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Other Books by the same Author :

1. Comparative Politics

2. Indian Government and Politics

3. Reflections on Indian Politics

4. Indian Politics

5. Naxalite Politics in India

6. Major Modern Political Systems

(U.K, USA, USSR, China, Australia, Switzerland, France

and Japan)

7. Political ThoughtAncient and Medieval

8. Political ThoughtModern

9. International Relations and Politics

(Diplomatic History between Two World Wars)

10. International Relations and Politics

(Theoretical Perspective)

11. Foundations of Political Science

12. Indian Constitution and Administration

(Hindi)

1. Tulnatmak Rajniti

2. Bharatiya Rajniti

3. Bharatiya Shasan aur Rajniti

4. Rajya Vigyan Ke Adhar

5. Bharatiya Samvidhan aur Prashasan

(Edited Books)

1. Indian Freedom Movement and Thought, 1919-29 by Dr Lai

Bahadur

2. Indian Freedom Movement and Thought, 1930-47 by Dr

R.C. Gupta

3. Introduction to International Relations by Pierre-Marie

Martin

CONTEMPORARY

POLITICAL THEORY

(New Dimensions, Basic Concepts and

Major Trends)

J.C. JOHARI

M.A., LLB., Ph.D.

STERLING PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED

vi

CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL THEORY

bumps'. The situation has been looked at with ample apprehension

so much so that while some like Alfred Cobban have expressed their

concern over its 'decline' and others like T.L. Thorson have gone to

the extent of wailing over its 'demise', still others like Dante Germino

have sought to emphasise its 'resurgence' or 'revival'.

The subject of the nature and scope of political theory in the

present times has assumed a significance of its own. In view of the

pervasiveness of the contemporary crisis, the notion of 'politics' and

the understanding of 'political theory' have shown due response to

the problems and challenges posed by socio-economic developments

all over the world as well as by more subtle intellectual trends

seemingly unrelated to the discipline of Political Science as cus-

tomarily defined. The result is that contemporary political theory

looks like hovering between the poles of'post-liberalism' and 'scienti-

fic socialism' that has made its task, in the words of C.B. Macpher-

son, all the more 'deceptive', or as Fred D. Dallmyr says, it has put

it at the 'crossroads'.

Contemporary political theory is both empirical and normative,

both liberal and Marxist, both Western and non-Western irrespec-

tive of the fact that the former dimension outweighs the latter. In

other words, it is both value-laden and value-free; it is both 'utopian'

and 'scientific'. Its area of concern ranges from the 'moral evalua-

tion of political power' as commended by Allen Gewirth to a 'mad

craze for scientism' as decried by David Easton.

In this humble work an attempt has been made to keep all

this in view while discussing certain important 'basic concepts' and

'major trends'. The readers may feel and then complain that some

important topics are missing in this volume. I hope to include such

topics in the next edition in the light of critical comments coming

from them. I, however, hope that they will find this study worth-

while and thereby make my labours suitably rewarded.

I shall like to record my thanks to Prof. Frank Thakurdas

whose inspiring guidance has always been a source of encourage-

ment to me. I am also beholden to my Publishers who managed to

bring this book out in a record time for the benefit of students offer-

ing this paper'at the degree and post-graduate levels. I lack words to

express my gratitude to my wife (Saroj Rani) who has throughout been

helpful to me in the pursuit of my advanced studies without ever

grudging for the loss of material comforts of life. I shall feel obliged

to those who apprise me of their critical comments for my future

guidance.

J.C. JOHARI

Saroj Bhawan,

II A/112, Nehru Nagar,

Ghaziabad (U.P.)

