chapter 2 bdol ic

8/13/2019 Chapter 2 Bdol Ic

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Unit 1: What is Biology?

Unit 2: EcologyUnit 3: The Life of a Cell

Unit 4: Genetics

Unit 5: Change Through Time

Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi

Unit 7: Plants

Unit 8: Invertebrates

Unit 9: Vertebrates

Unit 10: The Human Body
http://resources.ppt/


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Unit 1: What is Biology?

Chapter 1: Biology: The Study of LifeUnit 2: Ecology

Chapter 2: Principles of Ecology

Chapter 3: Communities and Biomes

Chapter 4: Population BiologyChapter 5: Biological Diversity and Conservation

Unit 3: The Life of a Cell

Chapter 6: The Chemistry of Life

Chapter 7: A View of the Cell

Chapter 8: Cellular Transport and the Cell Cycle

Chapter 9: Energy in a Cell


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Unit 4: Genetics

Chapter 10: Mendel and Meiosis

Chapter 11: DNA and Genes

Chapter 12: Patterns of Heredity and Human Genetics

Chapter 13: Genetic Technology

Unit 5: Change Through Time

Chapter 14: The History of Life

Chapter 15: The Theory of Evolution

Chapter 16: Primate Evolution

Chapter 17: Organizing Lifes Diversity


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Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi

Chapter 18: Viruses and BacteriaChapter 19: Protists

Chapter 20: Fungi

Unit 7: Plants

Chapter 21: What Is a Plant?

Chapter 22: The Diversity of Plants

Chapter 23: Plant Structure and Function

Chapter 24: Reproduction in Plants


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Unit 8: Invertebrates

Chapter 25: What Is an Animal?Chapter 26: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and

Roundworms

Chapter 27: Mollusks and Segmented Worms

Chapter 28: ArthropodsChapter 29: Echinoderms and Invertebrate

Chordates


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Unit 9: Vertebrates

Chapter 30: Fishes and Amphibians

Chapter 31: Reptiles and Birds

Chapter 32: Mammals

Chapter 33: Animal Behavior

Unit 10: The Human BodyChapter 34: Protection, Support, and Locomotion

Chapter 35: The Digestive and Endocrine Systems

Chapter 36: The Nervous System

Chapter 37: Respiration, Circulation, and Excretion

Chapter 38: Reproduction and Development

Chapter 39: Immunity from Disease


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Ecology

Principles of Ecology

Communities and Biomes

Population Biology

Biological Diversity and Conservation


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Chapter 2 Principles of Ecology

2.1: Organisms and their Environment

2.1: Section Check

2.2: Nutrition and Energy Flow

2.2: Section Check

Chapter 2 SummaryChapter 2 Assessment


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What Youll Learn

You will describe ecology and the work ofecologists.

You will identify important aspects of anorganisms environment.

You will trace the flow of energy andnutrients in the living and nonlivingworlds.


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Distinguish between the biotic and abioticfactors in the environment.

Section Objectives:

Compare the different levels of biologicalorganization and living relationshipsimportant in ecology.

Explain the difference between a niche anda habitat.


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What affects theenvironment alsoaffects you.

Understandingwhat affects theenvironment is

important becauseit is where youlive.

Sharing the World


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The study of plants and animals, includingwhere they grow and live, what they eat, orwhat eats them, is called natural history.

These data reflect the status or health of theworld in which you live.

Studying nature


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The branch of biology that developed fromnatural history is called ecology.

Ecology is the study of interactions that takeplace between organisms and theirenvironment.

What is ecology?


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Scientific research includes using descriptiveand quantitative methods.

Most ecologists use both descriptive andquantitative research.

Ecological research

They obtain descriptive information byobserving organisms.


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They obtainquantitativedata by making

measurementsand carrying outcontrolledexperiments inthe field and inthe laboratory.

Ecological research


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Thebiosphere is theportion of Earththat supports living

things.

It extends from highin the atmosphere to

the bottom of theoceans.

The Biosphere


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Although it is thin, the biosphere supports adiverse group of organisms in a wide rangeof climates.

Living things are affected by both thephysical or nonliving environment and byother living things.

The Biosphere


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The nonliving parts of an organismsenvironment are the abiotic factors.

Examples of abiotic factors include aircurrents, temperature, moisture, light, andsoil.

