UNIT - I

1. List the different modes of transportation and their respective limitations. [N/D-15] 1. Railways Disadvantages:

Capital and initial investments are more. High material usage for the construction and even the fuel consumption The above are some of the advantages and disadvantages of using the rail.

2. Roadways Disadvantages:

It mostly depends on climatic conditions. High cost for long distances. Productivity is low. Some of the advantages and disadvantages are discussed above.

3. Airways Disadvantages:

Highest cost of transportation. Even adverse weather conditions effect the transportation. Material and fuel consumption is costly.

4. Waterways Disadvantages:

It is highly affected by the weather conditions. It requires large initial investment It is a slow process.

2. List four parameters enumerated in traffic survey for the alignment and design of alignment.

[N/D-15, N/D

-16]

1) Obligatory points

A. Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass ( bridge site, intermediate town ,

Mountain pass etc

B. Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass.

2) Traffic

3) Geometric design

4) Economics

3. What are classified roads in Nagpur plan?

[A/M – 17]

National Highway

State Highway

Major District Roads

Other District Roads

Village Roads

4. What are the recommendations of Jayakar Committee? [A/M –

17, N/D-14]

Road development should be made a national interest since the provincial and local

government do not have financial and technical capacity for road development.

Levy extra tax on petrol from road users to create the road development fund.

To establish a semi-official , technical institution to pool technical knowledge, sharing of ideas

and to act as an advisory body.

To create a national level institution to carry research, development works and consultation.

5. What is ideal alignment?

[M/J – 13]

The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the alignment. The requirements of an ideal alignment are

The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be

straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.

The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the operation

of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be provided.

It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at slopes,

embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.

The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial cost,

maintenance cost, and operating cost are minimum

6. Define camber?

[M/J – 13]

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse

direction to drain of rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:

Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

Sub-grade protection by proper drainage

Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

7. What are the objectives of Highway Research Board?

[M/J – 12]

The objectivities of the HRB are:

to ascertain the nature and extent of research required;

to correlate research information from various organizations in India and abroad with a view to

exchange publications on roads:

to coordinate and conduct correlation services;

to sponsor basic research through universities and research organizations;

to collect and disseminate results of research; and

any other matter related to road research.

8. State the classification of roads according to Nagpur road plan.

[M/J- 16]

National Highway

State Highway

Major District Roads

Other District Roads

Village Roads

9. What is the role of MoRTH?

[N/D -11]

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, a ministry of the Government of India, is the apex body

for formulation and administration of the rules, regulations and laws relating to road transport, and

transport research, in order to increase the mobility and efficiency of the road transport system

10. What are BOT projects?

[N/D -11]

Build–operate–transfer (BOT) or build–own–operate–transfer (BOOT) is a form of project financing,

wherein a private entity receives a concession from the private or public sector to finance, design,

construct, and operate a facility stated in the concession contract. This enables the project proponent

to recover its investment, operating and maintenance expenses in the project.

11. What are the recommendations of the CRRI?

[A/M – 14]

Engaged in carrying out research and development projects.

Design, construction and maintenance of roads and runways, traffic and transportation planning

of mega and medium cities, management of roads in different terrains,

Improvement of marginal materials,

Utilization of industrial waste in road construction,

Landslide control,

Ground improvements environmental pollution,

Road traffic safety,

Service life assessment and rehabilitation of highway & railway bridges.

12. Draw the cross section of a sub-arterial.

[A/M – 14]

1. (i) List out all the types of Highways as classified in the Indian Context starting from the

Expressways up to Village/ Rural roads.

(ii) List the effect of environment and ecology of the surroundings due to a highway project. [N/D-

15, M/J-16]

(i) Classification

Based on the Traffic Volume

Heavy

Medium

Light

Based on Load or Tonnage

Class 1 or Class 2 etc or Class A , B etc Tonnes per day

Based on location and function

National Highway

State Highway

Major District Roads

Other District Roads

Village Roads

Based on modified system of Highways classification:

• Primary system

– Expressways

– National Highways (NH)

• Secondary system

– State Highway (SH)

– Major District Roads (MDR)

• Tertiary system

– Other District Roads (ODR)

– Village Roads (VR)

Urban Road Classification

• Arterial Roads

• Sub Arterial

• Colector Street

• Local Street

Expressways

• Heavy traffic at high speed (120km/hr)

• Land Width (90m)

• Full access control

• Connects major points of traffic generation

• No slow moving traffic allowed

• No loading, unloading, parking.

