caliphate of córdoba

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Caliphate of Crdoba

The Caliphate of Crdoba(Arabic: ;trans.Khilfat Quruba) was anIslamic kingdom which ruledAl-Andalusand part ofNorth Africafrom the cityofCrdobafrom 929 to 1031. The period was characterized by an expansion of

trade and culture, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalusarchitecture (including theGreat Mosque of Crdoba). In January 929,Abd-ar-Rahman IIIproclaimed himselfcaliph(Arabic: abodrC fo ) [2]in place of hisoriginal title,Emir of Crdoba(Arabic: 'Amr Quruba).Abd-ar-Rahman IIIwas a member of theUmayyaddynasty, which had held the titleofEmirof Crdoba since 756.

The caliphate disintegrated during a civil war (theFitna of al-Andalus)between thedescendants of the last caliph,Hisham II, and the successors of hishayib,Al-Mansur.In 1031, after years of infighting, the caliphate fractured into a number of

independent Muslimtaifa(kingdoms)

Caliphate of Crdoba Khilfat Quruba(Arabic)

9291031

Flag
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Caliphate of Crdoba (green), c. 1000.

Capital Crdoba

Languages ClassicalArabic,Berber,Mozarabic,MedievalHebrew

Government Monarchy

Caliph of Crdoba

-

929 961 Abd-ar-Rahman III

History

-Abd-ar-RahmanIIIproclaimed CaliphofCrdoba[1] 929

-

Disintegrated into severalindependenttaifakingdoms 1031

Area

-

1000 est. 600,000 km(231,661 sq mi)

Today part of Gibraltar(UK)MoroccoPortugalSpain
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Umayyad Dynasty

Rise

Abd-ar-Rahman Ibecame Emir of Crdoba in 756 after six years in exile aftertheUmayyadslost the position of Caliph inDamascusin 750. Intent on regainingpower, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad ruleand united various localfiefdomsinto anemirate.The first of a series of incursions

toCorsicaoccurred in 806.Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the 10th century, whenAbd-ar-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by theFatimids(a rivalIslamic empire based inCairo). To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, whoclaimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally-recognizedAbbasidCaliphofBaghdad, Abd-ar-Rahman III claimed the title of caliph himself. This helped
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Abd-ar-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained afterthe Fatimids were repulsed.

Prosperity

The caliphate enjoyed increased prosperity during the 10th century. Abd-ar-

Rahman III unitedal-Andalusand brought the Christian kingdoms of the northunder control by force and through diplomacy. Abd-ar-Rahman stopped theFatimid advance into caliphate land in Morocco and al-Andalus. This period ofprosperity was marked by increasing diplomatic relations with Berber tribes inNorth Africa, Christian kings from the north and with France, Germany andConstantinople. The death of Abd-ar-Rahman III led to the rise of his 46-year-oldson,Al-Hakam II, in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father's policy, dealinghumanely with disruptive Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam's

reliance on his advisers was greater than his father's.Fall

The death of al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of the caliphate.Before his death, al-Hakam named his 10-year-old sonHisham II(9761008)successor. Although the child was ill-equipped to be caliph, since he had sworn anoath of obedience to himAl-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir(top adviser to al-Hakam, alsoknown asAlmanzor)pronounced him caliph. Ibn Abi Aamir was guardian to theboy, exercising Hisham's powers until he matured. He isolated Hisham in Crdobawhile systematically eradicating opposition to his own rule, allowingBerbersfromAfrica to migrate to al-Andalus to increase his base of support. He, his sonAbd al-Malik(al-Muzaffar, after his 1008 death) and his brother (Abd al-Rahman)retained the power nominally held by Caliph Hisham. However, during a raid onthe Christian north a revolt tore through Crdoba and Abd al-Rahman neverreturned.

The decision to name Hisham II caliph shifted power from an individual to hisadvisers. The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. TheCaliphate would be rocked with violence, with rivals claiming to be the newcaliph. The last Crdoban Caliph wasHisham III(10271031). Beset by

factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independenttaifas.

