You may have heard the saying that "first impressions are lasting impressions." Read this passage about first contact between the French and the First Nations peoples and determine what first impression you think each group had of the other.

Jacques Cartier was an early European visitor to North America. In July 1534 he landed on the Gaspe Peninsula in what is now the province of Quebec. There he met a First Nations people led by their chief, Donnacona. We do not know what these people called themselves but the French called them the St. Lawrence Iroquois.

After Cartier landed, one of the first things he did was raise a large wooden cross. Across the top of it he wrote, Vive le Roi de France! (Long live the King of France!) Wherever European explorers went in those days, they claimed the lands that they visited for their country. They did not even consider that the land would belong to the Aboriginal inhabitants.

In his journal, Cartier described how Donnacona reacted to the cross:

FIGURE 1.1This painting by Charles Simpson shows Cartier claiming the land for France. When the Haudenosaunee complained, Cartier told them it was simply a marker for his ship. Why do you think Cartier lied?

u Pointing to the cross, he [Donnacona] made us a long speech, making the sign of the cross with his two fingers; and then he pointed to the land all around, as if to say that all this region belonged to him, and that we ought not tohave set up this cross without his permission. 99

Source: H.P. Biggar, ed. The Voyages of Jacques Cartier (Ottawa: Public Archives of Canada, 1924), p. 65.

Judging by this encounter, what issue do you predict may develop between the First Nations peoples and the Europeans who came to live in North America? How might this encounter affect future relations between the two groups?

UNIT 1

Aboriginal PerspectivesWhen the Europeans arrived in North America in the late 1400s, Aboriginal peoples had already lived for thousands of years in what is now called Canada. There were many different Aboriginal societies across the land. In each part of Canada, Aboriginal peoples had developed their own way of life based on the land and the resources they found there. This meant that each Aboriginal nation had its own distinct culture. The Mi'kmaq [MIG-mah] on the East Coast, for example, followed a way of life that was much different than the Elaida [EiY-duh] on the West Coast, or the Siksika [sik-SIK-uh] of the Plains.

Despite their diversity, Aboriginal nations also had many things in common. For example, they all survived by using the resources of the land. They hunted and fished, gathered wild plants, and, in some parts of the country, grew their own crops. They also traded with one another to obtain goods. The Haudenosaunee [how-den-o-SHOW-nee], for example, traded corn, tobacco, and other crops with neighbouring nations. In return, they received copper, seashells, and birchbark that they used to build canoes.

Diverse Aboriginal communities also shared certain values. Values are important ideas about how people choose to live their lives. Every society has values that it admires and tries to pass on from generation to generation. For example, as Canadians many of us value equality and are proud of our diverse cultural heritages. Read the following passage by John Joe Sark and determine what values are being expressed. Do you think these values are present in Canada today?

u The Mi'kmaq people and other First Nations believe that this land existed before man's short stay on earth and it will exist long after we have gone. Therefore it is something tobe respected as it is a gift from the Creator for us to use. 99

- John Joe Sark, Mi'kmaq

Source: Daniel Francis, Voices and Visions (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 5.

Respect for the land and the natural world is a value shared by all Aboriginal peoples. Though each group has unique ideas about how the earth was created and how people came to exist, Aboriginal peoples all believe in the existence of a spiritual world that plays an important role in what happens on earth.

For links on First Nations’ cultures

rupuaiaapfThis is an example of a quote or text taken from another source. Following are two ways to identify whether you are reading some­thing from a different source:• It is usually in a different

font or format than the rest of the text.

• The author or source is listed after the text.This is called a citation.

Historians use quotes to support the opinions they express in their writing.

UNIT 1

CaribouInuit

Quebec Inuit

Labrador-JnuM

innu (Naskapi),.

BeothukDunne-ZaHeiltsuk

NuxalkNuu-chah-rf|

Nehiyawak (Swarppy Cree)

Nehiyawak? ^ (Wood Cree)& Siksika

a.J . Kainai «( Piikani

Nehiyawak (Plains Crei

AlgonquinNakota

OdawaWendat

Haudenosaunee

Aboriginal Language Groups and Peoples in Canada Before Contact

I I Iroquoian

I Haida

I Beothuk

LEGENDAboriginal language groups:

I I Inuit I l Salishan

l I Athapaskan dU Wakashan

I I Algonquian I "1 Tsimshian

Aboriginal peoples: labelled on map

...... Present provincial/territorial border

------ Present international border

I I Siouan

I I Kutenai

I I Tlingit

FIGURE 1.2This map shows the location of many different Aboriginal societies across Canada. Before contact with the Europeans, there were 50 to 70 different languages spoken across the land. According to the map, which First Nations peoples lived in the area where you live now? Do they still live there?

When the Europeans first arrived in North America, Aboriginal peoples also believed that land and resources were meant to be shared with everyone. Individuals could use the land to make their living, but they did not own it and could not use it any way they wanted. All Aboriginal societies had rulesand agreements governing how the people could use the land and its wealth.

Just as they have for thousands of years, Aboriginaf peoples today value the wisdom and experience of older members of their community, known as Elders or Traditional Knowledge Keepers. Elders helppeople in their community to make good decisions. They pass on traditional knowledge and activities from generation to generation.