National Highways

• India has a huge network of national highways.

• The national highways have a total length of 70,548 km. Indian highways cover 2% of the total

road network of India and carry 40% of the total traffic.

• The entire highway network of India is managed by the National Highway Authority of India which

is responsible for development and maintenance of highways.

• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches from Varansi in Uttar Pradesh to

Kanyakumari in the southern most point of Indian mainland.

• The shortest highway is NH47A which stretches from Ernakulam to Kochi and covers total length

of 4 Kms.

State Highways

• They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of adjacent states,

district head quarters and important cities within the state.

• Total length of all SH in the country is 1,37,119 Kms.

Major District Roads

• Important roads with in a district serving areas of production and markets , connecting those with

each other or with the major highways.

• India has a total of 4,70,000 kms of MDR.

Other district roads

• Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers or other

important roads like MDR or SH.

Village roads

• They are roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or to the nearest road of a

higher category like ODR or MDR.

• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the total 33,15,231 kms of all type of roads.

(ii) Road ecology is the study of the ecological impacts (both positive and negative)

of roads and highways (public roads). These effects may include local effects, such as

on noise, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality; and wider effects

such as habitat fragmentation, ecosystem degradation, and climate change from vehicle

emissions.

The design, construction and management of roads, parking and other related facilities as well as

the design and regulation of vehicles can change the impacts to varying degrees. Roads are

known to cause significant damage to forests, prairies, streams and wetlands. Besides the direct

habitat loss due to the road itself, and the roadkill of animal species, roads alter water-flow

patterns, increase noise, water, and air pollution, create disturbance that alters the species

composition of nearby vegetation thereby reducing habitat for local native animals, and act as

barriers to animal movements. Roads are a form of linear infrastructure intrusion that has some

effects similar to infrastructure such as railroads, power lines, and canals, particularly in tropical

forests.

Negative impacts

Air pollution from fossil (and some biofuel) powered vehicles can occur wherever vehicles

are used and are of particular concern in congested city street conditions and other low

speed circumstances.

Emissions include particulate emissions from diesel engines, NOx, volatile organic

compounds, carbon monoxide and various other hazardous air pollutants

including benzene.

Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the

road than at some distance away from the road.

Road dust kicked up by vehicles may trigger allergic reactions.

Carbon dioxide is non-toxic to humans but is a major greenhouse gas and motor vehicle

emissions are an important contributor to the growth of CO2 concentrations in the

atmosphere and therefore to global warming.

Positive impacts

The construction of new roads which divert traffic from built-up areas can deliver improved

air quality to the areas relieved of a significant amount of traffic.

The Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Study carried out for the development

of the Tirana Outer Ring Road estimated that it would result in improved air quality in

Tirana city center.

A new section of road being built near Hindhead, UK, to replace a four-mile section of

the A3 road, and which includes the new Hindhead Tunnel, is expected by the government

to deliver huge environmental benefits to the area including the removal of daily

congestion, the elimination of air pollution in Hindhead caused by the congestion, and the

removal of an existing road which crosses the environmentally sensitive Devil's

Punchbowl area of outstanding natural beauty.

2. (i) For a highway alignment, to cross a river, what are the various obligatory and other technical

and economical considerations in aligning the highway across the river

(ii) Compare the two modes of transportation – Railways and Highways.

[N/D-15]

(i) The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:

Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These points are

classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass and points through which it should

not pass. Some of the examples are:

Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent path and also

where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach to the bridge should not be

curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway

alignment may be changed.

Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to either

construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends on factors like

topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.

Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate town or

village nearby.

The location should avoid obstructions such as places of cemeteries, archeological, historical

monument, public facilities like schools and hospitals, utility services.