The nonliving environment: Abiotic

factors


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Ecology includes the study of features of theenvironment that are not living because these

features are part of an organisms life.


factors

Abiotic factors have obvious effects onliving things and often determine which

species survive in a particular environment.


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factors This graph shows how the plants glucose

(food) production is affected by temperature.

5

10

15

Food Production in Salt Bush

10 20 30 40 50Temperature (C)

Foodp

roduction

(mgof

glucose/hr)


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The living environment: Biotic factors

A key consideration of ecology is that livingorganisms affect other living organisms.

All the living organisms that inhabit anenvironment are calledbiotic factors.

All organisms depend on others directly or

indirectly for food, shelter, reproduction orprotection.


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Levels of Organization

Ecologists study individual organisms,interactions among organisms of the samespecies, interactions among organisms of

different species, as well as the effects ofabiotic factors on interacting species.

Ecologists have organized the living world

into levels

the organism by itself,populations, communities, and ecosystems.


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Organism

An individual living thing that is made ofcells, uses energy, reproduces, responds,grows, and develops.


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Interactions within populations

Apopulation is a group of organisms, all ofthe same species, which interbreed and livein the same area at the same time.


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Interactions within populations

Members of the same population maycompete with each other for food, water,mates, or other resources.

Competition can occur whether resources arein short supply or not.


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Interactions within communities

Just as a population is made up of individuals,several different populations make up abiological community.


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Abiological community is made up ofinteracting populations in a certain area at acertain time.


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A change in one population in a communitymay cause changes in the other populations.

Some of these changes can be minor, such aswhen a small increase in the number ofindividuals of one population causes a smalldecrease in the size of another population.


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Other changes might be more extreme, aswhen the size of one population grows solarge it begins affecting the food supply for

another species in the community.


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Ecosystem

Populations of plants and animals thatinteract with each other in a given area andwith the abiotic components of that area.


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Biotic and abiotic factors form

ecosystems Terrestial

ecosystems

are thoselocated onland.

Table 2.1 Examples of Ecosystems

TerrestrialEcosystems

Forest

Old farm field Meadow

Yard

Garden plot

Empty lot

Compost heap Volcano site

Rotting log

AquaticEcosystems

Freshwater

Pond

Lake

Stream

Estuary

Salt water(marine)

Ocean Estuary

Aquarium

Other Sites forEcosystems

Human body

Skin

Intestine

Mouth

Buildings

Mold in walls,floors, or basement

Ventilation systems

BathroomsFood

Any moldy food

Refrigerator


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ecosystems

Aquaticecosystems

occur in bothfresh- andsaltwaterforms.

Table 2.1 Examples of Ecosystems

TerrestrialEcosystems

Forest

Old farm field

Meadow

Yard

Garden plot

Empty lot

Compost heap

Volcano site

Rotting log

AquaticEcosystems

Freshwater

Pond

Lake

Stream

Estuary

Salt water(marine)

Ocean

Estuary

Aquarium

Other Sites forEcosystems

Human body

Skin Intestine

Mouth

Buildings

Mold in walls,floors, or basement

Ventilation systems

Bathrooms

Food

Any moldy food

Refrigerator


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ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems include ponds, lakes,and streams.


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ecosystems

Saltwaterecosystems, also

called marineecosystems,make upapproximately

70 percent ofEarths surface.


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Organisms in Ecosystems

A habitatis theplace

where anorganismlives outits life.


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Organisms in Ecosystems

Habitats can change, and even disappear.Habitats can change due to both natural andhuman causes.


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Niche

Although several species may share ahabitat, the food, shelter, and other essentialresources of that habitat are often used in

different ways. A niche is the role or position a species has

in its environmenthow it meets its specific

needs for food and shelter, how and where itsurvives, and where it reproduces in itsenvironment.


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Niche

A species niche, therefore, includes all itsinteractions with the biotic and abiotic partsof its habitat.

It is thought that two species cant exist forlong in the same community if their nichesare the same.


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Symbiosis

The relationship in which there is a close andpermanent association between organisms ofdifferent species is called symbiosis.

Simbiosis means living together. Threekinds of symbiosis are recognized:mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.


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Mutualism

A symbioticrelationshipin which

both speciesbenefit iscalledmutualism.


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Commensalism

Commensalismis a symbioticrelationship in

which onespecies benefitsand the otherspecies is neither

harmed norbenefited.


