SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION

In this unit you have learnt that: Classification of organisms is the basic method, employed by us to organise the external world. The various systems of classification are grouped into artificial, natural and phylogenetic ones. The system

proposed by Linnaeus is one of the best examples of artificial system. In all, Linnaeus recognised 24 classes in his system.

In natural system of classification, two British Botanists namely Bentham and Hooker proposed a system of classification, which is chiefly based on the Form-Relationship. In all 202 families were recognised in this system. The starting family being Ranunculaceae and Poaceae (Graminae) being the ending family of the system.

Phylogenetic system of classification are those where plants are grouped according to their evolutionary and genetic affinities. The most popular systems under this category are the systems of classification by two German Botanists, Engler and Prantl, British Botanist, John Hutchinson and Russian Botanist, Takhtajan.

In the case of Engler and Prantl system of classification, unisexual, naked flowers in catkin are considered as the most primitive type of flowers. In this system the position of Gymnosperms just before the Angiosperms is an important point of merit. As a whole 303 families of flowering plants are recognised in this system.

Hutchinsonsy stem is mainly based on 24 phyletic dicta. He traced 2 lines of development of Dicots viz Lignosae (Woody Plants) and Herbaceae (Herbaceous plants). As a whole 111 osders and 420 families are included in this system.

Takhtajan proposed the system of classification in 1942 and then revised and modified several times. The most recent version of the system appeared in 1980. He coined new terms for Dicots and Monocots and named them Magnoliopsida and Liliopsida respectively. He recognised 419 families of flowering plants in his system of classification.

A. MICHEL ADANSON (1727-1806)A French botanist was first to formulate a natural system of classification.in his book families des plant (1973) Adanson considered different characters and also affinities among various group while arranging and classifying plants. He was poinner in identifying ORDERs and families.Adanson also known for his contribution in the field of numerical taxonomy and described as the father of numerical taxonomy

B. ROBERT BROWN (1773-1858)Robert Brown was an English botanis,who did not purpose a classification of his own but demonstrated that Gymnosperm were a group discrete from dicotyledons and had naked ovules.He also clarified the floral morphology and pollination of asclepiadaceae, morphology of grass flower structure of cyathium in euporbiaceae and etabilished several families

C. WETTSTEIN (1862-1931)A system of plant taxonomy, the Wettstein system recognised the following main groups.According to R. Wettstein (4th edition, 1935). Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik.

I. phylum Schizophyta 1. classis Schizophyceae2. classis Schizomycetes

II. phylum MonadophytaIII. phylum MyxophytaIV. phylum ConjugatophytaV. phylum Bacillariophyta

VI. phylum Conjugatae

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VII. phylum Rhodophyta 1. classis Bangieae2. classis Florideae

VIII. phylum Euthallophyta

1. classis Chlorophyceae2. classis Fungi

A. Eumycetes 1. subclassis Phycomycetes2. subclassis Ascomycetes3. subclassis Basidiomycetes

B. Lichenes 1. subclassis Ascolichenes2. subclassis Basidiolichenes

IX. phylum Cormophyta I. divisio Archegoniatae 1. subdivisio Bryophyta

1. classis Musci2. classis Hepaticae

2. subdivisio Pteridophyta 1. classis Psilophytinae2. classis Lycopodiinae3. classis Psilotinae4. classis Articulatae5. classis Filicinae

II. divisio Anthophyta 1. subdivisio Gymnospermae

1. classis Pteridospermae2. classis Cycadinae3. classis Benettitinae4. classis Cordaïtinae5. classis Ginkgoinae6. classis Coniferae7. classis Gnetinae

2. subdivisio Angiospermae 1. classis Dicotyledones

1. subclassis Choripetalae A. MonochlamideaeB. Dialypetalae

2. subclassis Sympetalae2. classis Monocotyledones

Gymnospermae1. subdivisio Gymnospermae

1. classis Pteridospermae (fossil only)2. classis Cycadinae

1. familia Cycadaceae2. familia Zamiaceae3. classis Benettitinae (fossil only)4. classis Cordaïtinae (fossil only)5. classis Ginkgoinae

1. familia Ginkgoaceae

6. classis Coniferae 1. familia

A. Monochlamideae1. ordo Verticillatae familia Casuarinaceae2. ordo Fagales 1. familia Betulaceae2. familia Fagaceae3. ordo Myricales familia Myricaceae4. ordo Leitneriales familia Leitneriaceae5. ordo Juglandales 1. familia Julianiaceae2. familia Juglandaceae6. ordo Salicales familia Salicaceae7. ordo Batidales familia Batidaceae [sic, now Bataceae]8. ordo Balanopsidales familia Balanopsidaceae [sic, now Balanopaceae]9. ordo Urticales 1. familia Moraceae2. familia Cannabaceae3. familia Ulmaceae4. familia Eucommiaceae5. familia Rhoipteleaceae6. familia Urticaceae10. ordo Piperales familia Piperaceaeincertae sedis familia Saururaceaefamilia Chloranthaceaefamilia Lacistemonaceae11. ordo Proteales familia Proteaceae12. ordo Santalales 1. familia Santalaceae2. familia Grubbiaceae3. familia Opiliaceae4. familia Octoknemaceae5. familia Olacaceae6. familia Myzodendraceae7. familia Loranthaceae8. familia Balanophoraceae

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Taxaceae2. familia Cupressaceae3. familia Abietaceae

7. classis Gnetinae 1. familia Ephedraceae2. familia Gnetaceae3. familia Welwitschiaceae

Angiospermae2. subdivisio Angiospermae

1. classis Dicotyledones

1. subclassis Choripetalae

9. familia Cynomoriaceae13. ordo Polygonales familia Polygonaceae14. ordo Centrospermae 1. familia Chenopodiaceae2. familia Amaranthaceae3. familia Phytolaccaceae4. familia Thelygonaceae5. familia Nyctaginaceae6. familia Aizoaceae7. familia Cactaceae[sic]9. familia Portulacaceae10. familia Basellaceae11. familia Caryophyllaceae15. ordo Tricoccae 1. familia Euphorbiaceae2. familia Daphniphyllaceae3. familia Dichapetalaceae4. familia Buxaceae5. familia Callitrichaceae16. ordo Hamamelidales 1. familia Hamamelidaceae2. familia Cercidiphyllaceae3. familia Eupteleaceae4. familia Platanaceae5. familia Myrothamnaceae[sic]B. Dialypetalae18. ordo Polycarpicae 1. familia Magnoliaceae2. familia Trochodendraceae3. familia Lactoridaceae4. familia Himantandraceae5. familia Eupomatiaceae6. familia Anonaceae [sic, now: Annonaceae]7. familia Myristicaceae8. familia Canellaceae9. familia Aristolochiaceae10. familia Rafflesiaceae11. familia Hydnoraceae12. familia Calycanthaceae13. familia Gomortegaceae14. familia Monimiaceae15. familia Lauraceae16. familia Hernandiaceae17. familia Menispermaceae18. familia Lardizabalaceae19. familia Ranunculaceae20. familia Berberidaceae21. familia Nymphaeaceae22. familia Ceratophyllaceae

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incertae sedis 23. familia Nepenthaceae24. familia Cephalotaceae25. familia Sarraceniaceae19. ordo Rhoeadales 1. familia Papaveraceae2. familia Tovariaceae3. familia Capparidaceae [sic, now Capparaceae]4. familia Cruciferae5. familia Resedaceae6. familia Moringaceae20. ordo Parietales 1. familia Cistaceae2. familia Bixaceae3. familia Cochlospermaceae4. familia Tamaricaceae5. familia Fouquieriaceae6. familia Frankeniaceae7. familia Elatinaceae8. familia Droseraceae9. familia Violaceae10. familia Flacourtiaceae11. familia Stachyuraceae12. familia Turneraceae13. familia Malesherbiaceae14. familia Passifloraceae15. familia Achariaceae16. familia Caricaceae17. familia Loasaceae18. familia Begoniaceae19. familia Datiscaceae20. familia Ancistrocladaceae21. ordo Guttiferales 1. familia Dilleniaceae2. familia Actinidiaceae3. familia Ochnaceae4. familia Strassburgeriaceae5. familia Eucryphiaceae6. familia Caryocaraceae7. familia Marcgraviaceae8. familia Quiinaceae9. familia Theaceae10. familia Guttiferae11. familia Dipterocarpaceae22. ordo Rosales 1. familia Crassulaceae2. familia Saxifragaceae3. familia Cunoniaceae4. familia Brunelliaceae5. familia Myrothamnaceae6. familia Pittosporaceae7. familia Byblidaceae