Geometric design features

– Facilitate easy grade and curvature

– Enable ruling gradient in most sections

– Void sudden changes in sight distance, especially near crossings

– Avoid sharp horizontal curves

– Avoid road intersections near bend or at the top or bottom of a hill

– Precautions at river and railway crossings

– Bridges should be preferably be located at right angles to the river flow, not located on a

horizontal curve

– Crossing railway lines should avoid intersections at gradient, frequent crossing and re

crossing

Topographical control points

– The alignment, where possible should avoid passing through

• Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage

• Flood prone areas

• Unstable hilly features

• Avalanche prone areas

– Flat terrain-below 3%

– Rolling terrain -3 to 25%

– Mountainous terrain – above 25%

– A location on high ground should be preferred rather than valley to avoid cross drainage

works

Economics

The total cost Construction cost+ maintenance cost+ operation cost) should be kept minimum.

Initial cost‐by avoiding high embankments and deep cutting

Maintenance cost‐by avoiding unsuitable land

Operation cost‐ by avoiding steep gradient and curves

Other considerations

• Environmental considerations

• Engineering feasibility

• Social considerations

• Drainage and Hydrological factors

• Political considerations‐ avoiding into foreign territory

• Monotony‐ long stretch of straight road leads to driving discomfort

(ii) Construction of route:

In roadways, these routes consist of suitable pavement of specified width provided usually with

shoulders on either side.

In railways, the routes consist of pair of steel rails which are laid parallel to each other on

sleepers at fixed distance apart.

Suitability to traffic:

In roadways, routes are meant for movement of different types, of traffic such as buses, trucks,

scooters, rickshaws, cycles, pedestrians etc.

The railway routes are meant only for movement of trains.

Width of right-of-way:

The roadway routes require more width of right-of-way.

The railway routes require less width of right-of-way.

Starting and destinations:

In roadways, starting and destination points of traffic are not fixed.

In railways, starting and destination points of trains are always fixed.

Right of entry:

In roadways, the right of entry is free to all vehicles because their movements are not according

to any schedule.

In railways, the right of entry is not free to all railway vehicles because their movements are

always according to schedule.

Strength of route:

The required strength of roadways is less.

The required strength of railway tracks is more.

Elasticity:

The roadway routes do not require an elastic structure since they are not to withstand impacts

of heavy wheel loads.

The railway routes require an elastic structure to withstand impact of heavy wheel loads.

Gradients and curves:

In roadways, the routes can be constructed with steep gradients and sharp curves. Thus, route

length in their case is less.

In railways, these routes cannot be constructed with steep gradients and flat curves. Thus, route

length in their case is more.

Tractive resistance:

The tractive resistance of roadway routes is high (5 to 6 times the tractive resistance in case of

railway).

The tractive resistance of railway routes is low (1/5th to 1/6th the tractive resistance in case of

roadways).

Load handling capacity:

The load handling capacity of road vehicles is less and that too at low speeds.

Load handling capacity of railway vehicles is more and that too at high speeds.

Requirement of turning devices:

In roadways, no special turning devices are constructed for turning vehicles on these routes.

In railways, special turning devices in the form of points and crossings are constructed for

turning vehicles on these routes.

Operational control devices:

In roadways, no special operational control devices in the form

of signaling and interlocking are required on these routes for safe and efficient movement of

vehicles.

In railways, special operational control devices in the form of signaling and interlocking are

required on these routes for safe and efficient movements of trains as per schedule.

Suitability to transportation of people and goods:

Transportation of people and light goods for short distances(upto 500 km) is convenient and

cheap by roadway routes.

Transport of people and heavy goods like raw materials, coal, ores, etc. for long distance or

manufacturing concerns is convenient and cheap by railway routes.

Adaptability to type and size of goods:

All types and sizes of goods cannot be handled by road vehicles.

Almost all types and sizes of goods can be handled by the trains.

Suitability for hilly area:

Roadway vehicles are more suitable for hilly area.

Railway vehicles are less suitable for hilly area.

Construction and maintenance cost:

The construction and maintenance cost of roadway vehicles is less.

In case of railway vehicles, the cost is more.

