Chapter 8: Motivation Learning Theories

Denise Perkins

Anni Mizuta

Betty Krygsheld

What’s our motivation?

Personal Outcomes: Denise Perkins

My interest in this chapter relates to motivating under achievers and at risk high school students.

I am interested in learning new methods of motivating students to love to learn and to look at new ways to help them set realistic goals.

I would like to acquire tools that will stimulate or create the students intrinsic desire to succeed.

What’s our motivation?

Personal Outcomes: Anni Mizuta

These are a few questions that drove me to want to pursue this chapter on motivational theory.

– Why are some students driven to learn and persistent when facing challenges and others give up?

– What motivates students – are students who come from an “at risk” background or are learning disabled any different than “normal” students? What causes that perception that they are different?

– What are the biggest factors that affect motivation & how can I adapt my classroom and curriculum to created a “learning environment”?

What’s our motivation?

Personal Outcomes: Betty Krygsheld

I chose to review this chapter – because I am interested in moving students from

the idea of learning for extrinsic reasons----grades—praise---and toward the intrinsic reasons that we see so prevalent in young children.

– because I am curious about the child who sets high unattainable goals—only to fail.

MotivationIntroduction

Motivation to learn is acquired "through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)."

- Jere Brophy, 1987

MotivationIntroduction

At First… Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment.

"Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler

is unmotivated.“

- Raffini, 1993

Over time… Unfortunately, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery instead of delight. A large number of students--more than one in four--leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the experience of learning.

Motivating InfluencesAt Home

Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning.

Children raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning.

Children that do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished.

Motivating InfluencesAt School

Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures.

The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.

Motivating Influences The Teacher

The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence. - Raffini

"To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn." - Stipeck, 1988

Historical Perspectives

Drive theory Need-> Drive->Behavior

Conditioning Theory Reinforcement beliefs ->Human Motivation

Cognitive Consistency TheoryCognitive + Behaviors->motivation

Balance TheoryIndividuals + situation + events -> cognitive balance

Historical PerspectivesHumanistic Theory

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the four lower levels are grouped together as deficiency needs associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed growth needs associated with psychological needs.

While deficiency needs must be met, growth needs are the need for personal growth.

The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus once all the needs that are lower down in the pyramid are mainly or entirely satisfied.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Achievement Motivation

Achievement Motivation: "the generalized tendency to strive for success and choose goal oriented, success/failure activities," and it is developed early in life. - Slavin, 2006

New Ideas:

– Psychological needs as well as physiological needs impact motivation.

– Individual differences are seen in a person’s psychological make up as compared to one’s physiological make up. Thus individual needs must be met.

– Individuals specific needs are acquired over time and can be shaped.

Achievement MotivationMurray: Theory of Psycogenic Needs (1938)

Murray focused on an individual’s psychological needs as they relate to motivation. His research focused on 3 important needs:

– Dominance: the need to be in control of the situation and others– Affiliation: the need to form friendships– Achievement: the need to meet or exceed standards

Devised the TAT test to measure the strength of the dominance, affiliation, and achievement needs in individual

– Weaknesses: TAT test suffers from problems that include low reliability and low correlation with other achievement measures – Schunk, pg 342

Achievement MotivationMcClelland: Theory of Needs (1953)

McClelland furthered Murray’s work in several

ways: – Adapted the TAT test to specifically test for achievement

motivation.– Posited that, while all people have achievement motivation,

some people have a higher achievement motivation.– Identified the characteristics of high achievers and believed

that people could be taught to achieve

Achievement MotivationInstructional Implications

To develop a high sense of achievement the teacher

must: – Encourage their children to attempt difficult but realistic

tasks.– Reward and praise the child when success is achieved.– Not complain or punish when the child fails, but encourage

the child to try again or try another method. - Morris,1995

Achievement Motivation Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)

What determines a student’s achievement motivation? – Achievement behaviors are determined by achievement motives,

expectancies for success, and incentive values. - Wigfield, Tonks, Eccles, 2004

expectancy for success = an individual’s perception of their probability for success

incentive for success = the desirability of success in a task versus the probability of success

work 18 hours/day

Achievement Motivation Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)

• Expectancy Value = conflict between hope for success and fear of failure.

Ts= MsX Ps X IsT = tendency to approach an achievement related goal

M = motivated to succeed

P = probability of success

I = incentive value of success

• People will be motivated to achieve the task they value and that they believe they can achieve - Schunk, 2004

Achievement MotivationInstructional Implications

• Students must engage in work that is meaningful, but is gauged to their developmental level so as to reduce the fear of failure.

• The task must not be too easy because this reduces the satisfaction or value of the task.

• Repeated success builds the perception of competence.

• Self efficacy increases the likelihood of a student choosing to move on to more difficult tasks.

• Modify the environment - it must be positive with regard to education and point to the value of each educational domain.

Achievement MotivationContemporary Views: Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk

What shapes our expectancy of success and our valuing of a task?

• Task specific self concepts: an individuals perception of their ability in a specific domain

• “I’m just no good at math”

• Task difficulty: the individual's perception of the difficulty.

• Tasks have value to an individual because of • The importance of doing well on the task

• The task is of interest to the individual

• The tasks have value relative to future goals

• Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk believe these perceptions are shaped by the environment

Achievement MotivationInstructional Implications: Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk

Children’s expectancies for success and valuing of achievement are influenced by their previous performance.