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8. familia Roridulaceae9. familia Bruniaceae10. familia Podostemonaceae11. familia Hydrostachyaceae12. familia Rosaceae13. familia Crossosomataceae14. familia Chrysobalanaceae15. familia Connaraceae16. familia Mimosaceae17. familia Papilionaceae23. ordo Myrtales 1. familia Penaeaceae2. familia Geissolomaceae3. familia Oliniaceae4. familia Thymelaeaceae5. familia Elaeagnaceae6. familia Lythraceae7. familia Heteropyzidaceae8. familia Sonneratiaceae9. familia Rhizophoraceae10. familia Alangiaceae11. familia Nyssaceae12. familia Lecythidaceae13. familia Combretaceae14. familia Myrtaceae15. familia Punicaceae16. familia Melastomataceae17. familia Oenotheraceae18. familia Halorrhagidaceae [sic: now Haloragaceae]19. familia Gunneraceaeincertae sedis familia Hippuridaceae24. ordo Columniferae 1. familia Malvaceae2. familia Bombacaceae3. familia Tiliaceae4. familia Sterculiaceae5. familia Elaeocarpaceaeincertae sedis familia Chlaenaceaefamilia Gonystylaceaefamilia Scytopetalaceae25. ordo Gruinales 1. familia Linaceae2. familia Humiriaceae3. familia Oxalidaceae4. familia Geraniaceae5. familia Limnaceae6. familia Tropaeolaceae7. familia Erythroxylaceae8. familia Malpighiaceae9. familia Zygophyllaceae

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incertae sedis familia Cneoraceae26. ordo Terebinthales 1. familia Rutaceae2. familia Simarubaceae [sic: now Simaroubaceae]3. familia Burseraceae4. familia Meliaceae5. familia Tremandraceae6. familia Polygalaceae7. familia Xanthophyllaceae8. familia Trigoniaceae9. familia Vochysiaceae10. familia Anacardiaceae11. familia Sapindaceae12. familia Akaniaceae13. familia Aextoxicaceae14. familia Aceraceae15. familia Hippocastanaceae16. familia Coriaceae17. familia Cyrillaceae18. familia Pentaphyllacaceae19. familia Sabiaceae20. familia Melianthaceae21. familia Corynocarpaceae22. familia Balsaminaceae27. ordo Celastrales 1. familia Aquifoliaceae2. familia Celastraceae3. familia Salvadoraceae4. familia Staphyleaceae5. familia Hippocrateaceae6. familia Stackhousiaceae7. familia Icacinaceae28. ordo Rhamnales 1. familia Rhamnaceae2. familia Vitaceae29. ordo Umbelliflorae 1. familia Cornaceae2. familia Araliaceae3. familia Umbelliferaeincertae sedisordo Garryales familia Garryaceae2. subclassis Sympetalae 1. ordo Plumbaginales familia Plumbaginaceae2. ordo Primulales 1. familia Theophrastaceae2. familia Primulaceae3. familia Myrsinaceae3. ordo Bicornes 1. familia Clethraceae

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2. familia Pirolaceae3. familia Ericaceae4. familia Empetraceae5. familia Epacridaceae6. familia Diapensiaceae4. ordo Diospyrales 1. familia Ebenaceae2. familia Hoplestigmataceae3. familia Styracaceae4. familia Symplocaceae5. familia Sapotaceae5. ordo Tubiflorae 1. familia Convolvulaceae2. familia Cuscutaceae3. familia Polemoniaceae4. familia Hydrophyllaceae5. familia Lennoaceae6. familia Boraginaceae7. familia Nolanaceae8. familia Solanaceae9. familia Scrophulariaceae10. familia Lentibulariaceae11. familia Orobranchaceae12. familia Gesneriaceae13. familia Bignoniaceae14. familia Pedaliaceae15. familia Martyniaceae16. familia Acanthaceae17. familia Verbenaceae18. familia Labiatae19. familia Tetrachondraceae20. familia Globulariaceae21. familia Phrymaceae22. familia Myoporaceae23. familia Plantaginaceae incertae sedis familia Columelliaceae6. ordo Contortae 1. familia Loganiaceae2. familia Buddleiaceae3. familia Gentianaceae4. familia Menyanthaceae5. familia Apocynaceae6. familia Asclepiadaceae7. ordo Ligustrales familia Oleaceae8. ordo Rubiales 1. familia Rubiaceae2. familia Caprifoliaceae3. familia Adoxaceae4. familia Valerianaceae5. familia Dipsacaceae6. familia Calyceraceae

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9. ordo Cucurbitales familia Cucurbitaceae10. ordo Synandrae 1. familia Campanulaceae2. familia Lobeliaceae3. familia Goodeniaceae4. familia Stylidaceae5. familia Brunoniaceae6. familia CompositaeII. classis Monocotyledones 1. ordo Helobiae 1. familia Alismataceae2. familia Butomaceae3. familia Hydrocharitaceae4. familia Scheuchzeriaceae5. familia Aponogetonaceae6. familia Potamogetonaceae7. familia Najadaceae2. ordo Liliiflorae 1. familia Liliaceae2. familia Stemonaceae3. familia Cyanastraceae4. familia Pontederiaceae5. familia Haemodoraceae6. familia Philydraceae7. familia Amaryllidaceae8. familia Velloziaceae9. familia Iridaceae10. familia Juncaceae11. familia Flagellariaceae12. familia Rapateaceae13. familia Thurniaceae14. familia Bromeliaceae15. familia Dioscoreaceae16. familia Taccaceae17. familia Burmanniaceae3. ordo Enantioblastae 1. familia Commelinaceae2. familia Mayacaceae3. familia Xyridaceae4. familia Eriocaulaceae5. familia Centrolepidaceae6. familia Restionaceae4. ordo Cyperales familia Cyperaceae5. ordo Glumiflorae familia Gramineae6. ordo Scitamineae 1. familia Musaceae2. familia Zingiberaceae3. familia Cannaceae4. familia Marantaceae7 ordo Gynandrae

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familia Orchidaceae8. ordo Spadiciflorae 1. familia Palmae2. familia Cyclanthaceae3. familia Araceae4. familia Lemnaceae9. ordo Pandanales 1. familia Pandanaceae2. familia Sparganiaceae3. familia Typhaceae

D. JOHN HUTCHINSON (1884-1972)John Hutchinson, a renowned British Botanist proposed 24 phyletic dicta or principles and based on these dicta he published a phylogenetic system in 2 volume book entitled "The Families of Flowering Plants" (1926-1934). The volume I deals with Dicots while the Volume I1 having Monocots. The revised and detailed treatment of the system was published in 1959 and thc most recent revised system appeared in 197.1. Outline and Basis of Classification As pointed out earlier, the system is mainly based on 24 phyletic dicta. Thus, it seems proper to give a brief account of these phyletic dicta. 1. Evolution is both upwards and downwards, the former tending towards

preservation and the latter to their reduction and suppression (of characters). Examples of former are towards the sympetalous condition and epigyny and of latter towards the apetalous state of many flowers and unisexuality in flowering plants.

2. Evolution does hot necessarily involve all organs of the plant at the same time. One organ or set of organs may be advancing while another set may be stationary or retrograting.

3. Evolution has generally been consistent, and when a particular progression or retrogression has set in, it is persisted into the end of the phylum e.g., strong tendency to zygomorphy of the corolla coupled with the reduction in the number of stamens in Engler's hypogynous Metachlamydeae and the vast tendency to perigyny and epigyny in Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae as seen in the families Umbelliferae and Rubiaceae respectively.

4. In certain groups, trees and shrubs are probably more primitive than herbs e.g., Mirnosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae (trees and shrubs) as compared with the derived family Papilionaceae (Fabaceae) (often herbaceous).

5. Trees and shrubs are older than climbers in any one family or genus, the latter habit being acquired through particular environment. ÿ is tor^ und Concept of Taxonomy Hypothetical pomngioepenns oicotyiepns ~onocot~ledons Lignosae Hefbaceae

6. Perennials are older than biennials, and from thep annuals are derived e.g., there are only a few annuals in the primitive family Ranunculaceae while there are many more in the more advanced Bnd natural family Cruciferae.

