Assess The Ways In Which Snarky Puppy’s ‘Lingus’ (2014) Draws On, Rejects, Adapts And Retains Jazz Traditions.

Snarky Puppy are responsible for a vast body of work which, while centred around

jazz, takes many forms. From the restrained ‘Somebody Home’ (Snarky Puppy, 2016) to the mostly electronic ‘Sleeper’ (Snarky Puppy, 2014), they take, avoid and twist the traditions of jazz to various extremes. It is ‘Lingus’ (Snarky Puppy, 2014), however, which provides the most interesting of their jazz developments. Of course, there are some very obvious features of ‘Lingus’ that make it recognisably jazzy. We hear a typical (if slightly ‘modern’) jazz band made up of saxophones, trumpets, percussion, keyboards/synths, guitars and bass (which, like much jazz, is often edited in live settings: the keyboard solo is often performed on guitar (JavaJazzFest, 2014) and the band changes size substantially), producing syncopated music which includes a lot of improvisation based on interesting chord sequences. This all fits into the idea that jazz is essentially ‘the Africanisation of American music… the blending together of cultural elements that previously existed separately’ (Gioia, 2011). While this is true, and many of the traditions that contribute to this ‘Africanisation’ are used in this piece- they are also adapted and avoided to varying degrees.

Syncopation is a technique used ‘to vary the position of stress on notes’ (Kennedy et al., 2012) and has become a vital aspect of jazz. ‘Lingus’ is littered with strong examples, beginning with some quite standard uses [figure 1] (0:11-0:14) which clearly retain the jazz tradition heard, for example, in the off-beat head of Miles Davis’ ‘Milestones’ (Davis, 1958) and the wind interjections that open Paul Chambers’ ‘Minor Run Down’ (Chambers, 1957). However, as the second half of the piece begins, there is a recognisable difference, with a distinct ‘world-music’ influence appearing. The heavily syncopated rhythm of the bass drum that enters at 4:16 takes the syncopation heard throughout to further complexity, while taking influence from Cuban clave. In one way, this non-standard rhythm inspired by Cuban music is an extension to the jazz rhythmic repertoire. However, the use of Cuban clave could still be seen as a jazz tradition itself, as it eventually became a staple through the Afro-Cuban music of jazz artists like Dizzy Gillespie, who brought South-American rhythms to

prominence in the form of tracks such as ‘Manteca Theme’ (Gillespie, 1954). The pattern heard here is in two halves, with the first half providing ‘normal’ syncopation, and the second half being interpreted as either a slightly edited version of the popular ‘Son Clave’ rhythm or a replica of the less widely known ‘Rhumba Clave’ rhythm [figure 2]. The use (and

extended use) of syncopation heard throughout ‘Lingus’ shows how much Snarky Puppy have taken from and adapted this important jazz tradition.

Over the course of the 20th century, the use of non-standard time signatures became prominent in jazz, through the influence of rhythmic innovators such as Dave Brubeck in pieces likes ‘Blue Rondo A La Turk’ (Brubeck, 1959). Since Brubeck (and admittedly before, though to a lesser extent), interesting/changing time signatures have become quite standard in various jazz styles, from 11/8 in Don Ellis’ ‘Upstart’ (Ellis, 1967) to Robert

Glasper’s ‘Beatrice’ (Glasper, 2007). ‘Lingus’ is no different. By placing certain sections such as the guitar ‘pre-chorus’ section (0:46-1:00) firmly in

5/4 [figure 3] much like Brubeck’s ‘Take Five’ (Brubeck, 1959), Snarky Puppy make effective

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use of this jazz tradition. However, ‘Lingus’ also takes this to the extreme, by making some of the uses of time signatures more ambiguous. [Figure 4] shows the way in which the verse (0:09-0:46) of this piece could be written in 5/4, while [figure 5], suggests

otherwise, showing the ways in which the same section is able to sound as though organised into 4/4, with an additional bar of 2/4 at the end- more reminiscent of pieces such as Outkast’s ‘Hey Ya’ (Outkast, 2003) than standard jazz. This shows that unlike, for example, Brubeck’s ‘Unsquare Dance’ (Brubeck, 1961) which is very clearly in 7/4, Snarky Puppy are able to subtly twist the traditions of jazz rhythm by making their use of time signature ambiguous. However, further from this, it could even be looked at as polymetric with [figure 4+5] suggesting that the drum kit and keyboard both unsubtly suggest their own independent time signatures, with the other instruments quite ambiguously slotting in. This is a complex technique seldom approached in jazz, and its complexity shows how Snarky Puppy further push the rhythmic boundaries of the genre.