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Parasitism

Some interactions are harmful to one species,yet beneficial to another.

A symbiotic relationship in which a memberof one species derives benefit at the expenseof another species (the host) is calledparasitism.


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Parasitism

Parasites have evolved in such a way thatthey harm, but usually do not kill the hostspecies.


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Parasitism

A predator is a type of consumer. Predatorsseek out and eat other organisms.


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Parasitism

Predation is found in all ecosystems andincludes organisms that eat plants andanimals.

The animals that predators eat are calledprey.


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Question 1

The study of interactions that take placebetween organisms and their environment is__________.

D. biology

C. ecology

B. symbiosisA. abiosis


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The answer is C. Ecology is a branch of biologythat developed from natural history.


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Question 2

Which of the following is found in thebiosphere?

D. constellation Orion

C. the Sun

B. maria

A. ozone layer


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The answer is A. Thebiosphere is theportion of Earth thatsupports living things

and extends high intoEarth's atmosphere.Maria are dark-colored regions on

the moon.


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Question 3

Which of the following is a biotic factor?

D. light

C. earthworm

B. soil

A. moisture


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The answer is C. Biotic factors are all the livingorganisms that inhabit an environment.


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Question 4

A(n) __________ is a group of organisms, allof the same species, which interbreed and livein the same place at the same time.

D. habitatC. ecosystem

B. population

A. biological community


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Section Objectives

Trace the path of energy and matter in anecosystem.

Compare how organisms satisfy theirnutritional needs.

Analyze how matter is cycled in the abiotic

and biotic parts of the biosphere.


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How Organisms Obtain Energy

One of the most important characteristics ofa species niche is how it obtains energy.

Ecologists trace the flow of energy throughcommunities to discover nutritionalrelationships between organisms.


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The producers: Autotrophs

The ultimate source of the energy for lifeis the sun.

Plants use the

suns energy tomanufacturefood in aprocess calledphotosynthesis.


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The producers: Autotrophs

Other organisms in the biosphere depend onautotrophs for nutrients and energy. These

dependent organisms are called consumers.

An organism that uses light energy or energystored in chemical compounds to makeenergy-rich compounds is a producer, or

autotroph.


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The consumers: Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs include organisms that feedonly on autotrophs, organisms that feed onlyon other heterotrophs, and organisms thatfeed on both autotrophs and heterotrophs.

An organism that cannot make its own foodand feeds on other organisms is called aheterotroph.


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A heterotrophthat feeds only

on plants is anherbivore.

Heterotrophsdisplay a varietyof feeding

relationships.


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Someheterotrophseat other

heterotrophs.Animals suchas lions that killand eat only

other animalsare carnivores.


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Scavengers eat animals that have already died.


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Some organisms, such as bacteria and fungi,are decomposers.


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Decomposersbreak down the complexcompounds of dead and decaying plants andanimals into simpler molecules that can be

more easily absorbed.


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Flow of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems

Autotrophs

First-orderheterotrophs

Third-orderheterotrophs Second-order

heterotrophs

Decomposers


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Food chains: Pathways for matter

and energy

In a food chain, nutrients and energy movefrom autotrophs to heterotrophs and,eventually, to decomposers.

A food chain is a simple model that scientistsuse to show how matter and energy move

through an ecosystem.


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and energy A food chain is drawn using arrows to

indicate the direction in which energy is

transferred from one organism to the next.

berries miceblack bear


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and energy Most food chains consist of two, three, or

four transfers.

The amount of energy remaining in the finaltransfer is only a portion of what wasavailable at the first transfer.

A portion of the energy is given off as heatat each transfer.


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Trophic levels represent links in the

chain Each organism in a food chain represents a

feeding step, or trophic level, in the passage

of energy and materials.

A first order heterotroph is an organism thatfeeds on plants, such as a grasshopper.


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Trophic levels represent links in the

chain A second order heterotroph is an organism

that feeds on a first order heterotroph.

A food chain represents only one possibleroute for the transfer of matter and energythrough an ecosystem.


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Food webs

Ecologists interested in energy flow in anecosystem may set up experiments with asmany organisms in the community as they

can. The model they create, called a food web,

shows all the possible feeding relationships

at each trophic level in a community.


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http://2_13.swf/http://resources.ppt/


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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological

pyramids An ecological pyramid can show how energy

flows through an ecosystem.