7. Aquatic flowering plants are derived from terrestrial ancestors, Epiphytes, saprophytes and parasites are more recent than plants of normal habit.

8. Dicotyledones with collateral vascular bundles arranged in a cylinder are more primitive in origin than Monocotyledones with scattered vascular bundles, although it does not necessarily follow than Monocots are directly derived from Dicots.

9. The spiral arrangement of leaves on the stem and of the floral leaves is more primitive than the opposite and whorled arrangement.

10.Simple leaves are usually more primitive than compdund leaves.

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11.Unisexual flowers are more advanced than bisexual and. dioecious plants are more recent than monoecious.

12.Solitary flowers are more primitive than those in inflorescence, the highest forms of the latter being the umbel and capitulum (Umbelliferae and Compositae).

13.Spirally imbricate floral parts are more primitive than whorled and valvate. Example-Magnolia and Clematis.

14.Many-parted flowers (polymerous) precede, and the type with few parts (oligomerous) follows from it, being accompanied by progressive sterilisation of reproductive parts. Examples-Magnolia and Cheiranthus.

15.Apetalous flowers are derived from petaliferous ones, the former condition being as a result of reduction.

16.Polypetaly (free petals) is more primitive than gamopetaly (fused petals). 17. Actinomorphy is more primitive than zygomorphy. 18.Hypogyny is the most primitive structure and from it perigyny and epigyny have

been derived. 19.Apocarpy (free carpels) is more primitive than Syncarpy (connate carpels).

Sometimes, however, when the carpels have remained loosely united during evolution, they may again become quite free, e.g., Asclepiadaceae.

20.Polycarpy (many carpels) precede oligocarpy (few carpels) e.g., Ranunculus and Nigella.

21.Endospermic seeds with small embryo are older than non-endosperimic seeds having a large embryo, e.g., Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae.

22.Indefinte stamens indicate greater primitiveness than an androecium with a few stamens only (exception Malvaceae) e.g. Ranunculus and Cheiranthus. This condition may however, be reversed within the confines of-a single family, e.g., papaveraceae, where bees feed on the pollen.

23.Separate stamens precede connate ones e.g., Tiliaceae and Malvaceae, Campanulaceae and Lobeliaceae.

24.Aggregate fruits are more highly evolved than single fruits. Generally, capsule precedes berry or drupe.

Based on these above mentioned 24 phyletic dicta, Hutchinson proposed the phylogenetic system of classification. The outline of this system are given below:

1) Hutchinson believed in Monophyletic origin of Angiosperms from a hypothetical groue, which he' hamed,as Proangiosperms

2) He tracedu2 main lines development of Dicots viz.i) Lignosae (woody)ii)Herbaceae (herbaceous)

3) Lignosae has 54 ORDERs and 251 Families. The starting ORDER is Magnoliales with Magnoliaceae as the starting family passing through Annonales-Rosales-Malvales Rubiales and terminating at Verbenales with Phrymaceae as the terminating family.

4) Herbaceae has 28 ORDERs and 100 Families, The starting ORDER is Ranales with Paeoniaceae as the starting family passing through ~hoedales-Car~o~h~llales- Umbellales-Asterales and terminating at Lamiales with Lamiaceae (Labiatae) as the ending family

5) The haonocots have 29 ORDERs and 69 Families. As a whole, Monocots have been subdivided into 3 distinct groups based on the nature of Perianth viz.i) Calyciferaeii) Corolliferaeiii) Glumiflorae

The starting ORDER of Calyciferae is Butomales with Butomaceae as the starting family. The climax (ending) ORDER is Zingiberales with Marantaceae as the ending . The starting ORDER of Corolliferae is Liliales with Liliaceae as the starting family. The terminating

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ORDER of this group is Orchidales with Orchidaceae as the ending family. In the case of Glumiflorae the starting ORDER is Juncales and Juncaceae as starting family. The climax ORDER is Graminales and Gramineae (Poacea) as the last or terminating family. The outline of the monocots can be represented in the form of chart as given below:

MeritsThe merits or achievements of the system are as follows:

The standard of the family description is of high ORDER and valuable features are given in the keys for identification.

The systein of classification is of much practical value. The treatment of Monocots is more adequate, logical and acceptable. The data from Floral Anatomy and Embryology arc taken into consideration

during the classification of Monocots in particular and Dicots in Geographical distribution of most of the genera is included in this system. The system of classification is phylogenetic one.

DemeritsA number of shortcomings and criticism have been put forward to expose the demerits of the system. More stress is given on Monophyletic origin of Angiospcrln from a hypotheticalproafigiosperm.Due to special emphasis on Herbaceae and Lignosae, some very closely related fahilies have been put apart. For example, Ranunculaceae and Magnoliaceae under Ranales (Herbaceae) and Magnoliaceae (Lignosae) are separated just because of demarcation between Herbaceae and Lignosae. Similarly, the family LamiaCeae and Asteraceae (Herbaceae) are put apart from Verbenaceae and Rubiaceae (lignosae).

However, in the opinion of most taxonomists, Hutchinson has contributed an excellent service by his most careful and critical appraisal of family and ordinal , limitations. His classification has been a greater stimulant to phyletic thinking during the past decade or two than any other similar contribution.

E. ARMEN TAKHTAJAN (1910-1997)Another important phytogenetic system was proposed by Takhtajan, the famous

Russian Palaeobotanist working at Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrad,U.S.S.R. For the first time he proposed the system in 1942rnainly ba~edo n the structural types of Gynoecium and placentation. Afterwards, he put foward a modified systeni in 1954 in Russian language and then the translated version of English in 1958. This modified system was mainly based on phylogenetic principles.

Soon after he made another attempt to revise the system in the light of evolutionary trends in Angiosperms, which appeared in 1964. This, too, was not the last word but Takhtajan again revised and updated version of his system appeared in 1980.

Before we take into account the outline of the system it seems proper to point out the important and significant points of the system as new terms were employed by Takhtajan in his system:

a. Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms) are regarded to be monophyletic in origin.

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b. Magnoliopsida (Dicots) are considered as a primitive group than Liliopsida (Monocots).

Outline of Takhtajan's. System of Classification (Takhtajan, 1980)

1) Mognoliophyta (Angiosperms) has 419 Families and is divided into 2 classes viz.i) Magnoliopsida (Dicots) andii) Liliopsida (Monocots)

2) Magnoliopsida (Dicots) is further divided into 7 subclasses, 20 super ORDERs, 71 ORDERs and 342 Familes.The 7 subclasses with some important ORDERs and families (starting and ending) are as follows:

3) Liliopsida (Monocots) is divided into 3 subclasses, 3 super ORDER 21 ORDERs and 77 Families, The 3 subclasses of Liliopsida with important ORDERs and Families (Starting and ending) are given below:

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The outline of the system can also be represented in the form of a chart:

Takhtajan has accepted main divisions and sub-divisions as classes and sub-classes almost similar to classification given by Bentham and Hooker. In the Hooker's system the larger taxa are natural since their status is ascertained on the basis of large number of characters.

But so far as further sub-groupings like series (Thalimiflorae, Disciflorae, and Calyciflorae etc. and several ordirs and faniilies; are concerned—one can easily spot out that more or less only one character is chosen as basic criterion in categorization making it more artificial.

Takhtajan introduced modifications at vch levels. A ~riticael xamination of Takhtajan's classification shows that it is of considerable merit since he has made use of maximum data available. Through morphology, cytology, Palynology, Anatomy, Embryology, Cytogenetics, Biochemistry and Palaeobotaqy in the construction of taxa of various ranks.

F. ROBERT THORNE (1920)A modern system of plant taxonomy, the Thorne system (1992) of plant classification was drawn up by the botanist Robert F. Thorne (1920- ). He replaced it in 2000 with a new system. These two systems were published in:

R.F. Thorne (1968). "Synopsis of a putative phylogenetic classification of flowering plants". Aliso 6 (4): 57–66.

R.F. Thorne (1992). "Classification and geography of flowering plants". Botanical Review 58 (3): 225–348. doi:10.1007/BF02858611.

R.F. Thorne (1992). "An updated phylogenetic classification of the flowering plants". Aliso 13: 365–389.