Phone : 849459

Contents

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION . v

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION v-vi

PART I : THE SETTING

1 POLITICAL THEORY 3

Meaning, Nature Characteristics and Varieties of

Political Theory

Essence of Politics : Expanding Horizons from 'Polis'

to 'Power' and 'Activity'

Political Theory distinguished from Political Thought,

Political Philosophy, Political Ideology, Political

Inquiry and Political Analysis

Importance of the Classics of Political Theory

Uses of Political Theory

Concluding observations

2. FORMS, TRADITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF POLITICAL

THEORY 41

Classical Political Theory : Alignment of Politics with

Ethics and Philosophy and Search for a Perfect

Political Order

Modern Political Theory : Dominance of Empiricism :

In Quest of a Science of Politics

Political Theory and Political Reality : Juxtaposition

of Ideas and Actions

Issue of Values and Facts : Normative, Empirical and

Trans-Empirical Theory

Different Traditions and the Problem of Interpretation

in Political Theory

Problem of Critical Appraisal in Political Theory

Concluding Observations

3. STATE OF THE DISCIPLINE 78

Birth of New Political Science : Increasing Trend

Towards Empirical Political Theory

From Empiricism to Neo-Empiricism : Reconstruction

of Political Theory after II Woild War

Kuhn's Paradigms : Process of Advancement of Politi-

cal Theory

viii


Decline of Political Theory : Arguments of Easton and

Cobban

Resurgence of Political Theory : Arguments of Berlin,

Blondel and Strauss


4. APPROACHES AND METHODS 113

Meaning and Nature of Approaches and Methods :

Similarity and Distinction with Certain Related Themes

Major Traditional Approaches and Methods

Philosophical Approach

Historical Approach

Legal Approach

Institutional Approach

Modern Approaches and Methods

Sociological Approach

Psychological Approach

Economic Approach

Behavioural Approach

Marxist Approach


5. SCIENCE AND POLITICAL THEORY 14?

Scientific Method : Meaning and Assumptions

Components of Scientific Method : The Case of

Natural versus Social Sciences

Empiricism and Scientific Method in Political Theory

Positivism and Neo-Postivism : Scientific Trends in

Philosophy, Law, History and Politics

Marxism and the Case of Scientific Political Theory

Scientific Political Theory

Dichotomy of Fact and Value : Place of Scientific

Value Relativism

ConcludingO bservations

PART II : BASIC CONCEPTS

6. LAW 195

Law : Meaning and Sources

Natural Theory of Law : Law as a Dictate of Right

Reason of Universal and Eternal Application

Analytical Theory of Law : Law as the Command of

the Sovereign

Historical Theory : Law as a Result of Social Develop-

ment.

Sociological Theory : Sanction of Law in the Needs of

the Community

CONTENTS iX

Marxian Theory : Law as an Instrument of Class

Exploitation and Oppression

Problem of Legal ObligatHjn^fKelsen's Theory of Pure

Law

Specific Kinds of Law

Law and Scientific Value Relativism : Empirical Deter-

mination of Legal Positivism

Law and Liberty : Problem of Proper Reconciliation

Law and Morality : A Delicate Problem of Proper

, Relationship

Critical Appreciation

7. RIGHTS 226

Rights : Real Meaning and Nature

Natural Theory : 'A Rhetorical Nonsense upon Stilts.'

Legal Theory : Account of Rights in Terms of the

Power of the State

Idealistic Theory : Emphasis on the External Condi-

tions as Essential to Man's Moral Development

Historical Theory : Creation of Rights by Prescription

Social Welfare Theory : Emphasis on Rights as Con-

ditions of Social Expediency

Specific Kinds of Rights

Realisation of Rights : Provision of Special Safeguards


8. LIBERTY 252

Liberty : Real Meaning and Nature

Negative versus Positive Concepts : Absence of Res-

traints versus Burden of Constraints

Berlin's Rejoinder : Refutation of the Case of Negative

versus Positive Liberty

Specific Kinds of Liberty

Liberal versus Marxist Notions of Liberty : Controversy

on the Nature and Scope of Liberty

Defence of Particular Freedoms : Essential Safeguards

against the Abuse of Power

Libertarianism : Empirical Determination of Liberty

and Scientific Value Relativism

Liberty and Authority: Problem of Proper Reconciliation


9. EQUALITY 289

Equality : Real Meaning and Nature

Egalitarianism : Justification of Equality in the Midst

of Inequality

X


Specific Kinds of Equality

Ideal of Equality : Liberal versus Marxist views

Egalitarianism and Scientific Value Relativism :