The base of the ecological pyramidrepresents the autotrophs, or first trophiclevel. Higher trophic levels are layered on

top of one another.


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pyramids The pyramid of

energy illustrates

that the amountof availableenergy decreasesat each

succeedingtrophic level.

Pyramid of Energy

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

0.1% Consumers

1% Consumers

10% Consumers

100%Producers


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pyramids The total energy transfer from one trophic

level to the next is only about ten percent

because organisms fail to capture and eat allthe food energy available at the trophic levelbelow them.


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pyramids Some of the energy transferred at each

successive trophic level enters the

environment as heat, but the total amountof energy remains the same.


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pyramids A pyramid of

numbers shows

that populationsizes decreaseat each highertrophic level.

Pyramid of Numbers

Fox (1)

Birds (25)

Grasshoppers (250)

Grasses (3000)


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pyramids Biomass is the total

weight of livingmatter at eachtrophic level. Apyramid of biomassrepresents the total

weight of livingmaterial available ateach trophic level.

Pyramid of Biomass

1 kilogram ofhuman tissue

10 kilogramsof beef

100 kilogramsof grain


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The carbon cycle

From proteins to sugars, carbon is thebuilding block of the molecules of life.

Linked carbon atoms form the frame for

molecules produced by plants and otherliving things.

Organisms use these carbon molecules for

growth and energy.


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The nitrogen cycleNitrogen in the atmosphere

Nitrogen-fixingbacteria in the

nodules on roots ofleguminous plants fix

atmospheric nitrogen.

Nitrogen-fixingsoil bacteria

Some excess nitrogenevaporates from soil.

Nitrogen

compoundsreleased intosoils and acted

upon by soilbacteria

Released to theatmosphere

Assimilatedby plants

Urine fromanimals

Dead plant

matterDecomposing

organisms

Decomposersbacteria and fungibreakdown tissues and wastes and nitrogen-

containing compounds are released.

Converted to othernitrogen compounds

by soil bacteria


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The phosphorus cycle

In the phosphorus cycle, phosphorus movesbetween the living and nonliving parts of theenvironment.


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Which of the following is a producer?

Question 1

D. herbivore

C. decomposerB. heterotroph

A. autotrophNucleusChloroplast

Mitochondrion

Eyespot

FlagellumPellicle

Contractile vacuole


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The answer is A. Organisms that make energy-

rich compounds are producers, or autotrophs.

Nucleus

Chloroplast

Mitochondrion

Eyespot

Flagellum

Pellicle

Contractile vacuole


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In a food chain, nutrients and energy movefrom __________ to __________.

Question 2

D. decomposers, autotrophs

C. heterotrophs, autotrophs

B. autotrophs, heterotrophs

A. autotrophs, autotrophs


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The answer is B. The first level in all food

chains is made up of producers.

berries miceblack bear


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A model of all the possible feeding relationshipsat each trophic level in a community is a(n)__________.

Question 3

D. food web

C. food matrix

B. food chain

A. food pathway


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Chihuahuan raven Honey mesquite(pods eaten by beetles)

Pronghornantelope

Gambelquail

Jackrabbit

Desert

tortoisePricklypear cactus

Long-tailweasel

Coyote

(top carnivore)

Roadrunner

Kangaroo rat(seed eater)

ants

Texas hornedlizard

Red spottedtoad Mexican

whiptail lizard

Mojaverattlesnake


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The answer is D. A food web is a more realistic

model than a food chain, because most organismsdepend on more than one other species for food.


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Natural history, the observation of howorganisms live out their lives in nature, led tothe development of the science of ecologythe study of the interactions of organisms withone another and with their environments.

Organisms and Their Environment


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Organisms and Their Environment

Ecologists classify and study the biologicallevels of organization from the individual toecosystem. Ecologists study the abiotic and

biotic factors that are a part of an organismshabitat. They investigate the strategies anorganism is adapted with to exist in its niche.


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Autotrophs, such as plants, make nutrients thatcan be used by the plants and by heterotrophs.Heterotrophs include herbivores, carnivores,

omnivores, and decomposers.

Nutrition and Energy Flow

Food chains are simple models that show howenergy and materials move from autotrophs to

heterotrophs and eventually to decomposers.