R.F. Thorne (2000). "The classification and geography of the flowering plants: dicotyledons of the class Angiospermae". Botanical Review 66 (4): 441–647. doi:10.1007/BF02869011.

The system is available online at two sites. Firstly, at the Center for the Study of Digital Libraries Texas A&M (CSDL, Texas). Secondly in the 1999 lecture notes by J.L. Reveal, at that time a professor at the Norton Brown Herbarium, University of Maryland (1, 2, 3; with an extensive listing of synonyms, both nomenclatural and taxonomic, for each name in the system).

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According to the latter site the main groups in the system are:

The Thorne system (1992) counts 440 families and 69 ORDERs:class Magnoliopsida [= angiosperms ]

subclass Magnoliidae [= dicotyledons ]superORDER Magnolianae

ORDER Magnoliales family Winteraceaefamily Illiciaceaefamily Schisandraceaefamily Magnoliaceaefamily Degeneriaceaefamily Himantandraceaefamily Eupomatiaceaefamily Annonaceaefamily Aristolochiaceaefamily Myristicaceaefamily Canellaceaefamily Austrobaileyaceaefamily Amborellaceaefamily Trimeniaceaefamily Chloranthaceaefamily Monimiaceaefamily Gomortegaceaefamily Calycanthaceaefamily Lauraceaefamily Hernandiaceaefamily Lactoridaceaefamily Saururaceaefamily PiperaceaesuperORDER Loasanae ORDER Loasales family LoasaceaesuperORDER Myrtanae ORDER Myrtales family Lythraceaefamily Alzateaceae

ORDER Ceratophyllales family CeratophyllaceaeORDER Nelumbonales family NelumbonaceaeORDER Paeoniales family Paeoniaceaefamily Glaucidiaceaesubclass Liliidae [= monocotyledons ] superORDER Lilianae ORDER Liliales family Melanthiaceaefamily Campynemataceaefamily Alstroemeriaceaefamily Colchicaceaefamily Liliaceaefamily Trilliaceaefamily IridaceaeORDER Burmanniales family Burmanniaceaefamily CorsiaceaeORDER Asparagales family Asparagaceaefamily Luzuriagaceaefamily Asphodelaceaefamily Aphyllanthaceaefamily Phormiaceaefamily Tecophilaeaceaefamily Lanariaceaefamily Hemerocallidaceaefamily Asteliaceae

ORDER Berberidales family Menispermaceaefamily Lardizabalaceaefamily Sargentodoxaceaefamily Berberidaceaefamily Hydrastidaceaefamily Ranunculaceaefamily Circaeasteraceaefamily PapaveraceaesuperORDER Nymphaeanae ORDER Nymphaeales family Cabombaceaefamily NymphaeaceaesuperORDER Rafflesianae ORDER Rafflesiales family Hydnoraceaefamily RafflesiaceaesuperORDER Caryophyllanae ORDER Caryophyllales family Caryophyllaceaefamily Portulacaceaefamily Hectorellaceaefamily Basellaceaefamily Didiereaceaefamily Cactaceaefamily Phytolaccaceaefamily Petiveriaceaefamily Agdestidaceaefamily Barbeuiaceae

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class Magnoliopsida [= angiosperms ]

subclass Magnoliidae [= dicotyledons ] superORDER MagnolianaesuperORDER NymphaeanaesuperORDER RafflesianaesuperORDER CaryophyllanaesuperORDER TheanaesuperORDER CelastranaesuperORDER MalvanaesuperORDER ViolanaesuperORDER SantalanaesuperORDER Geranianae superORDER RutanaesuperORDER ProteanaesuperORDER RosanaesuperORDER CornanaesuperORDER Asteranae superORDER SolananaesuperORDER LoasanaesuperORDER MyrtanaesuperORDER Gentiananae

subclass Liliidae [= monocotyledons ] superORDER LilianaesuperORDER HydatellanaesuperORDER TriuridanaesuperORDER AranaesuperORDER CyclanthanaesuperORDER PandananaesuperORDER ArecanaesuperORDER Commelinanae

family Rhynchocalycaceaefamily Penaeaceaefamily Oliniaceaefamily Trapaceaefamily Crypteroniaceaefamily Melastomataceaefamily Combretaceaefamily Onagraceaefamily MyrtaceaesuperORDER Gentiananae ORDER Gentianales family Loganiaceaefamily Rubiaceaefamily Dialypetalanthaceaefamily Apocynaceaefamily Gentianaceaefamily SaccifoliaceaeORDER Scrophulariales family Oleaceaefamily Buddlejaceaefamily Stilbaceaefamily Bignoniaceaefamily Pedaliaceaefamily Martyniaceaefamily Myoporaceaefamily Scrophulariaceaefamily Gesneriaceaefamily Globulariaceaefamily Plantaginaceaefamily Lentibulariaceaefamily Acanthaceaefamily Callitrichaceaefamily Hippuridaceaefamily Verbenaceaefamily Phrymaceaefamily Symphoremataceaefamily Nesogenaceaefamily Avicenniaceaefamily LamiaceaeORDER Podostemales family PodostemaceaeORDER Cunoniales family Cunoniaceaefamily Davidsoniaceaefamily StaphyleaceaesuperORDER Cornanae ORDER Hydrangeales family Hydrangeaceaefamily Escalloniaceaefamily Carpodetaceaefamily Griseliniaceaefamily Alseuosmiaceaefamily Montiniaceaefamily Brexiaceaefamily Columelliaceaefamily DesfontainiaceaeORDER Cornales family Vitaceaefamily Gunneraceaefamily Haloragaceaefamily Cornaceaefamily Curtisiaceaefamily Alangiaceaefamily Garryaceae

family Hanguanaceaefamily Agavaceaefamily Hostaceaefamily Blandfordiaceaefamily Dasypogonaceaefamily Xanthorrhoeaceaefamily Ixioliriaceaefamily Hyacinthaceaefamily Alliaceaefamily Amaryllidaceaefamily Hypoxidaceaefamily Velloziaceaefamily Cyanastraceaefamily EriospermaceaeORDER Dioscoreales family Philesiaceaefamily Ripogonaceaefamily Petermanniaceaefamily Smilacaceaefamily Dioscoreaceaefamily Trichopodaceaefamily Stemonaceaefamily TaccaceaeORDER Orchidales family OrchidaceaesuperORDER Hydatellanae ORDER Hydatellales family HydatellaceaesuperORDER Triuridanae ORDER Triuridales family TriuridaceaesuperORDER Alismatanae ORDER Alismatales family Butomaceaefamily Alismataceaefamily HydrocharitaceaeORDER Potamogetonales family Aponogetonaceaefamily Scheuchzeriaceaefamily Juncaginaceaefamily Potamogetonaceaefamily Posidoniaceaefamily Cymodoceaceaefamily Zannichelliaceaefamily ZosteraceaesuperORDER Aranae ORDER Acorales family AcoraceaeORDER Arales family Araceaefamily LemnaceaesuperORDER Cyclanthanae ORDER Cyclanthales family CyclanthaceaesuperORDER Pandananae ORDER Pandanales family PandanaceaesuperORDER Arecanae ORDER Arecales family ArecaceaesuperORDER Commelinanae

family Achatocarpaceaefamily Stegnospermataceaefamily Nyctaginaceaefamily Aizoaceaefamily Halophytaceaefamily Molluginaceaefamily Chenopodiaceaefamily AmaranthaceaesuperORDER Theanae ORDER Theales family Dilleniaceaefamily Actinidiaceaefamily Paracryphiaceaefamily Stachyuraceaefamily Theaceaefamily Asteropeiaceaefamily Tetrameristaceaefamily Pellicieraceaefamily Chrysobalanaceaefamily Symplocaceaefamily Caryocaraceaefamily Marcgraviaceaefamily Oncothecaceaefamily Aquifoliaceaefamily Phellinaceaefamily Sphenostemonaceaefamily Sarraceniaceaefamily Pentaphylacaceaefamily Clethraceaefamily Cyrillaceaefamily Ochnaceaefamily Quiinaceaefamily Scytopetalaceaefamily Medusagynaceaefamily Strasburgeriaceaefamily Ancistrocladaceaefamily Dioncophyllaceaefamily Nepenthaceaefamily Bonnetiaceaefamily Clusiaceaefamily Elatinaceaefamily LecythidaceaeORDER Ericales family Ericaceaefamily Epacridaceaefamily EmpetraceaeORDER Fouquieriales family FouquieriaceaeORDER Styracales family Ebenaceaefamily Lissocarpaceaefamily Sapotaceaefamily StyracaceaeORDER Primulales family Theophrastaceaefamily Myrsinaceaefamily Primulaceaefamily PlumbaginaceaeORDER Polygonales family PolygonaceaesuperORDER Celastranae ORDER Celastrales