One of the jazz traditions ‘Lingus’ moves furthest away from is form. A standard jazz structure would often be based around a head melody and solo sections: Miles Davis’ ‘All Blues’ (Davis, 1959); Thelonious Monk’s ‘Blue Monk’ (Monk, 1954); Sonny Rollin’s ‘St Thomas’ (Rollins, 1957) for example. Even something as simple as AABA form is often used, but this piece follows a much less standard structure for jazz. While the overarching form is binary (itself seen rarely) with the B section forming a strange through-composition comprised of a keyboard solo and a long, call and response outro, the A section is in many ways much more reminiscent of a typical pop song. This structure [figure 6] can be found in

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very similar formats across pieces from many contrasting pop styles from Ben Folds Five’s ‘Kate’ (Ben Folds Five, 1997) to System Of A Down’s ‘A.D.D’ (System Of A Down, 2002), but rarely in (instrumental, at least) jazz. While this is obviously an adaptation on a pop form, as many of the sections don’t sound like their equivalent (e.g. the ‘verse’ doesn’t have much in common with a pop song’s verse aside from its placement) and the 2nd pre-chorus is hugely extended (which is not particularly standard in pop music) the way the sections are structured and linked show the clear influence of pop structuring on this half of the piece. Their

adoption of this form shows how Snarky Puppy rejects the use of standard jazz structures. Modal jazz became one of the leading styles of jazz in the 50’s and 60’s through

musicians such as Miles Davis and Herbie Hancock. While ‘Lingus’ wouldn’t be described exclusively as a modal jazz piece, the band take the traditions from the subgenre and insert them into the ‘verse’ section, rather than the whole piece as would be expected. Firstly, we hear that the main wind melody is using the E Dorian mode (due to the C# joining the F#), which in itself adds an interesting development in their melodic writing. However, Snarky Puppy also adopt other techniques to make this section clearly reminiscent of modal jazz. ‘In practice, the key element of modal jazz is a single and, at the time, profound idea: slow harmonic rhythm’ (Kernfeld, 1995). In the case of ‘Lingus’, their slow harmonic rhythm is actually completely static, with the entire 16 bar verse being based around the E7sus4 chord. This use of static harmony could be seen as an extension to the modal jazz repertoire, though it could also be seen as a pedal chord, which is something commonly heard in modal jazz anyway. Either way, this shows clear inspiration and use of borrowed elements. This harmonic rhythm can be linked to one of the epitomes of modal jazz: Herbie Hancock’s ‘Maiden Voyage’ (Hancock, 1964), which not only includes slow harmonic rhythm (which changes every 8 bars) but also employs quartal harmony, another key modal jazz feature. The E7sus4 chord [figure 7] used throughout this section is made up of notes which are (when stacked) a 4th away from each other, thus avoiding a sense of traditional functionality. This draws parallels to ‘Maiden Voyage’ which uses 7sus4 chords almost exclusively throughout, creating a sense of uncertainty with a lot of melodic freedom above - much like ‘Lingus’. Despite the clear influence taken in the verse section, the rest of the piece never returns to the slow harmonic pulse, quartal harmonies or Dorian mode use, showing Snarky Puppy to have taken and adapted modal jazz by slotting it into ‘Lingus’ temporarily, rather than simply composing a modal jazz piece.

Another of the main melodic features of this piece is the improvisation heard throughout. During Corey Henry’s keyboard solo, we are presented with many different improvisatory styles. Some of the less chromatic playing (5:02-5:06) found in the keyboard solo [figure 8] can be compared to things like Louis Armstrong’s ‘Hello, Dolly!’ (Armstrong, 1964) due to its subtle, yet simple syncopation

and infrequent dips into

chromaticism. Some of the more frantic, chromatic soloing (7:30-7:35) [figure 9], however, is more comparable to John Coltrane’s ‘Countdown’ (Coltrane, 1960) through its use of chromaticism and fast runs, which includes angular, disjunct leaps and dissonance. This

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suggests that Snarky Puppy are pushing the boundaries of jazz improvisation by combining techniques from such contrasting styles into one solo. However, the use of multiple improvisational styles in one piece is actually not uncommon in jazz, as suggested by Coltrane’s solo in ‘All Blues’ (Davis, 1959). We can compare Henry’s earlier, more laid-back playing to Coltrane’s at around 06:15-6:33 (in ‘All Blues’), but then at 7:51-7:56, we hear Coltrane’s fast chromaticism producing a completely different tone (Coan, 1995), much more reminiscent of Henry’s later, more intense playing. This suggests that the use of contrasting styles within the same piece is not an uncommon feature of jazz improvisation, and due to the variety heard across the history of jazz in general, it would be hard, in any case, to determine a truly ‘traditional’ solo.