Life

Culture

Crdoba was the cultural centre of al-Andalus. Mosques, such as the GreatMosque, were the focus of many caliphs' attention. The caliph's palace is on the
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outskirts of the city, and had many rooms filled with riches from the East. Crdobawas the intellectual centre of al-Andalus, with translations of ancient Greek textsinto Arabic, Latin and Hebrew. The library of Al-akam II was one of the largestlibraries in the world, housing at least 400,000 volumes. During the al-Andalusperiod, relations between Jews and Arabs were cordial; Jewish stonemasons helpedbuild the columns of the Great Mosque. After the fall of al-Andalus in 1492, theincoming Christians banished the Jews from Spain.

Advances in science, history, geography, philosophy and language occurred duringthe Caliphate. Al-Andalus was subject to eastern cultural influences aswell.Ziryabis credited with bringing hair and clothingstyles,toothpasteanddeodorantto the Iberian peninsula.

Economy

The economy of the caliphate was diverse and successful, with trade

predominating. Muslim trade routes connected al-Andalus with the outside worldvia the Mediterranean. Industries revitalized during the caliphate included textiles,ceramics, glassware, metalwork, and agriculture. The Arabs introduced crops suchas rice, watermelon, banana, eggplant and hard wheat. Fields were irrigatedwithwater wheels.

Society

The caliphate had an ethnically-, culturally- and religiously-diverse society. Aminority of ethnic Muslims of Arab descent occupied the priestly and ruling

positions, another Muslim minority were primarily soldiers and native Hispano-Gothic converts (who comprised most of the Muslim minority) were foundthroughout society (although they were considered inferior to the Arabs andBerbers). Jews comprised about five to ten percent of the population: morenumerous than the Arabs, and about equal in numbers to the Berbers. They wereprimarily involved in business and intellectual occupations. The indigenousChristian Mozarab majority were Catholic Christians of the Visigothic rite, whospoke a variant of Latin close toSpanish,PortugueseorCatalanwith an Arabicinfluence. The Mozarabs comprised the lower strata of society, heavily taxed with

few civil rights, and were culturally influenced by the Muslims.Ethnic Arabs occupied the top of the social hierarchy; Muslims had a higher socialstanding than Jews, who had a higher social standing than Christians. Christiansand Jews were considereddhimmis,required to payjizya(a tax for the wars againstChristian kingdoms in the north). The word of a Muslim was valued more than thatof a Christian or Jew in court, and some offenses were harshly punished when aJew or Christian was the perpetrator against a Muslim; the same offenses were
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permitted when the perpetrator was a Muslim and the victim a non-Muslim. Halfof the population inCordobais reported to have been Muslim by the 10th century,with an increase to 70 percent by the 11th century. This was due less to conversionthan to immigration from North Africa and other regions ofHispania. This,combined with the mass expulsions of Christians from Cordoba after a revolt in thecity, explains why during the Caliphate Cordoba was the greatest Muslim centre inthe region. Jewish immigration to Cordoba also increased at this time.

History of Al-Andalus

Muslim conquest(711732)

Battle of Guadalete Battle of Toulouse

Battle of Tours

UmayyadsofCrdoba(7561031)

Emirate of Crdoba

Caliphate of Crdoba

Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir

First Taifa period(10091106)

Almoravid rule(10851145)

Conquest

Battle of Sagrajas

Second Taifa period(11401203)

Almohad rule(11471238)
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Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Third Taifa period(12321287)

Emirate of Granada(12381492)

Nasrid dynasty

Battle of Granada

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Interior of theMezquita(Mosque), one of the finest examples ofUmayyad

architecturein Spain.
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List of rulers

According to historians, the emirs and caliphs comprising the Umayyad dynasty inAl-Andalus were the sons of concubine slaves (almost all Spanish, from the northof the peninsula). The founder of the dynasty,Abd-ar-Rahman I,was the son ofaBerberwoman; his son (and successor as emir) had a Spanish mother.