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Food webs represent many interconnectedfood chains and illustrate pathways in whichenergy and materials are transferred within an

ecosystem. Energy is transferred through foodwebs. The materials of life, such as carbonand nitrogen, are used and reused as theycycle through the ecosystem.

Nutrition and Energy Flow


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Question 1

Which of the following is a biologicalcommunity?

D. the factors interacting in an aquaticecosystem

C. the abiotic factors in the environment

B. the tadpoles living in a pond

A. the organisms living in your backyard today


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The answer is A. A biological community

consists of all the populations of different speciesthat live in the same place at the same time anddoes not include abiotic factors. Changes in one

of these populations may cause changes in theother populations of the community.


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Question 2

A(n) __________ is the place where anorganism lives out its life.

D. community

C. habitat

B. niche

A. environment


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The answer is C. Aspecies' habitat is theplace where it lives andits niche is the role it

plays in its environment,including interactionswith abiotic factors.


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Question 3

Compare commensalism and parasitism.

Haustorium Host cell

Fungal hypha


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Both commensalism and parasitism are examples

of symbiosis, in which organisms of differentspecies live in close association, benefiting onespecies. In parasitism, one species derives benefit

at the expense of the other, but in a commensalrelationship the second species is not harmed.


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Question 4

Which of the following models best illustratesheat released at each trophic level of anecosystem?

D. pyramid of biomassC. pyramid of energy

B. food web

A. food chain

h i h


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Pyramid of Energy

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

0.1% Consumers

1% Consumers

10% Consumers

100%

Producers

The answer is C. Thepyramid of energy

shows energy available.Organisms at eachtrophic level use someenergy in food for

metabolism and someis given off as heat. Thetotal amount of energyremains the same in

accordance with thelaw of conservation ofenergy.


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Question 5

Compare the amount of energy available inthe biosphere to the amount of matter here.

h d


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Both energy and matter areconserved: they may be

transformed, but are notdestroyed. However, sunlightis the primary source of all the

energy utilized and transferredin the biosphere. It is alwaysbeing replenished by the sun.

In contrast, there is a finite amount of matter inthe biosphere, which is cycled and notreplenished.


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Question 6

Which of the following does not cycle intothe atmosphere?

D. water

C. carbon

B. nitrogen

A. phosphorus


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The answer is A. Phosphorus moves between the

living and nonliving parts of the environment, butdoes not enter the atmosphere as a gas.

Phosphate enters


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Rain washes phosphatesfrom the land.

Phosphate weathersfrom rock.

Animalwastes

Plantwastes

Soil decomposers act onplant and animal wastes.

Short-term Cycle Long-term Cycle

Phosphatesreleasedinto soil,.

Phosphates becomeavailable for plants

again.

Phosphatesleach intostreams fromsoil.

Decaying materialscontaining

phosphates settleout into streamsand oceans.

Geologicprocess ofuplifting occursover millions ofyears.

Phosphate entersstreams and oceansfrom weatheringrocks, runoff, andleaching, from soil.

New rockforms fromsedimentation.Phosphate

becomeslocked inrocks.


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Question 7

Which type of organism consumes both plantand animal products?

D. omnivore

C. predator

B. carnivore

A. herbivore


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The answer is D.

Humans areomnivores and eat avariety of foods thatinclude both plantand animal materials.The figure showsrecommended food

servings for goodhealth.


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Question 8

Which of the following relationships is anexample of mutualism?

B. orchids aided by growing on large plantsneither harming nor benefiting the larger

plants

A. Ants feeding on nectar of acacia trees while

protecting the trees from other animals.


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Question 8

Which of the following relationships is anexample of mutualism?

D. lions preying on zebras

C. ticks obtaining nutrients from a host animal


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The answer is A. Ants and acacia trees both

benefit from living in close association.


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Question 9

Compare a niche to a population.

Answer

A population is a group of organisms of thesame species that live in the same place at thesame time. A niche is the role a species has in

its environment, and includes all its interactionswith biotic and abiotic parts of its habitat.

Q ti 10


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Question 10

How does water on Earth's surface get backinto the atmosphere?

Precipitation

Evaporation

Runoff

Groundwater

TranspirationEvaporation

Condensation

Oceans


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Photo Credits


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Corbis

Digital Stock

Harris Biological Supplies, LTD

NOAA

PhotoDisc

Alton Biggs

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