1. ABSTRACT

“A single electronic card may replace everything in your wallet including. . .

. . . your cash

. . . your credit cards

. . . your ATM card

. . . your ID cards

. . . your insurance

. . . and your life

FUTURE One card, or one chip, with your life on it.”

“Biochips”- The most exciting future technology is an outcome of the fields of Computer

science, Electronics & Biology. It is a new type of bio-security device to accurately track

information regarding what a person is doing, and who is to accurately track information

regarding what he is doing, and who is actually doing it. It is no more required with

biochips the good old idea of remembering pesky PINs, Passwords, & Social security

numbers .No more matters of carrying medical records to a hospital, no more cash/credit

card carrying to the market place; everything goes embedded in the chip. Everything goes

digitalized. No more hawker tricks on the internet. Biochip has a variety technique for

secured E-money transactions on the net. The power of biochips exists in capability of

locating lost children, downed soldiers, and wandering Alzheimer patients.

2. INTRODUCTION

The idea of implanting a biochip in our body that identifies us uniquely and can be used

to track our location will not be liked by most of us. That would be a major loss of

privacy. But there is a flip side to this. Such biochips could help agencies to locate lost

children, downed soldiers and wandering Alzheimer’s patients.

The human body is the next big target of chipmakers. It will not be long before biochip

implants will come to the rescue of sick, or those who are handicapped in some way.

Large amount of money and research has already gone into this area of technology.

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Anyway, such implants have already been commenced. A few US companies are selling

both chips and their detectors. The chips are of size of an uncooked grain of rice, small

enough to be injected under the skin using a syringe needle. They respond to a signal

from the detector held just a few feet away by transmitting an identification number. This

number is then compared with the database listings of register pets.

Daniel Man, a plastic surgeon in private practice in Florida, holds the patent on a more

powerful device: a chip that would enable lost humans to be tracked by satellite.

3. HISTORY

The development of biochips has a long history, starting with early work on the

underlying sensor technology. Biochip was originally developed in 1983 for monitoring

fisheries, the rapid technological advances of the biochemistry and semi conductor fields

in the 1980s led to the large scale development of biochips in the 1990s. At this time, it

became clear that biochips were largely a "platform" technology which consisted of

several separate, yet integrated components. Today, a large variety of biochip

technologies are either in development or being commercialized. Numerous

advancements continue to be made in sensing research that enable new platforms to be

developed for new applications. Biochip was invented in 4G generation & the

development is still continued, due its various applications. Biochips are also continuing

to evolve as a collection of assays that provide a technology platform. One interesting

development in this regard is the recent effort to couple so-called representational

difference analysis (RDA) with high-throughput DNA array analysis. The RDA

technology allows the comparison of DNA from two separate tissue samples

simultaneously. It is important to realize that a biochip is not a single product, but rather

a family of products that form a technology platform. Many developments over the past

two decades have contributed to its evolution. In a sense, the very concept of a biochip

was made possible by the work of Fred Sanger and Walter Gilbert, who were awarded a

Nobel Prize in 1980 for their pioneering DNA sequencing approach that is widely used

today. DNA sequencing chemistry in combination with electric current as well as

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micropore agarose gels, laid the foundation for considering miniaturizing molecular

assays. Another Nobel-prize winning discovery, Kary Mullis's polymerase chain reaction

(PCR), first described in 1983, continued down this road by allowing researchers to

amplify minute amounts of DNA to quantities where it could be detected by standard

laboratory methods. A further refinement was provided by Leroy Hood's 1986 method

for fluorescence-based DNA sequencing which facilitated the automation of reading

DNAsequence.

Further developments, such as sequencing by hybridization, gene marker identification,

and expressed sequence tags, provided the critical technological mass to prompt

corporate efforts to develop miniaturized and automated versions of DNA sequencing

and analysis to increase throughput and decrease costs. In the early and mid-1990s,

companies such as Hyseq and Affymetrix were formed to develop DNA array

technologies.

4. DEFINITION

A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (micro arrays) arranged on a solid

substrate that permits many tests to be performed at the same time in order to get higher

throughput and speed. Typically, a biochip’s surface area is not longer than a fingernail.

Like a computer chip that can perform millions of mathematical operation in one second,

a biochip can perform thousands of biological operations, such as decoding genes, in a

few seconds.

A genetic biochip is designed to “freeze” into place the structures of many short strands

of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the basic chemical instruction that determines the

characteristics of an organism. Effectively, it is used as a kind of “test tube” for real

chemical samples.