Umayyad Emirs of Crdoba

Abd ar-Rahman I, 756788

Hisham I,788796

al-Hakam I,796822

Abd ar-Rahman II,822852

Muhammad I,852886

al-Mundhir,886

888 Abdallah ibn Muhammad,888912

Abd ar-Rahman III,912929Umayyad Caliphs of Crdoba

Abd ar-Rahman III,as caliph, 929961

Al-Hakam II,961976

Hisham II, 9761008

Muhammad II,10081009

Sulayman II,1009

1010 Hisham II,restored, 10101012

Sulayman II,restored, 10121016

Abd ar-Rahman IV,1017

The Umayyad dynasty was interrupted by theHammudid dynasty:

Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir,10161018

Al-Qasim ibn Hammud al-Ma'mu,10181021

Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali,10211023

Al-Qasim ibn Hammud al-Ma'mu,1023 (restored)The Umayyad dynasty returned to power:

Abd-ar-Rahman V,10231024

Muhammad III,10241025

Interregnumof Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali, 10251026
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mundhir_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mundhir_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Muhammadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Muhammadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulayman_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulayman_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammudid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammudid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammudid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Nasirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Nasirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Hammud_al-Ma%27muhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Hammud_al-Ma%27muhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Mu%27talihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Mu%27talihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Hammud_al-Ma%27muhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Hammud_al-Ma%27muhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_III_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_III_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_III_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Hammud_al-Ma%27muhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Mu%27talihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Hammud_al-Ma%27muhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Nasirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammudid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulayman_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_II_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Muhammadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mundhir_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_I


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Hisham III,10261031

Exterior of the Mezquita

Al-AndalusAl-Andalus(Arabic:,trans.al-Andalus;Spanish:Al-

ndalus;Portuguese:Al-Andalus;Aragonese:Al-Andalus;Catalan:Al-ndalus;Berber:Andalusor Wandalus), also known as Moorish Iberiaor IslamicIberia, was amedievalMuslimstate occupying at its peak most of what aretodaySpain,Portugal,Andorra, and part of southernFrance. The name more
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generally describes parts of theIberian PeninsulaandSeptimaniagoverned byMuslims (given the generic name ofMoors) at various times between 711 and1492, though the boundaries changed constantly in wars with Christian kingdoms.

Following theMuslim conquest of Hispania,

Al-Andalus was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly tomodernAndalusia,GaliciaandPortugal,CastileandLen,Aragon, county ofBarcelona andSeptimania.As a political domain, it successively constituted aprovince of theUmayyad Caliphate,initiated by the CaliphAl-Walid I(711750);theEmirate of Crdoba(c. 750929); theCaliphate of Crdoba(9291031); andthe Caliphate of Crdoba'staifa(successor) kingdoms. Rule under these kingdomssaw a rise in cultural exchange and cooperation between Muslims and Christians,with Christians and Jews considered as protected people who paid a tax to the statebut enjoyed "internal autonomy'. It is noted that under the Caliphate of Crdoba,

al-Andalus was a beacon of learning, and the city ofCrdobabecame one of theleading cultural and economic centres in both theMediterranean Basinand theIslamic world.

For much of its history, Al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms tothe north. After the fall of the Umayyad Andalusian kingdom, Al-Andalus wasfragmented into a number of minor states and principalities, most notablytheEmirate of Granada. Attacks from the Christian Castillians intensified, ledbyAlfonso VI.The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attackson the region, deposing the weak Andalusian Muslim princes and including Al-

Andalus under direct Berber rule. In succeeding centuries, Al-Andalus became aprovince of theBerberMuslim empires of theAlmoravidsandAlmohads, bothbased inMarrakesh.

Ultimately the Christian kingdoms of the north overpowered their Muslimneighbors. In 1085, Alfonso VI capturedToledo, starting a gradual Muslimdecline. With the fall of Crdoba in 1236, the Emirate of Granada was the onlyMuslim territory in what is nowSpain.The PortugueseReconquistaculminated in1249 with the conquest of theAlgarvebyAfonso III. In 1238, theEmirate ofGranadaofficially became atributary stateto theKingdom of Castile, then ruledby KingFerdinand III. Finally, on January 2, 1492,Emir MuhammadXIIsurrendered the Emirate of Granada to QueenIsabella I of Castile,who alongwith her husband KingFerdinand II of Aragonwere known as the "CatholicMonarchs." The surrender ended Al-Andalus as a political entity, though aspects ofIslamic culture are still evident in the region.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algarvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algarvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algarvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_III_of_Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_III_of_Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_III_of_Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributary_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributary_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributary_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributary_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_III_of_Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algarvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula


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Al-Andalus & Christian Kingdoms circa 1000 AD

History of A l -And alus

Musl im conquest

(711732)