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 15

family Aucubaceaefamily Aralidiaceaefamily Eucommiaceaefamily Icacinaceaefamily Metteniusaceaefamily Cardiopteridaceaefamily PeripterygiaceaeORDER Pittosporales family Pittosporaceaefamily Byblidaceaefamily TremandraceaeORDER Araliales family Helwingiaceaefamily Torricelliaceaefamily Araliaceaefamily Hydrocotylaceaefamily ApiaceaeORDER Dipsacales family Caprifoliaceaefamily Adoxaceaefamily Valerianaceaefamily Triplostegiaceaefamily Dipsacaceaefamily MorinaceaesuperORDER Asteranae ORDER Asterales family Calyceraceaefamily AsteraceaeORDER Campanulales family Menyanthaceaefamily Pentaphragmataceaefamily Sphenocleaceaefamily Campanulaceaefamily GoodeniaceaesuperORDER Solananae ORDER Solanales family Solanaceaefamily Duckeodendraceaefamily Goetzeaceaefamily Nolanaceaefamily Convolvulaceaefamily Hydrophyllaceaefamily Boraginaceaefamily Hoplestigmataceaefamily Lennoaceaefamily Tetrachondraceaefamily PolemoniaceaeORDER Polygalales family Malpighiaceaefamily Trigoniaceaefamily Vochysiaceaefamily Polygalaceaefamily KrameriaceaesuperORDER Rutanae ORDER Rutales family Rutaceaefamily Rhabdodendraceaefamily Cneoraceaefamily Simaroubaceaefamily Picramniaceaefamily Ptaeroxylaceaefamily Meliaceaefamily Burseraceaefamily Anacardiaceae

ORDER Bromeliales family BromeliaceaeORDER Philydrales family Philydraceaefamily Pontederiaceaefamily HaemodoraceaeORDER Typhales family TyphaceaeORDER Zingiberales family Musaceaefamily Strelitziaceaefamily Lowiaceaefamily Heliconiaceaefamily Zingiberaceaefamily Costaceaefamily Cannaceaefamily MarantaceaeORDER Commelinales family Rapateaceaefamily Xyridaceaefamily Commelinaceaefamily Mayacaceaefamily EriocaulaceaeORDER Juncales family Thurniaceaefamily Juncaceaefamily CyperaceaeORDER Poales family Flagellariaceaefamily Joinvilleaceaefamily Restionaceaefamily Ecdeiocoleaceaefamily Centrolepidaceaefamily PoaceaeORDER Balanopales family Buxaceaefamily Didymelaceaefamily Daphniphyllaceaefamily BalanopaceaeORDER Bruniales family Roridulaceaefamily Bruniaceaefamily Geissolomataceaefamily Grubbiaceaefamily Myrothamnaceaefamily HydrostachyaceaeORDER Juglandales family Rhoipteleaceaefamily Juglandaceaefamily MyricaceaeORDER Betulales family Ticodendraceaefamily Betulaceaefamily Nothofagaceaefamily FagaceaeORDER Rosales family Rosaceaefamily Neuradaceaefamily Crossosomataceaefamily AnisophylleaceaeORDER Saxifragales family Tetracarpaeaceaefamily Crassulaceaefamily Cephalotaceae

family Celastraceaefamily Goupiaceaefamily Lophopyxidaceaefamily Stackhousiaceaefamily CorynocarpaceaesuperORDER Malvanae ORDER Malvales family Sterculiaceaefamily Huaceaefamily Elaeocarpaceaefamily Plagiopteraceaefamily Tiliaceaefamily Monotaceaefamily Dipterocarpaceaefamily Sarcolaenaceaefamily Sphaerosepalaceaefamily Bombacaceaefamily MalvaceaeORDER Urticales family Ulmaceaefamily Moraceaefamily Cecropiaceaefamily Barbeyaceaefamily Urticaceaefamily CannabaceaeORDER Rhamnales family Rhamnaceaefamily ElaeagnaceaeORDER Euphorbiales family Euphorbiaceaefamily Aextoxicaceaefamily Simmondsiaceaefamily Dichapetalaceaefamily Gonystylaceaefamily ThymelaeaceaesuperORDER Violanae ORDER Violales family Bixaceaefamily Cochlospermaceaefamily Cistaceaefamily Violaceaefamily Flacourtiaceaefamily Physenaceaefamily Lacistemataceaefamily Salicaceaefamily Dipentodontaceaefamily Peridiscaceaefamily Scyphostegiaceaefamily Passifloraceaefamily Turneriaceaefamily Malesherbiaceaefamily Achariaceaefamily Caricaceaefamily Tamaricaceaefamily Frankeniaceaefamily Cucurbitaceaefamily Begoniaceaefamily DatiscaceaeORDER Brassicales family Resedaceaefamily Capparaceaefamily Brassicaceaefamily Salvadoraceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 16

family Leitneriaceaefamily Tepuianthaceaefamily Coriariaceaefamily Sapindaceaefamily Sabiaceaefamily Melianthaceaefamily Akaniaceaefamily Bretschneideraceaefamily Moringaceaefamily Surianaceaefamily Connaraceaefamily FabaceaesuperORDER Proteanae ORDER Proteales family ProteaceaesuperORDER Rosanae ORDER Hamamelidales family Trochodendraceaefamily Eupteleaceaefamily Cercidiphyllaceaefamily Platanaceaefamily Hamamelidaceae

family Penthoraceaefamily Saxifragaceaefamily Francoaceaefamily Grossulariaceaefamily Vahliaceaefamily Eremosynaceaefamily Lepuropetalaceaefamily Parnassiaceaefamily Stylidiaceaefamily Droseraceaefamily Greyiaceaefamily DiapensiaceaeORDER Rhizophorales family RhizophoraceaeORDER Geraniales family Oxalidaceaefamily Geraniaceaefamily Balsaminaceaefamily Tropaeolaceaefamily LimnanthaceaeORDER Casuarinales family Casuarinaceae

family GyrostemonaceaeORDER Batales family BataceaesuperORDER Santalanae ORDER Santalales family Olacaceaefamily Opiliaceaefamily Medusandraceaefamily Santalaceaefamily Misodendraceaefamily Loranthaceaefamily Eremolepidaceaefamily ViscaceaeORDER Balanophorales family Balanophoraceaefamily CynomoriaceaesuperORDER Geranianae ORDER Linales family Humiriaceaefamily Ctenolophonaceaefamily Hugoniaceaefamily Ixonanthaceaefamily Linaceaefamily Erythroxylaceaefamily Zygophyllaceaefamily Balanitaceae

G. ROLF DALHRAGEN (1932-1987)One of the modern systems of plant taxonomy, the Dahlgren system was published by monocot specialist Rolf Dahlgren. His wife Gertrud Dahlgren carried on after his death.According to the extensive listing by Professor Reveal (see 1 2 3 4, note the synonyms, both nomenclatural and taxonomic, for each name in the system), it looks like this:

class Magnoliopsida subclass Magnoliidae superorder Magnolianae order Annonales family Annonaceaefamily Myristicaceaefamily Eupomatiaceaefamily Canellaceaefamily Austrobaileyaceaeorder Aristolochiales family Aristolochiaceaeorder Rafflesiales family Rafflesiaceaefamily Hydnoraceaeorder Magnoliales family Degeneriaceaefamily Himantandraceaefamily Magnoliaceaeorder Lactoridales family Lactoridaceaeorder Winterales family Winteraceaeorder Chloranthales

family Chloranthaceaeorder Illiciales family Illiciaceaefamily Schisandraceaeorder Laurales family Amborellaceaefamily Trimeniaceaefamily Monimiaceaefamily Gomortegaceaefamily Calycanthaceaefamily Lauraceaeorder Nelumbonales family Nelumbonaceaesuperorder Nymphaeanae order Piperales family Saururaceaefamily Piperaceaeorder Nymphaeales family Cabombaceaefamily Nymphaeaceaefamily Ceratophyllaceaesuperorder Ranunculanae order Ranunculales