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FIGURE 4.1 :- PROCESS OF A BIOCHIP

5. WORKING OF THE BIOCHIPS

The reader generates a low-power, electromagnetic field, in this case via radio signals,

which “activates” the implanted biochip. This “activation” enables the biochip to send the

ID code back to the reader via radio signals. The reader amplifies the received code,

converts it to digital format, decodes and displays the ID number on the reader’s LCD

display. The reader must normally be between 2 and 12 inches near the biochip to

communicate. The reader and biochip can communicate through most materials, except

metal.

The biochip system is Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system, using low-

frequency radio signals to communicate between the biochip and reader. The reading

range or activation range, between reader and biochip is small, normally between 2 and

12 inches.

6. COMPONENTS OF THE BIOCHIPS

The biochip system consists of two components which are as follows :-

1. Transponder.

2. Reader or scanner.

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6.1 THE TRANSPONDER :-

The transponder is the actual biochip implant. It is a passive transponder, meaning it

contains no battery or energy of its own. In comparison, an active transponder would

provide its own energy source, normally a small battery. Because the passive contains no

battery, or nothing to wear out, it has a very long life up to 99 years, and no maintenance.

Being passive, it is inactive until the reader activates it by sending it a low power

electrical charge. The reader reads or scans the implanted biochip and receives back data

(in this case an identification number) from the biochips. The communication between

biochip and reader is via low-frequency radio waves. Since the communication is via

very low frequency radio waves it is not at all harmful to the human body.

FIGURE 6.1 :- COMPONENTS OF THE BIOCHIP

The biochip-transponder further consists of four parts mentioned below :-

A. Computer Microchip.

B. Antenna Coil.

C. Tuning Capacitor.

D. Glass capsule.

A. COMPUTER MICROCHIP:-

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The microchip stores a unique identification number from 10 to 15 digits long. The

storage capacity of the current microchips is limited, capable of storing only a single ID

number. AVID (American Veterinary Identification Devices), claims their chips, using a

nnn-nnn-nnn format, has the capability of over 70 trillion unique numbers. The unique ID

number is “etched” or encoded via a laser onto the surface of the microchip before

assembly. Once the number is encoded it is impossible to alter. The microchip also

contains the electronic circuitry necessary to transmit the ID number to the “reader”.

B. ANTENNA COIL :-

This is normally a simple, coil of copper wire around a ferrite or iron core. This tiny,

primitive, radio antenna receives and sends signals from the reader or scanner.

C. TUNING CAPACITOR :-

The capacitor stores the small electrical charge (less than 1/1000 of a watt) sent by the

reader or scanner, which activates the transponder. This “activation” allows the

transponder to send back the ID number encoded in the computer chip. Because “radio

waves” are utilized to communicate between the transponder and reader, the capacitor is

tuned to the same frequency as the reader.

D. GLASS CAPSULE :-

The glass capsule “houses” the microchip, antenna coil and capacitor. It is a small

capsule, the smallest measuring 11 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter, about the size of

an uncooked grain of rice. The capsule is made of biocompatible material such as soda

lime glass.

After assembly, the capsule is hermetically (air-tight) sealed, so no bodily fluids can

touch the electronics inside. Because the glass is very smooth and susceptible to

movement, a material such as a polypropylene polymer sheath is attached to one end of

the capsule. This sheath provides a compatible surface which the boldly tissue fibers

bond or interconnect, resulting in a permanent placement of the biochip.

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6.2. THE READER :-

The reader consists of an “exciter coil” which creates an electromagnetic field that, via

radio signals, provides the necessary energy (less than 1/1000 of a watt) to “excite” or

“activate” the implanted biochip. The reader also carries a receiving coil that receives

the transmitted code or ID number sent back from the “activated” implanted biochip. This

all takes place very fast, in milliseconds. The reader also contains the software and

components to decode the received code and display the result in an LCD display. The

reader can include a RS-232 port to attach a computer.

FIGURE 6.2 :- THE READER

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7. APPLICATIONS

Following are the applications of the biochips :-

1. With a biochip tracing of a person/animal anywhere in the world is possible:-

Once the reader is connected to the internet, satellite and a centralized database is

maintained about the bio-chipped creatures, it is always possible to trace out the

personality intended.

2. A biochip can store and update financial, medical, demographic data, basically

everything about a person:-

An implanted biochip can be scanned to pay for groceries, obtain medical procedures and

conduct financial transactions. Currently, the in use, implanted biochips only store one 10

to 15 digits. If biochips are designed to accommodate with more ROM & RAM there is

definitely an opportunity.

3. A biochip leads to a secured E-Commerce systems :-

It’s a fact; the world is very quickly going to a digital or E-economy, through the Internet.