Battle of Guadalete

Battle of Toulouse

Battle of Tours

Umayyadso fCrdoba

(7561031)

Emirate of Crdoba

Caliphate of Crdoba
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Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir

First Taifa period(10091106)

Almo ravid rule(10851145)

Conquest

Battle of Sagrajas

Second Taifa period(11401203)

Almohad rule

(1147

1238)

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Third Taifa period(12321287)

Emirate of Granada(12381492)

Nasrid dynasty

Battle of Granada

Related articles

Iberia

Reconquista

Etymology

Theetymologyof "Al-Andalus" is disputed, as is the extent of Iberian territoryencompassed by the name over the centuries. The name is first attested to byinscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government in Iberia, circa 715(the uncertainty in the year is due to the fact that the coins were bilingualinLatinandArabicand the two inscriptions differ as to the year of minting).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#First_period_.2811th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#First_period_.2811th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty#Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty#Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagrajashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagrajashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#Second_period_.2812th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#Second_period_.2812th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#Third_period_.2813th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#Third_period_.2813th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasrid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasrid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasrid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#Third_period_.2813th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#Second_period_.2812th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagrajashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty#Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa#First_period_.2811th_century.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamir


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At least three specific etymologies have been proposed in Western scholarship, allpresuming that the name arose after theRoman periodin the Iberian Peninsula'shistory. Their originators or defenders have been historians. Recently, linguisticsexpertise has been brought to bear on the issue. Arguments fromtoponymy(thestudy of place names), history, and language structure demonstrate the lack ofsubstance in all following proposals, and evidence has been presented that thename predates, rather than postdates, the Roman occupation.

Vandal theory

The nameAndalusiaor Vandalusiais traditionally believed to be derivedfromVandal(theGermanic tribethat briefly colonized parts of Iberia from 409 to429). The proposal is sometimes associated with the 19th-centuryhistorianReinhart Dozy, but it predates him and he recognized some of itsshortcomings. Although he accepted thatAl-Andalusderived from Vandal, he

believed that geographically it referred only to the harbor from which the Vandalsdeparted Iberia for (North) Africathe location of which harbour was unknown.

Visigoth theory

In the 1980s, the historian Heinz Halm, also rejecting the Vandalproposal,originated an innovative alternative. Halm took as his points of departure ancientreports that Germanic tribes in general were reported to have distributed conqueredlands by having members draw lots, and that Iberia during the periodofVisigothicrule was sometimes known to outsiders by a Latin name, GothicaSors, whose meaning is 'Gothic lot'. Halm thereupon speculated that the Visigoths

themselves might have called their new lands "lot lands" and done so in their ownlanguage. However, the Gothic language version of the term Gothica Sorsis notattested. Halm claimed to have been able to reconstruct it, proposing that itwas *landahlauts(the asterisk is the standard symbol among linguists for alinguistic form that is proposed but has not been attested). Halm then suggestedthat the hypothetical Gothic language term gave rise to both the attested Latinterm, Gothica Sors (by translating the meaning) and the Arabic name, Al-Andalus(by phonetic imitation). However, Halm did not offer evidence (historical orlinguistic) that any of the language developments in his argument had in factoccurred.

Atlantis theory

Another proposal is thatAndalusis an Arabic-language version of thenameAtlantis. This idea has recently been defended by the SpanishhistorianVallv,but purely on the grounds that it is allegedly plausible phoneticallyand would explain severaltoponymicfacts (no historical evidence was offered).

Vallv writes:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhart_Dozyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhart_Dozyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhart_Dozyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vallv%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vallv%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vallv%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhart_Dozyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire


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Arabic texts offering the first mentions of the island of Al-Andalus and the sea of

al-Andalus become extraordinarily clear if we substitute this expressions with

"Atlantis" or "Atlantic". The same can be said with reference to Hercules and the

Amazons whose island, according to Arabic commentaries of these Greek and

Latin legends, was located in jauf Al-Andalus

that is, to the north or interior of

the Atlantic Ocean.