Empirical Determination of Equality

Equality and Liberty : Problem of Reconciliation


Property : Real Meaning and Nature

Forms of PropertyPrivate, Quasi-Public, Public

Liberal View : Justification of Private Property System

Socialistic View : Appreciation of Private Property

System Subject to the Norm of Social Good

Marxian View : Stern Indictment of Private Property

System

Property as Power : Case of Economic Inequality and

the 'Odious Phenomenon of Two Nations'


Justice : Real Meaning and Nature

Philosophical Theory : Justice as the Principle of Right

Order

Natural Theory : Justice as an Ultimate End

Legal Theory : Justice as the Enforcement of the Law

of the State

Marxist Theory : Class Concept of Justice

Social Justice : Predominance of the Interest of the

Community

Economic Justice : Elimination of Exploitation and

Proper Distribution of National Wealth

Political Justice : Commitment to the Values of a

Liberal Democratic Order

Norms of Justice : Corrective versus Distributive

Varieties

Rawls on Justice : A Redistributionist Plea for Justi-

fied Inequalities

Justice and Scientific Value Relativism : Empirical

Determination of the Ideal of Justice


Political Obligation : Meaning and Nature

Divine Theory : Sanction of Political Obligation in a

Matter of Faith

10. PROPERTY

318

11. JUSTICE

337

12. POLITICAL OBLIGATION

373

CONTENTS

xi

Consent Theory : Sanction of Political Obligation in

the Will of the People

Prescriptive Theory : Sanction ofPohtical Obligation in

Reverence to the EstabltslTe^rGonventions

Idealistic Theory : Sanction of Political Obligation in

Innate Rationality of Man

Marxian Theory : Eventual Conversion of Political

Obligation into Social Obligation

Limits of Political Obligation : Problem of Right to

Resistance


13. POLITICAL LEGITIMACY AND EFFECTIVENESS 393

Political Legitimacy and Effectiveness : Nature and

Essential Implications

Legitimacy and Power Relationship : Functional

Dimensions of the Political System

Idealist Theory : Sanction of Political Legitimacy in the

Establishment of a Perfect Order

Prescriptive Theory : Sanction of Political Legitimacy

in the Force of Tradition

Liberal Theory : Universal Applicability of the

Principle of Legitimacy

Marxist Theory : Power, Authority and Legitimation

Marxist and Anti-Marxist Approaches Distinguished :

Acceptance as well as Modification and Rejection of

Marx by the Elitists

Legitimacy and Conflict : Problem of Stability and

Security in a Democratic System

Acquisition of Legitimacy : Role of Ideology and

Political Leadership


14 REVOLUTION 419

Revolution : Nature and Necessary Implications

Varieties, Characteristics, Phases and Stages of

Revolution

Liberal Theory : Emphasis on Preserving Status Quo in

the Process of Change

Marxian Theory : Emphasis on the Idea of Permanent

Revolution

Functionalist View of the Revolution : A Critique of

the Marxian View

Psychological View : Emphasis on Suppression of In-

stincts of Relative Deprivation and Upsurge of Rising

Expectations

xii CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL THEORY

Idealistic-Liberal Theory : Emphasis on Moral and

Cultural Upheaval to Lay a New Foundation of

Human Life

Revolution and 'Second Revolution' : The Problem of

Ideological Orientation

, Critical Appreciation

15. IDEOLOGY 458

Ideology : Nature and Necessary Implications

Characteristics of Ideology : The Doctrine of Reigning

Ideology

Diffusion of Ideologies : Determination of the Tests of

Their Survival

Liberal Theory : Ideology as a Highly Flexible Set of

Norms and Values

Conservative Theory : Ideology in Defence of the

Established Order

Marxian Theory : Indictment of Bourgeois Ideology as

'False Consciousness' and Its Substitution by a New

Ideology

Neo-Marxian Theory : Ideology as Utopia

Totalitarian Theory : Ideology as a Matter of

'Operational Code'

