardless of all the definition about storytelling, there are many different story

categories, ranging from true adventures to tall tales. According to Sherman (2011, p.

xix), stories can be organized roughly into four genres: true stories, folklore, fiction and

literature, and fairy tales.

a) True Stories

Sherman (2011, p. xix) explained a true story as a personal account or a

recounting of a historic event. The story may be embellished or exaggerated, but

the facts are commonly stayed. Sherman (2011, p. xix) added that news stories fall

into this category, and newscasters, with their deliberate style of delivery,

definitely can be called storytellers.

There are also family stories which usually are shared among the members of

a nuclear or extended family. These tales may include factual history, shared

memories, family jokes, and exaggerated tales about the bravery or even bad luck

of family members and friends. In