Having said that, the improvisation in ‘Lingus’ does still clearly demonstrate some jazz traditions. The aforementioned uses of frequent chromaticism and syncopation, for example, which in conjunction with their improvised nature, create a solo that is at the very least clearly a jazz solo. However, there are certain features of the improvisations found throughout ‘Lingus’ that are unconventional. Firstly, the use of effects. During the ‘bridge’ section, we hear the trumpet and saxophone trade solos in which both are treated with extra reverb, slight distortion and phasing effects. The use of effects on instruments (especially wind instruments) is uncommon in jazz, and were almost never heard until more experimental jazz styles were born. It is more of a traditional rock/pop feature, heard in the music of bands from Nirvana to Pink Floyd, furthering Snarky Puppy’s obvious inspiration from this genre. Another non-standard item heard during the keyboard solo in this piece is the use of improvised harmony throughout. Of course, improvised harmony isn’t unheard of in jazz, especially in the ‘blocky’ soloing of pianists like Dave Brubeck and Oscar Peterson, but it is Corey Henry’s approach to harmonic improvisation which is unusual. If we compare

the opening of the ‘Lingus’ solo, where homorhythmic chords support, and at times essentially become the melody (4:42-4:47) [figure 10], while taking us away from the implied harmonic basis (E-

C-A-F), to Oscar Peterson’s playing in ‘I Get A Kick Out Of You’ (Peterson, 1952) where Peterson provides melody interspersed with harmonising notes and the occasional switch into block chords in order to add variety, we can see that the approaches to the same overall technique are extremely contrasting. The same approach as Peterson’s can be seen in the piano solos of many jazz pianists (Dave Brubeck for example), suggesting that while improvised harmony is a common feature of jazz often used to support and add interest to melodic improvisation, Cory Henry’s usage is often non-standard when he uses it to replace the melody or join it in homorhythm.

The approach to non- improvised harmony during this section is one of the most interesting elements of ‘Lingus’. Typically, jazz solos are firmly structured around some sort of harmonic pattern, with the improvisation being based on this pattern. The call and response wind solos earlier in ‘Lingus’ provide a clear example of this in action. However, in contrast to the regimented jazz tradition of a solid harmonic backing, the keyboard solo here is based on a pattern of bass notes (E-C-A-F). The 4 ‘chord’ pattern is, much like the rest of the piece, more representative of a pop track rather than the normally dense harmonic language heard in jazz. On top of that, the lack of actual chords makes the harmony very ambiguous, giving no extension to the chords and avoiding even a suggestion

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of a major or minor quality. This suggests a move away from a standard approach to soloing over chord changes heard in most jazz. Having said that, despite the frequent chromaticism heard in the melody, there are many moments where the underlying harmony is still acknowledged as if it were a ‘proper’ chord sequence. The scales and melodic features, such as that at 6:48-6:51 often do follow the implied changes [figure 11], which could suggest at least a connection to a traditional approach to soloing. The following of chord changes during improvisation can be seen in ‘Giant Steps’ (Coltrane, 1960) where Coltrane still manages to clearly follow the highly complex changes. This suggests that despite the non-traditional sequence of changes and Cory Henry’s frequent use of improvised harmony to stray from the harmonic basis, a lot of the solo is still based generally around the implied harmonic sequence, which implies an adaptation to the sequence.

As mentioned, jazz is typically based around rigid harmonic sequences, often using variation on pre-existing harmonic structures such as the 12-bar blues heard in John Coltrane’s ‘Equinox’ (Coltrane, 1964) or rhythm changes in ‘Rhythm-a-Ning’ by Thelonious Monk (Monk, 1958), ‘Lingus’ rejects this tradition, as (aside from the improvised harmony of the keyboard solo) the sequences used here seem more influenced by popular styles of music than jazz. Aside from the use of various extensions and occasional additional chords (mostly A and F), the piece generally centres around C, D and E. On paper, this seems more related to bands such as The Beatles on tracks such as ‘Love Me Do’ (Beatles, 1963) or even Pulp’s ‘Common People’ (Pulp, 1995). Other than the implied and sometimes ignored B section harmony, the ‘A’ section of the piece is essentially based around 3 chord sequences. As mentioned, the ‘verse’ takes influence from modal jazz and uses a static E7sus4 throughout. The ‘pre-chorus’ [figure 12] (0:46-1:00) section comprises of a repeating 4 bar pattern (Cmaj7-Cmaj7-Esus4-D6/9) which is extended at the end of each pre-chorus via the addition of 2 surplus bars of Cmaj7, as well as the fleeting use of a Db chord around (02:13). While in terms of the Em tonality, this sequence (VImaj7-VImaj7-Isus4-VII6/9) is technically tonal, it is not particularly functional, and doesn’t really ring true of pop or jazz- making it definitely one of the more interesting

ways Snarky Puppy have adapted the traditions of harmony for this piece. The ‘chorus’ [figure 13] (2:27-3:03) section uses more developed harmony, being based (generally) around 2 sequences which are developed and

embellished through the use of extensions and additional chords, especially when the chorus returns for the 2nd and 3rd time. Despite the increased complexity and occasional

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changes of this sequence, it is still essentially based on 4 bar patterns- something far more pop oriented than jazz.