'End of Ideology' Debate : Emergence of a New

Ideology


16. POLITICAL ALIENATION 490

Political Alienation : Nature and Essential Implica-

tions

Alienation and Polity : Political Alienation Distin-

guished with Some Related Themes

Metaphysical Theory : Emphasis on the Unity Bet-

ween the Essential and the Real

Marxian Theory : From 'Fragmentation' to the 'Eman-

cipation' of Man

Sociological Theory : Modification as well as Mutila-

tion of the Marxian Thesis

Existential Theory : Indictment of 'Inauthentic' Life


17. POLITICAL POWER 514

Power : Meaning and Nature of the Concept

Power Theory : Study of Power in Physical Terms

CONTENTS

Psycho-Analytical Theory : Power Identified with In-

fluence and the Role of the Influential

Sociological Theory : Power as the Authoritative

Allocator of Values in an Hierarchical Social Order

Liberal-Democratic Theory : Power Identified with

Development and Extractive Capacities

Marxian Theory : Power as the Instrument of Class

Domination

Elite Theory : Power Having its Sources in Political

and Bureaucratic Organisations

Crititical Appreciation

PART III : MAJOR TRENDS

18. LIBERALISM

Liberalism : Meaning and Dynamic Implications

Contemporary Liberalism : A Philosophy with a Prag-

matic Course

Genesis and Growth of the Movement : From a

Crusade for Religious Emancipation to a Struggle

against Royal Despotism

LiberalismOld and New : Negative versus Positive

Dimensions

Problem of Change : Liberalism in the Twentieth

Century : Shift Towards Socialism and Welfare State

Contemporary Liberalism : A Defence of the Bour-

geois Order


19. EXISTENTIALISM

Existentialism : Nature and Essential Implications

Existentialism in Politics : A Philosophy of Freedom,

Choice and Commitment

Genesis and Growth of Existentialism : Emphasis on a

New Philosophy of Life in Denmark and Germany

Existentialism in France : Emphasis on the Philosophy

of Humanism

Jean-Paul Sartre : Integration of Existentialism and

Marxism


20. BEHAVIOURALISM

Behavioural Movement in Politics : Rise and Growth of

a Sub-Field of Enquiry within the General Discipline

xiv


Political Behaviouralism : Meaning and Essential

Nature of the Movement

Salient Characteristics : Easton's 'Intellectual Founda-

tion Stones of Political Behaviouralism'

Behavioural Approach : Important Features and Phases

of Development

Traditionalism Versus Behaviouralism : A Break, Con-

tinuity as well as Continuing Differences.


21. POST-BEHAVIOURALISM 614

Meaning and Nature of the Post-Behavioural Revolu-

tion : 'Credo of Relevance' : Distinguishing Tenets

and Traditions

End of Dichtomy of Facts and Values : Reaffirmation

of Norms in Empirical Political Theory

Abandonment of the 'Mad Craze for Scientism' :

Emphasis on the Relevance of Research for Social

Purpose and Action

Appreciation of Applied Politics : From Political

Science to Policy Science . .

Behaviouralism and Post-Behaviouralism : Whether a

Continuity or a Break with the Past


22. NEW LEFTISM 632

New Leftism : Nature and Essential Implications

Origin and Development : Trend Towards the Conver-

gence of Bourgeois and Socialist Models

Search for Disalienation : Fundamental Tenet of New

Leftism

Attack on Soviet Marxism : Enunciation of the Doctrine

of New Socialism

Refutation of Class War : Reliance on the Role of

'Lumpenproletariat'

Youth and Revolution : Profile of 'New Opposition' in

a Free Society

Armed Struggle : Glorification of Violence as a Key to

Social Truth and Action

Humanism : Creation of a Free and Happy Common-

wealth for Man

New Leftism and Marxism : Controversy about a

Revised or Distorted Version of Classical Marxism


CONTENTS

XV

23. EUROCOMMUNISM

664

Eurocommunism : Nature and Essential Implications

Historical Growth : Rise and Development of a New

Variety of Western Marxism

National Socialism : Repudiation of Proletarian Inter-

nationalism under the Leadership of the Soviet Union

Ideological Autonomy : Refutation of the 'Dictator-

ship of the Proletariat' and the Withering Away of

the State'