3. What are the various classifications of roads?

[A/M- 17]

Classification

Based on the Traffic Volume

Heavy

Medium

Light

Based on Load or Tonnage

Class 1 or Class 2 etc or Class A , B etc Tonnes per day

Based on location and function

National Highway

State Highway

Major District Roads

Other District Roads

Village Roads

Based on modified system of Highways classification:

• Primary system

– Expressways

– National Highways (NH)

• Secondary system

– State Highway (SH)

– Major District Roads (MDR)

• Tertiary system

– Other District Roads (ODR)

– Village Roads (VR)

Urban Road Classification

• Arterial Roads

• Sub Arterial

• Colector Street

• Local Street

Expressways

• Heavy traffic at high speed (120km/hr)

• Land Width (90m)

• Full access control

• Connects major points of traffic generation

• No slow moving traffic allowed

• No loading, unloading, parking.

National Highways

• India has a huge network of national highways.

• The national highways have a total length of 70,548 km. Indian highways cover 2% of the total

road network of India and carry 40% of the total traffic.

• The entire highway network of India is managed by the National Highway Authority of India which

is responsible for development and maintenance of highways.

• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches from Varansi in Uttar Pradesh to

Kanyakumari in the southern most point of Indian mainland.

• The shortest highway is NH47A which stretches from Ernakulam to Kochi and covers total length

of 4 Kms.

State Highways

• They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of adjacent states,

district head quarters and important cities within the state.

• Total length of all SH in the country is 1,37,119 Kms.

Major District Roads

• Important roads with in a district serving areas of production and markets , connecting those with

each other or with the major highways.

• India has a total of 4,70,000 kms of MDR.

Other district roads

• Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers or other

important roads like MDR or SH.

Village roads

• They are roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or to the nearest road of a

higher category like ODR or MDR.

• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the total 33,15,231 kms of all type of roads.

Arterial

• No frontage access, no standing vehicle, very little cross traffic.

• Design Speed : 80km/hr

• Land width : 50 – 60m

• Spacing 1.5km in CBD & 8km or more in sparsely developed areas.

• Divided roads with full or partial parking

• Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection

Sub-arterial

• Bus stops but no standing vehicle.

• Less mobility than arterial.

• Spacing for CBD : 0.5km

• Sub-urban fringes : 3.5km

• Design speed : 60 km/hr

• Land width : 30 – 40 m

Collector Street

• Collects and distributes traffic from local streets

• Provides access to arterial roads

• Located in residential, business and industrial areas.

• Full access allowed.

• Parking permitted.

• Design speed : 50km/hr

• Land Width : 20-30m

Local Street

• Design Speed : 30km/hr.

• Land Width : 10 – 20m.

• Primary access to residence, business or other abutting property

• Less volume of traffic at slow speed

• Origin and termination of trips.

• Unrestricted parking, pedestrian movements. (with frontage access, parked vehicle, bus stops

and no waiting restrictions)

Cul-De-Sac

• Dead End Street with only one entry access for entry and exit.

• Recommended in Residential areas

4. Explain in detail the reconnaissance survey for highway locations in rural area. [A/M-

17, N/D-14]

The stages of the engineering surveys are:

a) Map study.

b) Reconnaissance.

c) Preliminary surveys.

d) Final location and detailed surveys.

Map study: -

The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map.

s

g rivers, avoiding bend of the river.

other on the foot of

the hill then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible alignment.

contour map is known, and then the contour intervals it is possible to

decide the length of road required between two consecutive contours keeping the gradient within

allowable limits.

AB is the shortest route

Reconnaissance Survey:-

The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the general

character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. Some of the details

to be collected during reconnaissance are given below:

Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy, land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions

along the route, which are not available in the map.

alignments.

mber and types of cross drainage structures maximum flood level and natural groundwater

level along the probable routes.

features.

rials water and location of stone quarries.

or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding the

geological formation types of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc.

Salient features:

• Map updating – to confirm features indicated on map.

• Checking for:

Number of cross drainage structures.

High Flood Level (HFL)

Confirming Length and value of gradient to IRC standards.

Soil Characteristics.

Geological features.

Proximity to source of construction materials- quarries, water sources.

Prepare a report on merits and demerits and profile map of scale 1:50,000.

5. Explain the requirements of Ideal alignment. [M/J -

13, N/D-14]

Requirements

The requirements of an ideal alignment are

The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be straight, but

due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.