It is expected that by 2008, 60% of the Business transactions will be performed through

the internet. The E-money future, however, isn't necessarily secure. The Internet wasn't

built to be Fort Knox. In the wrong hands, this powerful tool can turn dangerous. Hackers

have already broken into bank files that were 100% secure. A biochip is the possible

solution to 8 the "identification and security" dilemma faced by the digital economy. This

type of new bio-security device is capable of accurately tracking information regarding

what users are doing, and who are to accurately track information regarding what users

are doing, and who is actually doing it.

4. Biochips really are potent in replacing passports, cash, medical records:-

The really powered biochip systems can replace cash, passports, medical & other records.

It’s no more required to carry wallet full cash, credit/ATM cards, passports & medical

records to the market place.

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7.1 BIOCHIP IN MEDICAL FIELD :-

7.1.1 BIOCHIP AS A GLUCOSE DETECTOR :-

The biochip can be integrated with a glucose detector. The chip will allow diabetic

persons to easily monitor the level of sugar glucose in their blood. Diabetics currently use

a skin prick and a handheld blood test, and then medicate themselves with the required

amount of insulin. The system is simple and works well but the need to draw blood

means that most diabetics do not test themselves as often as they should. The new S4MS

chip will simply sit under the skin, sense the glucose level, and send the result back out

by radio frequency communication.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF GLUCOSE DETECTOR :-

A light emitting diode starts off the detection process. The light that it produces hits a

fluorescent chemical: one that absorbs the incoming light and re-emits it at a longer

wavelength. The longer wavelength of light is detected, and the result is send to a control

panel outside the body. Glucose is detected because the sugar reduces the amount of light

that a fluorescent chemical re-emits. The more glucose is there the less light that is

detected.

S4MS is still developing the perfect fluorescent chemical, but the key design innovation

of the S4MS chip has been fully worked out. The idea is simple: the LED is sitting in a

sea of fluorescent molecules. In most detectors the light source is far away from the

fluorescent molecules, and the inefficiencies that come with that mean more power and

larger devices. The prototype S4MS chip uses a 22 microwatt LED, almost forty times

less powerful than a tiny power-on buttons on a computer keyboard. The low power

requirements mean that energy can be supplied from outside, by a process called

induction. The fluorescent detection itself does not consume any chemicals or proteins,

so the device is self sustaining.

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OPTICAL FILTER

PHOTODIODE DETECTOR

FLUORESCENT MOLECULES

LED

FIGURE 7.1 :- THE S4MS CHIP SENSING OXYGEN OR GLOUCOSE

7.1.2 BIOCHIP AS A BLOOD PRESSURE SENSOR :-

In normal situations, the Blood Pressure of a healthy Human being is 120/80 mm of Hg.

A Pressure ratio lower than this is said to be “Low BP “ condition & a Pressure ratio

more than this is “High BP” condition. Serious Effects will be reflected in humans during

Low & High BP conditions; it may sometimes cause the death of a Person. Blood

Pressure is checked with BP Apparatus in Hospitals and this is done only when the

patient is abnormal. However, a continuous monitoring of BP is required in the aged

people & Patients. A huge variety of hardware circuitry (sensors) is available in

electronics to detect the flow of fluid. It’s always possible to embed this type of sensors

into a biochip. An integration of Pressure (Blood Flow) detecting circuits with the

Biochip can make the chip to continuously monitor the blood flow rate & when the

pressure is in its low or high extremes it can be immediately informed through the reader

hence to take up remedial measures.

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7.1.3 BIOCHIP AS OXYGEN SENSOR :-

The biochip can also be integrated with an oxygen sensor .The oxygen sensor will be

useful not only to monitor breathing in intensive care units, but also to check that

packages of food, or containers of semiconductors stored under nitrogen gas, remain

airtight.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OXYGEN SENSOR :-

The oxygen-sensing chip sends light pulses out into the body. The light is absorbed to

varying extents, depending on how much oxygen is being carried in the blood, and the

chip detects the light that is left. The rushes of blood pumped by the heart are also

detected, so the same chip is a pulse monitor.

8. HUMAN INTERFACE TO THE BIOCHIP

Biochips provide interfaces between living systems and electro-mechanical and

computational devices. These chips may be used in such varied applications as artificial

sensors, prosthesis, portable/disposable laboratories or even as implantable devices to

enhance human life. Biochips promise dramatic changes in future medical science and

human life in general. With the advances of bio and nanotechnologies two strong

paradigms of integrated electronic and life are emerging. Biosensor chips can provide the

construction of sophisticated human sensing systems such as nose and ears. The second

paradigm is chips for sensing biology that will provide for interactions with living bodies

and build new diagnosis tools (such as diabetes glucose meters) or new medicines (such

as a bio-assay chip). A tiny microchip, the size of a grain of rice, is simply placed under

the skin. It is so designed as to be injected simultaneously with a vaccination or alone."