Democratic Socialism : Transformation of the Capita-

list Society with the Will of the People ,

Non-Coercive State : Emphasis on the End of a

Destructive Ideology

Eurocommunism and Marxism : 'Whether a New

Orientation in the Western Marxist Tradition


Fascism : Meaning and Essential Features

Ideological Roots of Fascism ; Trends of Absolutism,

Irrationalism and Violence in European Political

Philosophy

Fascism in Italy : Doctrinal Expositions of Rocco,

Gentile and Mussolini

Fascist Philosophy in Germany : Doctrinal Expositions of

Goring, Rosenberg and Hitler

Fascism in Action : Italian and German Experiments


24. FASCISM

7i4

Bibliography

Index

737

751

List of Tabular Illustrations

1. Some Definitional Statements on Political

Theory

2. Field of Political TheoryTraditional and

Modern

3. Catlin's Barest Outline of a Conceptual Sys-

tem of Politics

4. Hacker's Formulations on How to Under-

stand and Appreciate Political Theory

5. Prominent Themes in Classical and Modern

Political Theory

6. Reasons and Gains of Divergent Interpreta-

tions of Political Theory

7. Articles of Faith of Behaviouralism

8. Traditional, Behavioural and Post Behavioural

Political Theory

9. Tenets or Basic Goals of Behavioural Approach

10. Scientific Method

11. Rationalism, Positivism and Metaphysics

12. Scientific Theory

13. Kinds of Law

14. Kinds of Rights

15. Kinds of Liberty

16. Kinds of Equality

17. Negative and Positive Views on Relationship

between Liberty and Equality

18. Pound's Illustration of Social Justice

19. Lipset's Paradigm of Political Effectiveness and

Legitimacy

20. Varieties of RevolutionsNon-Marxist versus

Marxist

21. Some Definitional Statements on Ideology

22. Kolakowski on Characteristic Tendencies of New

Leftism

23. Main Tenets of Fascism

24. First Programme of the Fascist Movement (23

March, 1919)

25. Fascist Charter of Labour (1927)

26. Fascist Decalogues of 1934 and 1938

27. Important Points of the First Programme of the

Nazi Party (24 February, 1920)

Part I

New Dimensions

Politics deserves much praise. Politics is a preoccupation of free men,

and its existence is a test of freedom. The praise of the man is worth

having, for it is the only praise which is free from either servility or

tcondescension... Politics then is civilising. It rescues mankind from

the morbid dilemmas in which the state is always seen as a ship

sheatened by a hostile environment of cruel seas, and enables us in-

tead to see the state as a city settled on the firm and fertile ground

of mother earth. It can offer us no guarantee against storms encroach-

ing from the sea, but it can offer us something worth defending in

times of emergency and amid threats of disaster.

Bernard Crick1

Political speculation, I believe, is not merely an enterprise in mapping

a desert, or of counting the myriads grain of sand, or of observing

the changing configuration of the sand dunes but of comprehending

the winds and the occasional grounds-well that shape and change it.

In other words, it is an endeavour of the human mind to understand

this all too human organised world and the texture of values that are

embodied in it, at any moment, and the forces that shape and change

it in the historical time process.

Frank Thakurdas2

Nobody can complete the study of politics in a book or a series of

books.... Therefore, it is not only hazardous but false to make sweep-

ing statements about political science as a whole.

Heinz Eulau3

1. Crick: In Defence of Politics (London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962),

p. 135.

2. Frank Thakurdas : Essays in Political Theory (New Delhi : Gitanjali, 1982),

p. 1Q6.

3. Eulau : "Drift of a Discipline" in American Behavioural Scientist

(September/October, 1977), pp. 6-7.

1

Political Theory

Man lives in a changing society, and he is socially mobile in

that society...He lives in a society where men strive delibe-

rately to change their institutioni, if he is not to feel lost in

society, he needs to be able to take his bearings in it, which

invokes more than understanding what society is like and

how it is changing. It also involves having a coherent set

of values and knowing how to use them to estimate what is

happening ; it involves having a practical philosophy, which

cannot, in the modern world, be adequate unless it is also a

social and political philosophy.