TheIsland of Al-Andalus is mentioned in an anonymous Arabic chronicle of theconquest of Iberia composed two to three centuries after the fact. It is identified asthe location of the landfall of the advance guard of the Moorish conquest of Iberia.The chronicle also says that "Island of al-Andalus" was subsequently renamed"Island of Tarifa". The preliminary conquest force of a few hundred, led by theBerber chief, Tarif abu Zura, seized the first bit of land that is encountered aftercrossing the Strait of Gibraltar in 710. The main conquest force led by Tariq ibn

Ziyad followed them a year later. The landfall, now known in Spain as either PuntaMarroqu or Punta de Tarifa, is in fact the southern tip of an islet, presently knownas Isla de Tarifa or Isla de las Palomas, just offshore of the Iberian mainland.

This testimony of the Arab chronicle, the modern nameIsla de Tarifa, and theabove mentioned toponymic evidence thatAndaluzis a name of pre-Roman origintaken together lead to the supposition that theIsland of Andalusis the present dayIsla de Tarifa, which lies just offshore from the modern day Spanish city of Tarifa.The extension of the scope of the designation "Al-Andalus" from a single islet toall of Iberia has several historical precedents.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests#Conquest_of_Hispania:_711.E2.80.93718_and_Septimania_719.E2.80.93720http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests#Conquest_of_Hispania:_711.E2.80.93718_and_Septimania_719.E2.80.93720http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests#Conquest_of_Hispania:_711.E2.80.93718_and_Septimania_719.E2.80.93720http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests#Conquest_of_Hispania:_711.E2.80.93718_and_Septimania_719.E2.80.93720


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Islamic period garden inGranada,Spain
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Moorish Bazaar

History

Province of the Caliphate

During the caliphate of the Umayyad CaliphAl-Walid I, the BerbercommanderTariq ibn-Ziyadled a small force that landed atGibraltaron April 30,711, ostensibly to intervene in aVisigothiccivil war. After a decisive victory overKingRodericat theBattle of Guadaleteon July 19, 711, Tariq ibn-Ziyad, joined byArab governorMusa ibn NusayrofIfriqiya, brought most of theVisigothicKingdomunder Muslim occupation in a seven-year campaign. They crossedthePyreneesand occupied VisigothicSeptimaniain southern France.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariq_ibn-Ziyadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariq_ibn-Ziyadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariq_ibn-Ziyadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Guadaletehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Guadaletehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Guadaletehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifriqiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifriqiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifriqiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifriqiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Guadaletehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariq_ibn-Ziyadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Walid_I


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Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expandingUmayyad empire,under the name ofAl-Andalus. It was organized as a province subordinatetoIfriqiya, so, for the first few decades, thegovernors of al-Andaluswereappointed by the emir ofKairouan, rather than the Caliph in Damascus. Theregional capital was set atCrdoba,and the initial influx of Muslim colonists werewidely distributed Arabcolonists were assigned to the south and east,whileBerbercolonists were scattered across the west and center. Visigothic lordswho agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs(notably, in Murcia, Galicia, and the Ebro valley). Resistant Visigoths took refugein theCantabrianhighlands, where they carved out a rump state, theKingdom ofAsturias.

The Age of theCaliphsMuhammad, 622632Patriarchal Caliphate, 632661Umayyad Caliphate, 661750
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The province of al-Andalus just after the Islamic conquest, 720

In the 720s, the Andalusian governors launched severalsa'ifaraids intoAquitaine,but were severely defeated by DukeOdo the Greatof Aquitaine at theBattle ofToulouse (721).However, after crushing Odo's Berber allyUthman ibn Naissaonthe eastern Pyrenees,Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqiled an expedition north across thewestern Pyrenees and defeated the Aquitanian duke, who in turn appealed totheFrankishleaderCharles Martelfor assistance, offering to place himself underCarolingian sovereignty. At theBattle of Poitiersin 732, the Andalusian raidingarmy was defeated by Charles Martel. In 734, the Andalusians launched raids tothe east, capturingAvignonandArlesand overran much ofProvence.In 737, theyclimbed up theRhnevalley, reached as far asBurgundy.Charles Martel of theFranks, with the assistance ofLiutprandof theLombards, invaded Burgundy andProvence and expelled the raiders by 739.