family Lardizabalaceaefamily Sargentodoxaceaefamily Menispermaceaefamily Kingdoniaceaefamily Circaeasteraceaefamily Ranunculaceaefamily Hydrastidaceaefamily Berberidaceaeorder Papaverales family Papaveraceaefamily Fumariaceaesuperorder Caryophyllanae order Caryophyllales family Molluginaceaefamily Caryophyllaceaefamily Phytolaccaceaefamily Achatocarpaceaefamily Agdestidaceaefamily Basellaceaefamily Portulacaceaefamily Stegnospermataceaefamily Nyctaginaceaefamily Aizoaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 17

family Halophytaceaefamily Cactaceaefamily Didiereaceaefamily Hectorellaceaefamily Chenopodiaceaefamily Amaranthaceaesuperorder Polygonanae order Polygonales family Polygonaceaesuperorder Plumbaginanae order Plumbaginales family Plumbaginaceaefamily Limoniaceaesuperorder Malvanae order Malvales family Sterculiaceaefamily Plagiopteraceaefamily Bixaceaefamily Cochlospermaceaefamily Cistaceaefamily Sphaerosepalaceaefamily Sarcolaenaceaefamily Huaceaefamily Tiliaceaefamily Dipterocarpaceaefamily Bombacaceaefamily Malvaceaeorder Urticales family Ulmaceaefamily Moraceaefamily Cecropiaceaefamily Barbeyaceaefamily Cannabaceaefamily Urticaceaeorder Euphorbiales family Euphorbiaceaefamily Simmondsiaceaefamily Pandaceaefamily Aextoxicaceaefamily Dichapetalaceaeorder Thymelaeales family Gonystylaceaefamily Thymelaeaceaeorder Rhamnales family Rhamnaceaesuperorder Violanae order Violales family Flacourtiaceaefamily Berberidopsidaceaefamily Aphloiaceaefamily Physenaceaefamily Passifloraceaefamily Dipentodontaceae

family Peridiscaceaefamily Scyphostegiaceaefamily Violaceaefamily Turneraceaefamily Malesherbiaceaefamily Caricaceaeorder Cucurbitales family Achariaceaefamily Cucurbitaceaefamily Begoniaceaefamily Datiscaceaeorder Salicales family Salicaceaeorder Tamaricales family Tamaricaceaefamily Frankeniaceaeorder Capparales family Capparaceaefamily Brassicaceaefamily Tovariaceaefamily Resedaceaefamily Gyrostemonaceaefamily Bataceaefamily Moringaceaeorder Tropaeolales family Tropaeolaceaefamily Limnanthaceaeorder Salvadorales family Salvadoraceaesuperorder Theanae order Dilleniales family Dilleniaceaeorder Paeoniales family Glaucidiaceaefamily Paeoniaceaeorder Theales family Stachyuraceaefamily Pentaphylacaceaefamily Marcgraviaceaefamily Quiinaceaefamily Ancistrocladaceaefamily Dioncophyllaceaefamily Nepenthaceaefamily Medusagynaceaefamily Caryocaraceaefamily Strasburgeriaceaefamily Ochnaceaefamily Chrysobalanaceaefamily Oncothecaceaefamily Scytopetalaceaefamily Theaceaefamily Bonnetiaceaefamily Clusiaceae

family Elatinaceaeorder Lecythidales family Lecythidaceaesuperorder Primulanae order Primulales family Myrsinaceaefamily Aegicerataceaefamily Theophrastaceaefamily Primulaceaefamily Coridaceaeorder Ebenales family Sapotaceaefamily Styracaceaefamily Lissocarpaceaefamily Ebenaceaesuperorder Rosanae order Trochodendrales family Trochodendraceaefamily Tetracentraceaeorder Cercidiphyllales family Cercidiphyllaceaefamily Eupteleaceaeorder Hamamelidales family Hamamelidaceaefamily Platanaceaefamily Myrothamnaceaeorder Balanopales family Balanopaceaeorder Fagales family Nothofagaceaefamily Fagaceaefamily Corylaceaefamily Betulaceaeorder Juglandales family Rhoipteleaceaefamily Juglandaceaeorder Myricales family Myricaceaeorder Casuarinales family Casuarinaceaeorder Buxales) family Buxaceaefamily Daphniphyllaceaefamily Didymelaceaeorder Geissolomatales family Geissolomataceaeorder Cunoniales family Cunoniaceaefamily Baueraceaefamily Brunelliaceaefamily Davidsoniaceaefamily Eucryphiaceaeorder Saxifragales

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 18

family Saxifragaceaefamily Francoaceaefamily Greyiaceaefamily Brexiaceaefamily Grossulariaceaefamily Iteaceaefamily Cephalotaceaefamily Crassulaceaefamily Podostemaceaeorder Droserales family Droseraceaefamily Lepuropetalaceaefamily Parnassiaceaeorder Rosales family Rosaceaefamily Neuradaceaefamily Malaceaefamily Amygdalaceaefamily Anisophylleaceaefamily Crossosomataceaefamily Surianaceaefamily Rhabdodendraceaeorder Gunnerales family Gunneraceaesuperorder Proteanae order Proteales family Proteaceaeorder Elaeagnales family Elaeagnaceaesuperorder Myrtanae order Myrtales family Psiloxylaceaefamily Heteropyxidaceaefamily Myrtaceaefamily Onagraceaefamily Trapaceaefamily Lythraceaefamily Combretaceaefamily Melastomataceaefamily Memecylaceaefamily Crypteroniaceaefamily Oliniaceaefamily Penaeaceaefamily Rhynchocalycaceaefamily Alzateaceaeorder Haloragales family Haloragaceaesuperorder Rutanae order Sapindales family Coriariaceaefamily Anacardiaceaefamily Leitneriaceaefamily Podoaceae

family Sapindaceaefamily Hippocastanaceaefamily Aceraceaefamily Akaniaceaefamily Bretschneideraceaefamily Emblingiaceaefamily Staphyleaceaefamily Melianthaceaefamily Sabiaceae)family Meliosmaceaefamily Connaraceaeorder Fabales family Mimosaceaefamily Caesalpiniaceaefamily Fabaceaeorder Rutales family Rutaceaefamily Ptaeroxylaceaefamily Cneoraceaefamily Simaroubaceaefamily Tepuianthaceaefamily Burseraceaefamily Meliaceaeorder Polygalales family Malpighiaceaefamily Trigoniaceaefamily Vochysiaceaefamily Polygalaceaefamily Krameriaceaeorder Geraniales family Zygophyllaceaefamily Peganaceaefamily Nitrariaceaefamily Geraniaceaefamily Vivianiaceaefamily Ledocarpaceaefamily Biebersteiniaceaefamily Dirachmaceaefamily Balanitaceaeorder Linales family Linaceaefamily Humiriaceaefamily Ctenolophonaceaefamily Ixonanthaceaefamily Erythroxylaceaefamily Lepidobotryaceaefamily Oxalidaceaeorder Celastrales family Stackhousiaceaefamily Lophopyxidaceaefamily Cardiopteridaceaefamily Corynocarpaceaefamily Celastraceae

order Rhizophorales family Rhizophoraceaefamily Elaeocarpaceaeorder Balsaminales family Balsaminaceaesuperorder Vitanae order Vitales family Vitaceaesuperorder Santalanae order Santalales family Olacaceaefamily Opiliaceaefamily Loranthaceaefamily Medusandraceaefamily Misodendraceaefamily Eremolepidaceaefamily Santalaceaefamily Viscaceaesuperorder Balanophoranae order Balanophorales family Cynomoriaceaefamily Balanophoraceaesuperorder Aralianae order Pittosporales family Pittosporaceaefamily Tremandraceaefamily Byblidaceaeorder Araliales family Araliaceaefamily Apiaceaesuperorder Asteranae order Campanulales family Pentaphragmataceaefamily Campanulaceaefamily Lobeliaceaeorder Asterales family Asteraceaesuperorder Solananae order Solanales family Solanaceaefamily Sclerophylacaceaefamily Goetzeaceaefamily Convolvulaceaefamily Cuscutaceaefamily Cobaeaceaefamily Polemoniaceaeorder Boraginales family Hydrophyllaceaefamily Ehretiaceaefamily Boraginaceaefamily Lennoaceaefamily Hoplestigmataceaesuperorder Ericanae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 19