John Plamenatz1

The term 'political theory' interchangeable with other terms like

'political thought', 'political philosophy', 'political ideas', 'political

analysis', 'political inquiry', 'political ideology', 'theories of the politi-

cal system' etc., is that branch of political science which "attempts to

arrive at generalisations, inferences, or conclusions to be drawn from

the data gathered by other specialists, not only in political science,

but throughout the whole range of human knowledge and experience."2

It may rightly be regarded as the most comprehensive branch of this

discipline in view of the fact that here we study the momentous

theme of man in relation to his fellow beings under some form of

control exercised by those in 'authority roles'. Moreover, as the dimen-

sions of such a relationship change from time to time and, moreover,

as these have different images in the minds of different students of

this subject, political theory comes to have its different forms. It

leads to the emergence of its different varieties ranging from purely

1. Plamenatz: "The Uses of Political Theory" in Political Studies, Vol.8

(1960), p. 27

2. C.C. Rodee, T.J. Anderson and C.Q. Christol : Introduction to Political

Science (New York : McGraW HiJl. 1957), p. 11.

4


abstract and hypothetical on the one side to perfectly causal and

empirical on the other. Taking such a consideration in his view, Prof.

C.W. Coker incisively sums up the meaning of political theory in

these words : "When political government and its forms and activities

are studied not simply as facts to be described and compared, or

judged in reference to their immediate and temporary effects, but as

facts to be understood and appraised in relation to the constant

needs, desires and opinions of menthen we have political theory."3

Meaning, Nature, Characteristics and Varieties of Political Theory

The English word 'theory' originates from a Greek word 'theoria'

which suggests a well-focussed mental look taken at something in a

state of contemplation with an intent to grasp it. In this sense,

it covers an understanding of being (ontology) as well as a causal

explanation that may be in the nature of a theological, philosophical,

empirical, or logical thought. If so, the term 'theory' may be studied in

wider as well as narrower senses.' In the former sense, it may be taken

as a proposition or a set of propositions designed to explain some-

thing with reference to data or inter-relations not directly observed,

or not otherwise manifest. Mere description is not theory, nor are

the proposals of goals, policy, or evaluations. Only the explanations,

if any, offered for descriptions or proposals mav be theoretical ; the

descriptions or the proposals as such does not make theory. On the

other hand, theory does include 'prediction' provided it so follows

from an explanation. Then, in the latter sense, it "comprises a

thinker's entire teaching on a subject (his Lehre), including bis

description of the facts, his explanations (whether religious, philosophi-

cal, or empirical), his conception of history, his value-judgments,

and his proposals of goals, of policy, and of principles."4

In simple terms, theory "is always used to designate attempts

to 'explain' a phenomena especially when that is done in general and

abstract terms."'' But it is also usual to admit that it may be 'scienti-

fic' or 'non-scientific' according to whether or not scientific rules are

3. F.W. Coker : Recent Political Thought (New York : Appleton-Century

-Crofts, 1934), p. 3. A contemporary writer on this subject like M.A. Wein-

stein says that political theory "can be viewed as an activity that involves

posing questions, developing responses to those questions, and creating

imaginative prespectives on the public life of human beings." In his view,

there "is no correct definition of the scope of political theory... The great

political theorists created their works in response to problems that they

discovered in the realms of practical affairs or speculative thought. The

best way to become a political theorist, or at least to appreciate the work of

political theorists, f$ to become seriously concerned about a problem in

public life." Systematic Political Theory (Columbus, Ohio : Charles E

Merrill Pub., 1971), p. 1.

4. Arnold Brecht : "Political Theory" in David I. Sills (ed.) : International

Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York : Macmillan and Free

Press, 1969), p. 307.

5. Arnold Brecht : Political Theory : The Foundations of the Twentieth-Century

Political Thought (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1959), p. 14.