The biochip is inserted into the subject with a hypodermic syringe. Injection is safe and

simple, comparable to common vaccines. Anesthesia is not required nor recommended.

In dogs and cats, the biochip is usually injected behind the neck between the shoulder

blades.

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Trovan Ltd. Markets an implant featuring a patented “zip quill” which you simply press

in, no syringe is needed. According to AVID “Once implanted, the identity tag is

virtually impossible to retrieve. The number can never be altered."

FIGURE 8.1 HUMAN INTERFACING OF BIOCHIP

The syringe used is of a normal size syringe & the chip can be placed below the skin

layer very easily.

FIGURE 8.2 SYRINGE TO IMPLANT BIOCHIP

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9. FIRST IMPLANT OF BIOCHIP

On May 10 2002, three members of a family in Florida ("medical pioneers," according to

a fawning report on the CBS Evening News) became the first people to receive the

implants. Each device, made of silicon and called a VeriChip is a small radio transmitter

about the size of a piece of rice that is injected under a person's skin. It transmits a unique

personal ID number whenever it is within a few feet of a special receiver unit. VeriChip's

maker describes it as "a miniaturized, implantable, radio frequency identification device

(RFID) that can be used in a variety of security, emergency and healthcare applications.

10. ADVANTAGES

1. It helps in finding lost people.

2. It is useful in locating downed children and wandering Alzheimera’s Patients.

3. It helps in recognizing person uniquely.

4. The ability to detect multiple viral agents in parallel e.g. differential diagnosis of

agents from other diseases that cause similar clinical symptoms, or the recognition of

complex mixtures of agents.

5. A biochip can perform thousands of biological reactions operations in few seconds.

6. Clarification of syndromes of unknown aetiology. Increase speed of diagnosis of

unknown pathogens (future proofed surveillance tools).

7. In monitoring health condition of individuals in which they are specifically employed.

8. To rescue the sick.

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11. DISADVANTAGES

1. They raise critical issues of personal privacy.

2. They mark the end of human freedom and dignity.

3. They may not be supported by large % of people.

4. There is a danger of turning every man, women, and Child into a controlled slave.

5. They can be implanted into one’s body without their knowledge.

6. These methods have problems that a DNA chip cannot be fabricated at high density and

mass production is limited. Thus, these methods are applicable to fabrication of a DNA

chip for study.

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12. CONCLUSION

A chip implanted somewhere in human bodies might serve as a combination of credit

card, passport, driver's license, personal diary. No longer would it be needed to worry

about losing the credit cards while traveling. A chip inserted into human bodies might

also give us extra mental power.

Biochips are fast, accurate, miniaturized and can be expected to become economically

advantageous attributes that make them analogous to a computer chip. One expects to

see an accelerated trend of ultra miniaturization, perhaps involving entirely novel

media, and an increased ability to analyze not only genetic material but also other

types of biologic molecules. One expects, too, an eventual harmonization of

technologies, so that dominant fabrication strategies will emerge, at least for certain

types of applications, including a favored format for genetic analysis and another for

antibodies and other proteins. Since the potential applications are vast, both for

research and for clinical use, the potential markets for biochips will be huge, a

powerful driving force for their continued development.

FUTURE SCOPE :-

1. Within the next ten years, we will have miniature computers inside us to monitor

and perhaps even control our blood pressure, heart rate and cholesterol.

2. Within 20 years such computers will correct visual and hearing signals, making

glasses and hearing aids obsolete.

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REFERENCES

BOOKS :-

1. Marshall, A., Hodgson, J, DNA chips: An array of possibilities, Nature

Biotechnology, 1998, 16: 27.

2. Kricha, L.J., Miniaturization of analytical systems, Clinical Chemistry, 1998, 44 :

2088.

3. Fan et al. (2009). "Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis in a Chip". Lab-on-a-Chip

Technology: Biomolecular Separation and Analysis. Caister Academic.

4. Herold K.E Rasooly, A (editor) (2009). Lab-on-a-Chip Technology: Fabrication

and Microfluids.

WEBSITES :-

(1) http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar-Reports/020/28894132-Biochips-

1.pdf

(2) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/54/Biochip_platform.jpg

(3) http://studymafia.org/biochips-seminar-pdf-report-and-ppt/

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