order Bruniales family Bruniaceaefamily Grubbiaceaeorder Fouquieriales family Fouquieriaceaeorder Ericales family Actinidiaceaefamily Clethraceaefamily Cyrillaceaefamily Ericaceaefamily Empetraceaefamily Monotropaceaefamily Pyrolaceaefamily Epacridaceaeorder Stylidiales family Stylidiaceaeorder Sarraceniales family Sarraceniaceaesuperorder Cornanae order Cornales family Garryaceaefamily Alangiaceaefamily Nyssaceaefamily Cornaceaefamily Roridulaceaefamily Davidiaceaefamily Escalloniaceaefamily Helwingiaceaefamily Torricelliaceaefamily Aucubaceaefamily Aralidiaceaefamily Diapensiaceaefamily Phellinaceaefamily Aquifoliaceaefamily Paracryphiaceaefamily Sphenostemonaceaefamily Symplocaceaefamily Icacinaceaefamily Montiniaceaefamily Columelliaceaefamily Alseuosmiaceaefamily Hydrangeaceaefamily Sambucaceaefamily Viburnaceaefamily Menyanthaceaefamily Adoxaceaefamily Phyllonomaceaefamily Tribelaceaefamily Eremosynaceaefamily Pterostemonaceaefamily Tetracarpaeaceaeorder Eucommiales family Eucommiaceae

order Dipsacales family Caprifoliaceaefamily Valerianaceaefamily Dipsacaceaefamily Morinaceaefamily Calyceraceaesuperorder Loasanae order Loasales family Loasaceaesuperorder Gentiananae order Goodeniales family Goodeniaceaeorder Oleales family Oleaceaeorder Gentianales family Desfontainiaceaefamily Loganiaceaefamily Dialypetalanthaceaefamily Rubiaceaefamily Theligonaceaefamily Gentianaceaefamily Saccifoliaceaefamily Apocynaceaefamily Asclepiadaceaesuperorder Lamianae order Lamiales family Retziaceaefamily Stilbaceaefamily Buddlejaceaefamily Scrophulariaceaefamily Myoporaceaefamily Globulariaceaefamily Plantaginaceaefamily Lentibulariaceaefamily Pedaliaceaefamily Trapellaceaefamily Martyniaceaefamily Gesneriaceaefamily Bignoniaceaefamily Acanthaceaefamily Verbenaceaefamily Lamiaceaefamily Callitrichaceaeorder Hydrostachyales family Hydrostachyaceaeorder Hippuridales family Hippuridaceaesubclass Liliidae superorder Alismatanae order Alismatales family Aponogetonaceaefamily Butomaceaefamily Hydrocharitaceae

family Limnocharitaceaefamily Alismataceaeorder Najadales family Scheuchzeriaceaefamily Juncaginaceaefamily Najadaceaefamily Potamogetonaceaefamily Zosteraceaefamily Posidoniaceaefamily Cymodoceaceaefamily Zannichelliaceaesuperorder Triuridanae order Triuridales family Triuridaceaesuperorder Aranae order Arales family Araceaefamily Acoraceaefamily Lemnaceaesuperorder Lilianae order Dioscoreales family Trichopodaceaefamily Dioscoreaceaefamily Stemonaceaefamily Taccaceaefamily Trilliaceaefamily Ripogonaceaefamily Petermanniaceaefamily Smilacaceaeorder Asparagales family Philesiaceaefamily Luzuriagaceaefamily Convallariaceaefamily Dracaenaceaefamily Asparagaceaefamily Ruscaceaefamily Herreriaceaefamily Nolinaceaefamily Asteliaceaefamily Dasypogonaceaefamily Calectasiaceaefamily Blandfordiaceaefamily Xanthorrhoeaceaefamily Agavaceaefamily Hypoxidaceaefamily Tecophilaeaceaefamily Lanariaceaefamily Ixioliriaceaefamily Cyanastraceaefamily Phormiaceaefamily Doryanthaceaefamily Eriospermaceaefamily Asphodelaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 20

family Anthericaceaefamily Aphyllanthaceaefamily Hemerocallidaceaefamily Hostaceaefamily Hyacinthaceaefamily Alliaceaefamily Amaryllidaceaeorder Liliales family Colchicaceaefamily Uvulariaceaefamily Iridaceaefamily Alstroemeriaceaefamily Calochortaceaefamily Liliaceaeorder Melanthiales family Melanthiaceaefamily Campynemataceaeorder Burmanniales family Burmanniaceaefamily Corsiaceaeorder Orchidales family Neuwiediaceaefamily Apostasiaceaefamily Cypripediaceaefamily Orchidaceaesuperorder Bromelianae order Velloziales

family Velloziaceaeorder Bromeliales family Bromeliaceaeorder Haemodorales family Haemodoraceaeorder Philydrales family Philydraceaeorder Pontederiales family Pontederiaceaeorder Typhales family Typhaceaesuperorder Zingiberanae order Zingiberales family Lowiaceaefamily Musaceaefamily Heliconiaceaefamily Strelitziaceaefamily Zingiberaceaefamily Costaceaefamily Cannaceaefamily Marantaceaesuperorder Commelinanae order Commelinales family Mayacaceaefamily Commelinaceaefamily Xyridaceaefamily Rapateaceae

family Eriocaulaceaeorder Hydatellales family Hydatellaceaeorder Cyperales family Juncaceaefamily Thurniaceaefamily Cyperaceaeorder Poales family Flagellariaceaefamily Joinvilleaceaefamily Restionaceaefamily Centrolepidaceaefamily Poaceaesuperorder Arecanae order Hanguanales family Hanguanaceaeorder Arecales family Arecaceaesuperorder Cyclanthanae order Cyclanthales family Cyclanthaceaesuperorder Pandananae order Pandanales family Pandanaceae

H. ARTHUR CRONQUIST (1919-1992)

The Cronquist system is a taxonomic classification system of flowering plants. It was developed by Arthur Cronquist in his texts An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) and The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants (1968; 2nd edition, 1988).

Cronquist's system places flowering plants into two broad classes, Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons) and Liliopsida (monocotyledons). Within these classes, related ORDERs are grouped into subclasses.The scheme is still widely used, in either the original form or in adapted versions, but some botanists are adopting the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the ORDERs and families of flowering plants: APG III.

The system as laid out in An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) counts 321 families and 64 ORDERs in class Magnoliopsida with 19 ORDERs and 65 families in class Liliopsida:

Cronquist System Diagram

Class Magnoliopsida Subclass Magnoliidae (mostly basal dicots)

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 21

ORDER Magnoliales WinteraceaeDegeneriaceaeHimantandraceaeEupomatiaceaeAustrobaileyaceaeMagnoliaceae (magnolia family)LactoridaceaeAnnonaceaeMyristicaceaeCanellaceaeORDER Laurales AmborellaceaeTrimeniaceaeMonimiaceaeGomortegaceaeCalycanthaceaeIdiospermaceaeLauraceae (laurel family)HernandiaceaeORDER Piperales ChloranthaceaeSaururaceaePiperaceae (pepper family)ORDER Aristolochiales AristolochiaceaeORDER Illiciales IlliciaceaeSchisandraceaeORDER Nymphaeales NelumbonaceaeNymphaeaceaeBarclayaceaeCabombaceaeCeratophyllaceaeORDER Ranunculales RanunculaceaeCircaeasteraceaeBerberidaceaeSargentodoxaceaeLardizabalaceaeMenispermaceaeCoriariaceaeSabiaceaeORDER Papaverales PapaveraceaeFumariaceaeSubclass Hamamelidae [sic: correctly Hamamelididae] ORDER Trochodendrales TetracentraceaeTrochodendraceae

ORDER Hamamelidales CercidiphyllaceaeEupteleaceaePlatanaceaeHamamelidaceaeMyrothamnaceaeORDER Daphniphyllales DaphniphyllaceaeORDER Didymelales DidymelaceaeORDER Eucommiales EucommiaceaeORDER Urticales BarbeyaceaeUlmaceaeCannabaceaeMoraceaeCecropiaceaeUrticaceaeORDER Leitneriales LeitneriaceaeORDER Juglandales RhoipteleaceaeJuglandaceaeORDER Myricales MyricaceaeORDER Fagales BalanopaceaeTicodendraceaeFagaceaeNothofagaceaeBetulaceaeORDER Casuarinales CasuarinaceaeSubclass Caryophyllidae ORDER Caryophyllales PhytolaccaceaeAchatocarpaceaeNyctaginaceaeAizoaceaeDidiereaceaeCactaceae (cactus family)ChenopodiaceaeAmaranthaceaePortulacaceaeBasellaceaeMolluginaceaeCaryophyllaceaeORDER Polygonales PolygonaceaeORDER Plumbaginales PlumbaginaceaeSubclass Dilleniidae