POLITICAL THEORY

5

followed. It is true that scientific theorising may be differentiated

from non scientific theorising, but theory in either of its forms may

not be identified with 'law'. The term 'law' connotes something clear,

fixed and binding, while a theory is just an explanation of some

phenomenon. It may suggest the existence of a law without being

itself identifiable by a law. As Norman Campbell says, it may try to

explain a law of course, but if that is the intention the theory must

refer to some more general law. Exactly speaking, a law can never

be deduced directly from a theory ; it can be deduced only from a

more general law offered in theory.6 Conversely, a law is not a

theory, it is rather a fact, namely with which some other facts are

associated either as a rule or in general. In another sense, it may

refer to a legal, moral, aesthetic or procedural norm."7

It implies that theory covers both 'values' and 'facts' that deter-

mine its normative or speculative and causal or empirical character.

It is the field where the investigations and findings of a writer or a re-

searcher are tied together, cross-referenced, weighed, contemplated and

churned so as to lay down certain conclusions in regard to the proper

relationship between man and authority (power). An investigator

may be mainly a political scientist, or an economist, or a psycholo-

gist, or a sociologist, or a historian, even an anthropologist ; what is

essential is that his conclusions must touch the fundamental issue of

man in relation to authority under which he has to survive, or his

association with a community in which he desires to seek power or,

his struggle for, what Hobbes calls, '.some future apparent good'. Here

it should be stressed that factseven if demonstrably incontrovertible

'do not by themselves', point to any single, inescapable course of

action. The function of the political theorist is to consider facts in

all their varied ramifications and at least suggest conclusions,

remedies and public policies."8

A student of this subject should, therefore, be concerned with

both the aspects of political theoryvalue-laden and fact-laden. As

such, political theory, for better or worse, has two distinct meanings:9

1. It stands for the history of political ideas. Starting with

Plato, these ideas are regarded as contributions to an intel-

lectual tradition. They are studied with due regard for the

historical circumstances which produced them, and their in-

fluence on political practice is a constant matter for specu-

lation. This understanding of political theory is the more

traditional of the two and an honourable tradition of

scholarship supports it.

6. Ibid., p. 15.

7. Ibid., Also see Campbell : What is Science ? (New York : Dover Publi-

cations, 1952), pp. 89-91.

8 Rodee and others, op. cit., p. 11.

9. Andrew Hacker : Political Theory - Philosophy, Ideology, Science (New

York: Macmillan, 1969), p. vii.

0


2. The other conception of the theory is newer and, incon-

sequence, less sure of its methods and purposes. Neverthe-

less, it can be said that this approach calls for the

systematic, study of political behaviour in the modern

world.

Obviously, the field of political theory includes both the tradi-

tional and modern spheres in spite of the fact that the two may be

distinguished from each other on certain valid grounds. Thus Hacker

continues : "Whereas the older conception has as its subject matter

the historical texts and the conditions which surrounded their writing,

the more recent approach to theory sees as its subject the actual

behaviour of men and institutions in our own time. Systematic

theory is, then, concerned to create generalisations which describe and

explain contemporary political phenomena. By and large, it places

great importance on the method of collecting data, for systematic

knowledge must be founded on evidence rather than intuition. On

the whole, this approach to theory tries to avoid making value-

judgments or enter into ethical controversies."10

From what we have said above about the meaning, nature,

characteristics and varieties of political theory, two impressions must

be formed before we go ahead with the study of this theme in other

relevant directions. First, political theory, in the main, "stands for an

abstract 'model' of the political order" which a professional student

of this subject "is examining, a guide to the systematic collection and

analysis of political data."11 Second, it, as it is today, has become like

"a blend of philosophy, scientific theory and description with far more

space and emphasis given to non-scientific philosophical aspects than

to strictly scientific ones."12 Keeping all these points in view, the

term 'political theory' has been defined, rather explained, in these

words: ' Political the jry is trying to weld together the insights, data

and understandings of those who study the actuality of political life

into a coherent explanatory theory or the theories of political beha-

viour capable, even, of generating predictions. Traditionally, the

classical political theorists like Plato and Hobbes, in fact, did both jobs.