Relations between Arabs andBerbersin al-Andalus had been tense in the yearsafter the conquest. Berbers heavily outnumbered the Arabs in the province, andhad done the bulk of the fighting, but they had been given the lesser plums of theconquest and were assigned the harsher duties (e.g. garrisoning the more troubled
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areas). Although some Arab governors had cultivated their Berber lieutenants,others had grievously mistreated them. Mutinies by Berber soldiers were frequent,e.g. in 729, the Berber commander Munnus revolted and managed to carve out arebel state inCerdanyafor a spell. In 740, a greatBerber Revolterupted intheMaghreb(North Africa). To put down the rebellion, the UmayyadCaliphHishamdispatched a large Arab army, composed of regiments (Junds)ofBilad Ash-ShamtoNorth Africa. But the great Syrian army was crushed by theBerber rebels at theBattle of Bagdoura(in Morocco). Heartened by the victories oftheir North African brethren, the Berbers of al-Andalus quickly raised their ownrevolt. Berber garrisons in northern Spain mutinied, deposed their Arabcommanders, and organized a large rebel army to march against the strongholds ofToledo, Cordoba, and Algeciras. The Andalusian Arab governor, joined by theremnant of the Syrian army (some 10,000) which had fled across thestraits,crushed the Berber rebels in a series of ferocious battles in 742. However, a quarrel

immediately erupted between the Syrian commanders and the older AndalusianArabs. The Syrians defeated the Andalusians at the hard-foughtBattle of AquaPortorain August 742 but were too few to impose themselves on the province. Thequarrel was settled in 743 with the distribution of the Syrians in regimental fiefsacross al-Andalus the Damascus jund was established in Elvira (Granada), theJordan jund in Rayyu (MlagaandArchidona), the Jund Filastin jund inMedina-SidoniaandJerez,the Emesa (Hims) jund inSevilleandNiebla,and the Qinnasrinjund inJan.The Egypt jund was divided betweenBeja(Alentejo)in the west andTudmir (Murcia) in the east.[14]The arrival of the Syrians increased substantiallythe Arab element in the Iberian peninsula and helped deepen the Muslim hold onthe south. However, at the same time, unwilling to be governed, theSyrianjundscarried on an existence of autonomous feudal anarchy, severelydestabilizing the authority of the governor of al-Andalus.

A second significant consequence of the revolt was the expansion of the Kingdomof the Asturias,hitherto confined to enclaves in the Cantabrian highlands. After therebellious Berber garrisons evacuated the northern frontier fortresses, the ChristiankingAlfonso I of Asturiasset about immediately seizing the empty forts forhimself, quickly adding the northwestern provinces ofGaliciaandLento hisfledgling kingdom. The Asturians evacuated the Christian populations from thetowns and villages of the Galician-Leonese lowlands, creating an empty bufferzone in theDouro Rivervalley (the "Desert of the Duero"). This newly emptiedfrontier would remain roughly in place for the next few centuries as the boundarybetween the Christian north and the Islamic south. Between this frontier and theAndalusian heartland in the south, the Andalusian state organized threelargemarch territories(thughur): the lower march (capital initially atMrida,
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laterBadajoz), the middle march (centered at Toledo), and the upper march(centered atZaragoza)

These disturbances and disorders also allowed the Franks, now under theleadership ofPepin the Short, to invade the strategic strip ofSeptimaniain 752,

hoping to deprive Andalusians of their easy launching pad for raids intoFrancia.After a lengthy siege, the last Arab stronghold, the citadel ofNarbonne,finallyfellto the Franks in 759.Al-Andalus was sealed off at the Pyrenees.

AgoldDinar minted in Al-Andalus

The third consequence of the Berber revolt was the collapse of the authority oftheDamascusCaliphate over the western provinces. With the Umayyad Caliphsdistracted by the challenge of theAbbasidsin theeast, the western provinces of theMaghreb and al-Andalus spun out of their control. From around 745, theFihrids,an illustrious local Arab clan descended fromOqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri,seized power

in the western provinces and ruled them almost as a private family empire of theirown Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihriin Ifriqiya andYsuf al-Fihriin al-Andalus. The Fihrids welcomed the fall of the Umayyads in the east, in 750, andsought to reach an understanding with the Abbasids, hoping they might be allowedto continue their autonomous existence. But when the Abbassids rejected the offerand demanded submission, the Fihrids declared independence and, probably out ofspite, invited the deposed remnants of the Umayyad clan to take refuge in theirdominions. It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the

sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihridsthemselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule ofthe Fihrids, intrigued with the arriving Umayyad exiles.