ORDER Dilleniales DilleniaceaePaeoniaceaeORDER Theales OchnaceaeSphaerosepalaceaeSarcolaenaceaeDipterocarpaceaeCaryocaraceaeTheaceae (tea family)ActinidiaceaeScytopetalaceaePentaphylacaceaeTetrameristaceaePellicieraceaeOncothecaceaeMarcgraviaceaeQuiinaceaeElatinaceaeParacryphiaceaeMedusagynaceaeClusiaceaeORDER Malvales ElaeocarpaceaeTiliaceaeSterculiaceaeBombacaceaeMalvaceaeORDER Lecythidales LecythidaceaeORDER Nepenthales SarraceniaceaeNepenthaceaeDroseraceaeORDER Violales FlacourtiaceaePeridiscaceaeBixaceaeCistaceaeHuaceaeLacistemataceaeScyphostegiaceaeStachyuraceaeViolaceae (violet family)Tamaricaceae (tamarind family)FrankeniaceaeDioncophyllaceaeAncistrocladaceaeTurneraceaeMalesherbiaceaePassifloraceaeAchariaceaeCaricaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 22

FouquieriaceaeHoplestigmataceaeCucurbitaceaeDatiscaceaeBegoniaceaeLoasaceaeORDER Salicales SalicaceaeORDER Capparales TovariaceaeCapparaceaeBrassicaceaeMoringaceaeResedaceaeORDER Batales GyrostemonaceaeBataceaeORDER Ericales CyrillaceaeClethraceaeGrubbiaceaeEmpetraceaeEpacridaceaeEricaceaePyrolaceaeMonotropaceaeORDER Diapensiales DiapensiaceaeORDER Ebenales SapotaceaeEbenaceaeStyracaceaeLissocarpaceaeSymplocaceaeORDER Primulales TheophrastaceaeMyrsinaceaePrimulaceaeSubclass Rosidae ORDER Rosales BrunelliaceaeConnaraceaeEucryphiaceaeCunoniaceaeDavidsoniaceaeDialypetalanthaceaePittosporaceaeByblidaceaeHydrangeaceaeColumelliaceaeGrossulariaceaeGreyiaceaeBruniaceae

AnisophylleaceaeAlseuosmiaceaeCrassulaceaeCephalotaceaeSaxifragaceaeRosaceae (rose family)NeuradaceaeCrossosomataceaeChrysobalanaceaeSurianaceaeRhabdodendraceaeORDER Fabales Mimosaceae (mimosa family)CaesalpiniaceaeFabaceaeORDER Proteales ElaeagnaceaeProteaceaeORDER Podostemales PodostemaceaeORDER Haloragales HaloragaceaeGunneraceaeORDER Myrtales SonneratiaceaeLythraceaePenaeaceaeCrypteroniaceaeThymelaeaceaeTrapaceaeMyrtaceaePunicaceaeOnagraceaeOliniaceaeMelastomataceaeCombretaceaeAlzateaceaeMemecylaceaeRhyncocalycaceaeORDER Rhizophorales RhizophoraceaeORDER Cornales AlangiaceaeNyssaceaeCornaceaeGarryaceaeORDER Santalales MedusandraceaeDipentodontaceaeOlacaceaeOpiliaceaeSantalaceaeMisodendraceae

LoranthaceaeViscaceaeEremolepidaceaeBalanophoraceaeORDER Rafflesiales HydnoraceaeMitrastemonaceaeRafflesiaceaeORDER Celastrales GeissolomataceaeCelastraceaeHippocrateaceaeStackhousiaceaeSalvadoraceaeAquifoliaceaeIcacinaceaeAextoxicaceaeCardiopteridaceaeCorynocarpaceaeDichapetalaceaeTepuianthaceaeORDER Euphorbiales BuxaceaeSimmondsiaceaePandaceaeEuphorbiaceaeORDER Rhamnales RhamnaceaeLeeaceaeVitaceaeORDER Linales ErythroxylaceaeHumiriaceaeIxonanthaceaeHugoniaceaeLinaceaeORDER Polygalales MalpighiaceaeVochysiaceaeTrigoniaceaeTremandraceaePolygalaceaeXanthophyllaceaeKrameriaceaeORDER Sapindales StaphyleaceaeMelianthaceaeBretschneideraceaeAkaniaceaeSapindaceaeHippocastanaceaeAceraceaeBurseraceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 23

AnacardiaceaeJulianiaceaeSimaroubaceaeCneoraceaeMeliaceaeRutaceaeZygophyllaceaeORDER Geraniales OxalidaceaeGeraniaceaeLimnanthaceaeTropaeolaceaeBalsaminaceaeORDER Apiales AraliaceaeApiaceaeSubclass Asteridae ORDER Gentianales LoganiaceaeRetziaceaeGentianaceaeSaccifoliaceaeApocynaceaeAsclepiadaceaeORDER Solanales DuckeodendraceaeNolanaceaeSolanaceaeConvolvulaceaeCuscutaceaeMenyanthaceaePolemoniaceaeHydrophyllaceaeRetziaceaeORDER Lamiales LennoaceaeBoraginaceaeVerbenaceaeLamiaceaeORDER Callitrichales HippuridaceaeCallitrichaceaeHydrostachyaceaeORDER Plantaginales PlantaginaceaeORDER Scrophulariales BuddlejaceaeOleaceae (olive family)ScrophulariaceaeGlobulariaceaeMyoporaceaeOrobanchaceaeGesneriaceae

AcanthaceaePedaliaceaeBignoniaceaeMendonciaceaeLentibulariaceaeORDER Campanulales PentaphragmataceaeSphenocleaceaeCampanulaceaeStylidiaceaeDonatiaceaeBrunoniaceaeGoodeniaceaeORDER Rubiales RubiaceaeTheligonaceaeORDER Dipsacales CaprifoliaceaeAdoxaceaeValerianaceaeDipsacaceaeORDER Calycerales CalyceraceaeORDER Asterales AsteraceaeClass LiliopsidaSubclass Alismatidae ORDER Alismatales ButomaceaeLimnocharitaceaeAlismataceaeORDER Hydrocharitales HydrocharitaceaeORDER Najadales AponogetonaceaeScheuchzeriaceaeJuncaginaceaePotamogetonaceaeRuppiaceaeNajadaceaeZannichelliaceaePosidoniaceaeCymodoceaceaeZosteraceaeORDER Triuridales PetrosaviaceaeTriuridaceaeSubclass Arecidae ORDER Arecales Arecaceae (palm family)ORDER Cyclanthales CyclanthaceaeORDER Pandanales

Pandanaceae (pandan family)ORDER Arales AcoraceaeAraceaeLemnaceaeSubclass Commelinidae ORDER Commelinales RapateaceaeXyridaceaeMayacaceaeCommelinaceaeORDER Eriocaulales EriocaulaceaeORDER Restionales FlagellariaceaeJoinvilleaceaeRestionaceaeCentrolepidaceaeORDER Juncales JuncaceaeThurniaceaeORDER Cyperales CyperaceaePoaceae (Grass family)ORDER Hydatellales HydatellaceaeORDER Typhales SparganiaceaeTyphaceaeSubclass Zingiberidae ORDER Bromeliales BromeliaceaeORDER Zingiberales StrelitziaceaeHeliconiaceaeMusaceaeLowiaceaeZingiberaceae (Ginger family)CostaceaeCannaceaeMarantaceaeSubclass Liliidae ORDER Liliales PhilydraceaePontederiaceaeHaemodoraceaeCyanastraceaeLiliaceae (Lily family)Iridaceae (Iris family)VelloziaceaeAloeaceae (Aloe family)AgavaceaeXanthorrhoeaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 24

HanguanaceaeTaccaceaeStemonaceaeSmilacaceae

DioscoreaceaeORDER Orchidales GeosiridaceaeBurmanniaceae

CorsiaceaeOrchidaceae (Orchid family)

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 25