Ideally, political theory should probably be detined as trying to com-

bine the empirical truths about human political reactions with the

moral truths of what is politically desirable by designing institutions

and constitutions which will generate the desirable by harnessing

human political nature. That is clearly a massive job, perhaps

never capable of more than limited achievement, but it is increasingly

the goal of united and coherent political science."13

10. Ibid.

11, W.T. Bluhm : Theories of the Political System : Classics of Political Thought

and Modern Political Analysis (New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India, 1981),

p. 3.

12. Brecht "Political Theory" in International Encyclopaedia, op. cit., p. 310.

13. David Robertson : A Dictionary of Modern Politics (London : Europa

POLITICAL THBORY

7

Essence of Politics : Expanding Horizons from 'Polis ' to 'Power' and

'Activity'

As already said, political theory is a branch of political science

that is defined as'the science of the state'.11 It is also defined as a

branch of the social sciences dealing with "the theory, organisation,

government and practice of the state."15 A French writer Paul Janet

offers a succinct definition of political science by taking it as that part

of social science which "treats of the foundations of the state and the

principles of government."16 According to Seeley, political science

investigates the phenomena of government as political economy deals

with wealth, biology with life, algebra with numbers, and geometry

with space and magnitude."17 Likewise, J.W. Garner holds: "In short,

political science begins and ends with the state. In a general way, its

fundamental problems include, first, an investigation of the origin

and nature of the state; second, an inquiry into the nature, history,

forms of political institutions; and third, a deduction therefrom, so

far as possible, of the laws of political growth and development."18

Political science has its original nomenclature in the word

Pub., 1985), p.266. The word 'theory' is full of ambiguity. It is often employ-

ed as a synonym for thoughts, conjectures, or ideas. Thus, political theory

is political thought or political speculation, and all three terms involve

the expression of political ideas or 'philosophising about government'. R..G.

McCloskey : "American Political Thought and the Study of Politics" in

American Political Science Review, Vol. 51 (March, 1957), pp. 115-29. Some-

times, this word is used to designate a thought or an idea about how to

solve a problem. Sometimes, it designates a conjecture about causa) relation-

ships or about the most effective means of promoting a given end. State-

ments of theory may range from a very low to a very high level of gene-

rality. In the view of T.P. Jenkin, it is an 'abstracted generalisation' and

as such it is primarily and initially a matter of mind rather than of fact,

a kind of short hand that may stand in lieu of facts. The Study of Political

Theory (Garden City : Doubleday, 1955), pp. 6-7. T.W. Hutchinson makes

a distinction between pure and applied theory, both reflecting thought

but while the former saying 'if p then q\ the latter saying 'since p thus q'.

The Significance of Basic Postulates of Economic Theory (London : Mac-

millan, 1930). p. 23. But hypothesis connotes a greater degree of doubt

than theory. Karl Popper refers to theory or to quasi-theory, as an inter-

pretation or a 'crystallisation of a point of view'. To Ernest Nagel, it

"designates an explicit formulation of the determinate relations between

a set of variables in terms of which fairly extensive class of empirically as-

certainable regularities (or laws) can be explained." Whatever be the mean-

ing of theory in a conceptual framework, as Dahl says, it is certain that

political theory, in the grand manner can rarely, if ever, meet rigorous

criteria of truth." See V.V. Dyke : Political Science : A Philosophical Analy-

sis (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1962), pp. 89-109.

14. R.G. Gettell: Political Science (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1943), p, 3.

15. Smith and Zurcher (eds): A Dictionary of American Politics, p. 238.

16. See J.W. Garner : Political Science and Government (Calcutta ; World

Press, 1952), p. 8

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid., p. 9.

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5. Easton : "Current Meaning of Behaviouralism" in Charlesworth (ed.) : Contemporary Political Analysis, p. 9.

6. D.M. Ricci : The Tragedy of Political Science: Politics, Scholarship and Democracy (New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 3

1984), p. 139. S

7. Greggor. op. cit., pp. 21-23.

8. Ricci, op. cit., p. 144. S

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