Umayyad Emirate and Caliphate of Crdoba

In 756, the exiled Umayyad princeAbd al-Rahman I(nicknamed al-Dkhil, the'Immigrant' ousted Ysuf al-Fihri to establish himself as theEmirofCrdoba.He
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refused to submit to the Abbasid caliph, as Abbasid forces had killed most of hisfamily. Over a thirty-year reign, he established a tenuous rule over much of al-Andalus, overcoming partisans of both the al-Fihri family and of the Abbasidcaliph.

For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Crdobawith nominal control over the rest of al-Andalusand sometimes parts ofwesternNorth Africa,but with real control, particularly over the marches along theChristian border, vacillating depending on the competence of the individual emir.Indeed, the power of emirAbdallah ibn Muhammad(circa 900) did not extendbeyond Crdoba itself. But his grandsonAbd-al-Rahman III,who succeeded himin 912, not only rapidly restored Umayyad power throughout al-Andalus butextended it into western North Africa as well. In 929 he proclaimedhimselfCaliph,elevating the emirate to a position competing in prestige not onlywith theAbbasidcaliph inBaghdadbut also theShi'itecaliph inTuniswithwhom he was competing for control of North Africa.

The period of the Caliphate is seen as thegolden ageof al-Andalus. Cropsproduced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East,provided the area around Crdoba and some otherAndaluscities with anagricultural economic sector that was the most advanced in Europe by far. AmongEuropean cities, Crdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of perhaps500,000, eventually overtookConstantinopleas the largest and most prosperouscity in Europe.[17]Within the Islamic world, Crdoba was one of the leadingcultural centres. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists

(notablyAbulcasisandAverroes)had a major influence on the intellectual life ofmedieval Europe.

Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study in the famous librariesand universities of al-Andalus after the reconquest of Toledo in 1085. The mostnoted of these wasMichael Scot(c. 1175 to c. 1235), who took the works ofIbnRushd("Averroes") andIbn Sina("Avicenna") toItaly. This transmission was tohave a significant impact on the formation of the EuropeanRenaissance.
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The Caliphate of Cordoba c. 1000 at the apogee ofAl-MansurFirst Tawaaefperiod

The Crdoba Caliphate effectively collapsed during a ruinous civil war between1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031 whenAl-

Andalusbroke up into a number of mostly independent mini-states andprincipalities calledtaifas("Tawaaef" in Arabic). These were generally tooweak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from theChristian states to the north and west, which were known to the Muslims as "theGalician nations", and which had spread from their initial strongholds

inGalicia,Asturias,Cantabria, the Basque country, and theCarolingianMarcaHispanicato become the Kingdoms of Navarre, ,Len, Portugal, Castile andAragon,and theCounty of Barcelona.Eventually raids turned into conquests, andin response the Tawaaefkings were forced to request help from theAlmoravids,Muslim Berber rulers of theMaghreb.Their desperate maneuver would eventually
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fall to their disadvantage, however, as the Almoravids they had summoned fromthe south went on to conquer and annex all the Taifa / Tawaaefkingdoms.

The Caliphate broke up into many Taifa / Tawaaef states in 1031. (The northern areas

shown here in white, red, yellow, and dark blue wereChristian.)

Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids

In 1086 theAlmoravidruler of Morocco,Yusuf ibn Tashfin, was invited by theMuslim princes in Iberia to defend them againstAlfonso VI, KingofCastileandLen. In that year, Tashfin crossed the straits toAlgecirasandinflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at theBattle of Sagrajas.By 1094,Yusufibn Tashfinhad removed all Muslim princes in Iberia and had annexed their states,except for the one atZaragoza. He also regainedValenciafrom the Christians.TheAlmoravidswere succeeded by theAlmohads, another Berber dynasty, afterthe victory ofAbu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansurover the CastilianAlfonso VIIIattheBattle of Alarcosin 1195. In 1212 a coalition of Christian kings under the
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leadership of the CastilianAlfonso VIIIdefeated the Almohads at theBattle of LasNavas de Tolosa.The Almohads continued to rul

caliphate of córdoba

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