Swampy Cree Elder Louis Bird is a well-known storyteller from Peawanuck, Ontario. He explains that legends, or traditional stories,are an important part of his culture:

u The legends are very, very useful. And it ivas part of the education system. They were made for that—an education medium—for any age group. And it is used for the young people, who always look forward to hearing it again, no matter where they go, no matter how many times theyhear the legends. 99

Source: From a transcribed recording of Elder Louis Bird, 26 December 2002, www.ourvoices.ca.

ILiiltlelrlalci i 4 i

All people use stories, myths, legends, and folk tales to teach about their culture and values. Make a connection to a legend or folk tale from your own heritage. What story did you think about?

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>► FASAboriginal LanguagesIn the past century, eight Aboriginal languages in Canada have disappeared, and most others are in danger of being lost. When Aboriginal youth began going to government-run schools, they were taught in French or English and were forbidden to use their own languages. Some Aboriginal languages continue to be used in daily life in both spoken and written form, but most are used only by adults and have not been passed down to younger generations. Experts fear that few languages will survive.

Today, Aboriginal peoples are trying to preserve their languages. Many Aboriginal communities offer language classes in their child­care centres and schools. Some newspapers and magazines are published in Aboriginal languages. Radio and television programs are also available in Aboriginal languages such as Inuktitut and Oji-Cree. Aboriginal peoples believe that saving their languages is an important part of saving their cultures.

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FIGURE 1.3Two girls in a Grade 7 class typing in Inuktitut at the Ataguttaaluk School in Igloolik, Nunavut. Why is it important for Aboriginal nations to preserve their languages? How is language a part of culture?

Aboriginal peoples also value consensus. Consensus is a way of making decisions that involves discussion and agreement. Before a decision is made, all sides of an issue are discussed back and forth among the people, or perhaps among a council of leaders. A final decision is made only when everyone agrees that it is for the best. This is called reaching a consensus.

When decisions are made by consensus, the ability to speak well is very important. People have to be persuaded by arguments; they cannot be forced. Among Aboriginal societies, speaking well and making good arguments are valued skills.

Think ItWhat are some of the values shared by Aboriginal peoples?Do Canadians share these values today? For example, do you think that we pay enough respect to the views of elderly people? Do we make decisions by consensus or by some other means? Ask yourself similar questions about the other values you have identified.Draw up a list of values that you think exist in Canadian society today. Do we always live up to our values?What do you value about living in Canada or being a Canadian?

Oral and Written HistoriesRight now you are reading about First Nations' ways of life, and about events that took place in the past. Traditionally, First Nations youngsters learned about such things by listening. They listened to Elders and other people in their communities who shared their language, teachings, and traditional stories. The information was learned and passed by word of mouth from one generation to another. It did not need to be written down. In this way, the First Nations peoples developed a rich oral culture.

When European explorers came to North America, they recorded events in writing. Some of these records have survived through the centuries and can still be read today. For example, at the beginning of this unit you read a passage that Jacques Cartier wrote in his journal about the St. Lawrence Iroquois.

New France 9

Many of the First Nations' quotations in this book were actually recorded by Europeans. What problems might there be when using documents written by Europeans to explain First Nations' histories?

FIGURE 1.4This girl is escorting an Elder during Easter festivities on Baffin Island in Nunavut.Do you know any stories or legends that have been passed on by Aboriginal Elders?

What’s in a Name?If someone calls you by the wrong name, it wouldn't be unusual for you to feel insulted. After all, your name is important to you. Few people like it when someone says their name incorrectly or mixes them up with someone else.

This is what happened to the First Nations when Europeans came to North America in the 1400s and 1500s. The Europeans did not understand where they were and could not understand the languages of the people they met. As a result, misunderstandings occurred.

For example, explorer Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492. When he arrived in North America, he mistakenly thought he had reached India. He called the Aboriginal people he met "Indians" instead of learning what they called them­selves. Columbus brought that term back to Europe, where it was widely adopted. Today, the term Indian is still used, though many First Nations people feel that it does not respect their identity.

As more Europeans came to North America, they renamed the First Nations peoples they met.

©For links on First Nations’ oral histories

UNIT 1

First Nations called themselves...

But European explorers renamed them...

Haudenosaunee Iroquois (not to be confused[how-den-o-SHOW-nee] with the St. Lawrence Iroquois)

Nehiyawak (Plains Cree)

[nay-HI-uh-wuk]Cree

Omushkegowuk (James Bay Cree)

[o-MUSH-ke-go-wuk]Cree

Wendat Huron[WAH-n-dot] A

Today, most First Nations people affirm their identity by using their original names.

Aboriginal peoples is a name for the indigenous peoples of North America and their descendants. Indigenous means that they are the original people of this land. The Canadian government recognizes three groups of Aboriginal peoples: First Nations, Inuit, and Metis [may-TEE],

1. First Nations: This term came into use in the 1970s in Canada to replace the words band and Indian. The First Nations are the original inhabitants of the land, along with the Inuit.

2. Inuit: The Inuit are several different peoples. They are the original inhabitants of the coastal regions of the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, Alaska, and Siberia.

3. Metis: A French word meaning "mixed blood." The Metis are descendants of First Nations women and European explorers and fur traders.

Make a connection with the text. Think of a time that you were in a situation where you were misunderstood. How did you feel?

Future EncountersAs you read ahead, you will discover that Europeans did not always understand the Aboriginal cultures they encountered in North America. They had their own ideas about land ownership, religion, government, and other issues. Many Europeans did not respect the fact that the Aboriginal peoples had their own values and ways of doing things. They often thought that the Aboriginal way was wrong because it was so different from their own.This difference in values led to many misunderstandings.