Snarky Puppy’s use of extensions in their harmony (such as the often heard maj7) is a common feature of jazz, though in comparison to a huge amount of earlier jazz seems somewhat more ‘poppy’ with the dissonance of, for example the jazz staple dominant 7th chord, being avoided. However, there is one important aspect of jazz harmony that Snarky Puppy have drawn on subtly in ‘Lingus’- the use of substitution chords. Despite substitution chord heavy legends such as Miles Davis suggesting that he ‘had no feel for… all those different modes and substitute chords’ (Kahn, 2001) after moving towards a more fusion based style; Snarky Puppy don’t reject them in their fusion music, but instead use them subtly. The first of these heard in ‘Lingus’ is the Db7 heard at (02:13), which comes between a D6/9 and a Cmaj7 [figure 14]. If this chord was a G, we would hear the pattern of a very jazz-typical II-V-I sequence, but instead we hear the Db, which is a tritone away from G. This could be analysed as a tritone substitution, much like those heard throughout ‘The Girl From Ipanema’ (Getz, 1963). The subtle placement of this substitution chord could be seen as a technique borrowed from much traditional jazz. The A7 chord which appears in bar 7 of the ‘chorus’ is situated after a D/C chord, meaning that it moves up a 5th to the theoretical ‘dominant’ of the non-tonic D. This creates a secondary dominant function (in this case essentially V/VII). Typically, a secondary dominant chord would then fall into a chain of secondary dominants as in pieces such as ‘Sweet Georgia Brown’ (Fitzgerald, 1966) but here it does not, and instead falls to a G chord, suggesting that Snarky Puppy don’t use the chord type in its standard way and are instead adapting this jazz tradition.

Blues in the early 1900’s came from the work songs heard in African-American communities and is the closest precursor to jazz as we know it. One thing that stood out in this style of music was its focus on call and response, which continues even now to be a defining element of jazz. We can see more traditional examples of call and response in works such as that of Texan prisoner James Baker, who sang on the first recording of work songs such as ‘Black Betty’ and ‘The Grey Goose’ (Baker, 1933), while the spread into more well-known jazz works can be seen in the scat of Cab Calloway’s ‘Minnie The Moocher’ (Calloway, 1931). ‘Lingus’ doesn’t avoid this tradition, and many examples of call and response litter the piece. The first example (starting at 0:09) is between the bass and lead instruments. The first bass cell ends on beat 5 of the bar, which is where the first melodic phrase begins. Much like the verses of the blues piece ‘Hoochie-Coochie Man’ by Muddy Waters (Waters, 1954), the bass part is silent during the first appearance of the melody (0:09-0:18), suggesting a simple call and response between the instruments [figure 15]. The second bass cell enters with an upbeat as the E sustains in the melody. This is a less clear call and response than the first 2 bar interaction, but still

[Figure 15]

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suggests a very similar compositional technique as the parts overlap, but with clear divisions suggesting their separation. Furthermore, the main rhythmic and melodic centre of the 2nd bass cell is heard, simplified, in the 2nd melodic phrase, producing an effect similar to imitation. Call and response is used again towards the end of the piece (from around 08:15). It begins relatively traditionally, with distinct phrases alternating between pre-written horn melodies and virtuosic keyboard improvisation, with the following phrases shrinking to 4 bars (this ‘simple’ call and response happens from about 08:15-9:05). This becomes less traditional from about 09:05 as the clear adaptation to the technique becomes increasingly

noticeable when the phrases begin to overlap

more [figure 16], and eventually become fully polyphonic by around 09:29. This shows one of the many ways Snarky Puppy use ‘Lingus’ to expand on the traditional features of jazz.

In conclusion, though we can clearly label this piece as ‘jazz’ and it takes on a lot of typical traditions of the genre (especially rhythmically), the abandonment of stereotypical jazz harmony and form combined with Snarky Puppy’s unique take on improvisation, melodic writing and texture mean that this piece is a bold and inventive combination of complex influences from a huge array of genres, with pop music providing the most substantial contribution.

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