The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the operation of

vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be provided.

It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at slopes,

embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.

The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial cost,

maintenance cost, and operating cost are minimum.

*Also refer answer 2 for factors affecting alignment

6. Explain the classification and cross section of Urban Roads?

[M/J -13]

*Refer answer 3

7. Explain in detail about second twenty year road plan?

[M/J -12]

The length of roads envisaged under the Nagpur plan was achieved by the end of it, but the road

system was deficient in many respects. The changed economic, industrial and agricultural conditions

in the country warranted a review of the Nagpur plan. Accordingly a 20-year plan was drafted by the

Roads wing of Government of India, which is popularly known as the Bombay plan. The highlights of

the plan were:

It was the second 20 year road plan (1961-1981)

The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakh Km

Rural roads were given specific attention. Scientific methods of construction were proposed for the

rural roads. The necessary technical advice to the Panchayaths should be given by State PWD's.

They suggested that the length of the road should be increased so as to give a road density of

32kms/100 sq.km

The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then included in the plan.

8. Write brief notes on

[M/J -12]

(i) Central Road Fund

(ii) Indian Road Congress

(iii) Central Road Research Institute

(iv) National Highway Authority of India

Central Road Fund , 1929

CRF is utilized for

development and maintenance of national highways;

development of the rural roads;

development and maintenance of other State roads including roads of inter-State and

economic importance;

construction of roads either under or over the railways by means of a bridge and erection of

safety works at unmanned rail-road crossings; and

Disbursement in respect of such projects as may be prescribed by the Government.

Distribution of 100% cess on petrol as follows:

57.5% for NH

30% for SH

12.5% for safety works on rail-Road crossing.

50% cess on diesel for Rural Road development

Indian Roads Congress, 1934

• To provide national forum for regular pooling of experience and ideas on matters related to

construction and maintenance of highways.

• To recommend standard specifications.

• To provide a platform for expression of professional opinion on matters relating to roads and

road transport.

CRRI

A constituent of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

engaged in carrying out research and development projects.

design, construction and maintenance of roads and runways, traffic and transportation

planning of mega and medium cities, management of roads in different terrains,

Improvement of marginal materials,

Utilization of industrial waste in road construction,

Landslide control,

Ground improvements environmental pollution,

Road traffic safety,

Service life assessment and rehabilitation of highway & railway bridges.

National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous agency of the Government of

India, responsible for management of a network of over 70,000 km of National Highways in India.

The NHAI has the mandate to implement the National Highways Development Project (NHDP).

The NHDP is under implementation in Phases.

Phase I: Approved in December 2000, at an estimated cost of INR 300 Billion, it included

the Golden Quadrilateral (GQ), portions of the NS-EW Corridors, and connectivity of major

ports to National Highways.

Phase II: Approved in December 2003, at an estimated cost of INR 343 Billion, it included

the completion of the NS-EW corridors and another 486 km (302 mi) of highways.

Phase IIIA: This phase was approved in March 2005, at an estimated cost of INR 222

Billion, it includes an upgrade to 4-lanes of 4,035 km of National Highways.

Phase IIIB: This was approved in April 2006, at an estimated cost of INR 543 Billion, it

includes an upgrade to 4-lanes of 8,074 km (5,017 mi) of National Highways.

Phase V: Approved in October 2006, it includes upgrades to 6-lanes for 6,500 km

(4,000 mi), of which 5,700 km (3,500 mi) is on the GQ. This phase is entirely on a DBFO

basis.

Phase VI: This phase, approved in November 2006, will develop 1,000 km (620 mi) of

expressways at an estimated cost of INR 167 Billion.

Phase VII: This phase, approved in December 2007, will develop ring-roads, bypasses and

flyovers to avoid traffic bottlenecks on selected stretches at a cost of INR 167 Billion.

9. (i) Describe the requirements of ideal highway alignment.

(iii) Explain the different components of the National Highway Development Programme (NHDP).

[N/D -11, M/J-12]

*Refer answer 5 and 8

10. Discuss the Classification of Urban Roads with a neat diagram. `

[A/M -14]

*Refer answer 3