– set reasonable goals that ensure likely success Variations in classroom environments influence children’s

expectancies and values in positive and negative ways.– strive to reflect positively on the study of all domains.– challenge the student to evaluate their progress in terms of previous

performance. – avoid putting students into situations (usually competitive) in which the

student judges his ability in terms of how it compares to others There are gender differences in children’s beliefs and values about

different activities that tend to conform to gender stereotypes.– classrooms should be free of stereotypes

Attribution Theory

Attribution Theory: explains how people view the causes of their behavior and outcomes

Attributions are: learner’s perceived causes of outcomes based on various factors including - ability, effort, task, luck, emotions, behavior

* see table 8.2, Schunk, pg 355

Attribution Theory cont. Locus of Control & Naïve Analysis

OUTCOME = personal force + environmental factors

internal external

power motivation

(abilities) (persistence)

External Factors: outcomes independent of behavior

Internal Factors: outcomes contingent on behavior

Attribution Theory cont. Instructional Implications

What we know: learner’s outcome expectancy

& feeling of control drives behavior, actions and engagement

^ pride when successful &

outcomes are attributed to an internal cause

Generally girls attribute success to effort & boys to ability

- Howe, Anne (1998)

What to Do: Use credible positive effort

feedback * see app. 8.4, Schunk, pg 358

Link low achievement to low effort NOT low ability

Create an environment that rewards effort, not competitive ability

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory: Motivation is goal directed and influenced by expectations, efficacy & attributions

“People will act in ways they believe

will help attain their goals” - Schunk, 2004

Social Comparison: process of comparing ourselves to others – If model & observer are similar can improve confidence & motivation

if successful OR can de-motivate if fail * Until about grade 5 students will not automatically compare and link

success/failure to motivation and learning

Social Cognitive TheoryInstructional Implications

Create achievable short term goals to increase self efficacy

Use natural social comparison for motivation and effort– remember student models must:

be perceived as having similar attributes to observers succeed at given task

Goal Theory

Performance Goal: focused on completing a task

Can lead to social comparisons & low perception of ability if experience difficulty

Avoid challenges/select easier task No persistence with mistakes Often has negative effect If task is difficult will attribute failure to task

not effort - Huitt, 2001

Goal Orientations: how different types of goals can affect behavior in achievement settings

Learning Goal: focused on knowledge, behavior or skill

wish to acquire

Focus attention on process and strategies to achieve goal

Often choose more challenging task Self regulation strategies are used

to stay on task and towards goal Student feels more self efficacy Keeps high expectations for

success

Goal TheoryConceptions of Ability

Goal orientation is related to one’s theory aboutone’s idea if intelligence changes over time

Entity Theory: intelligence is fixed, stable and doesn’t change over time or with conditions

– Effort helps reach one’s limit– Difficulties are viewed as obstacles leading to low self efficacy and ineffective

strategies Incremental Theory: equate intelligence with learning

– Can increase with experience, effort and learning– No real “limit” to intelligence– Difficulties are seen as challenges and can raise self efficacy – More likely to adopt learning goals

Goal TheoryInstructional Implications

Create collaborative work activities – task orientation fosters idea that success is based on effort

and teamwork NOT ability

Female vs. Male feedback – Be more specific with girls about how efforts are promoting

performance and abilities

Help students set learning goals – Don’t stress completion, early finishing – Do stress practice reasons, new skills, re-checking work

Perceptions of ControlControl Beliefs

People who believe they can control what they learn are more likely to than those that have a low sense of control over their actions.

3 types of perceived control Strategy Beliefs: expectations about factors that influence success at

school “to get good grades I’ll work hard”

Capacity Beliefs: personal capabilities“I can’t work hard in school”

Control Beliefs: expectations about doing well that aren’t associated to specific means

“I can do well in school if I want to”

Perceptions of Control Learned Helplessness

Students with learned helplessness feel as if they have nocontrol over their surroundings and their education therefore,causing them to simply give up and withdraw themselves from

situations which they may not succeed (Sasser, 2007).

Helpless Views: Personal - they see themselves as the problem Pervasive - all aspects of their life are effected by the problem Permanent - the problem can not be fixed No Connection – don’t connect cause with outcome

* Note: this can occur in all, some or only one class

Perceptions of Control Learned Helplessness

Who’s at risk? Learning Disabled students are at high risk

– Low self efficacy– Failures attributed to external causes or low ability

Student’s who are more performance oriented & believe in entity theory of intelligence

Student’s who fail many subjects or classes – Repeated failures only add to the helpless cycle

Student’s with low reading ability – Competency in reading is required in many subjects to if viewed as low reader can affect more

then reading class

Perceptions of Control Learned Helplessness – Instructional Implications

What to do: From: Schunk, Sasser & Huitt

Use attributional feedback Give tasks that can be accomplished Set achievable goals Think about how you create collaborative groups Use discovery teaching methods or inquiry

techniques to gain student interest and motivation

Self-Concept

Self-concept: collective self-perceptions- from experiencesand reinforcements & evaluations from others.

Includes: self-esteem & self-confidence

Resembles self efficacy, and so is believed to be related to learning

– due to it’s variable nature, there is no concrete research on how self-concept is related to learning

– many of the suggestions for motivation and attributions will apply to building self-concept

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: – The desire to engage in activities because they are inherently

pleasurable, regardless of external contingencies - Education Encyclopedia

– Involves a desire to engage in an activity for no obvious reward except task engagement itself - Deci, 1975

Examples:– “Young children reach out and grab an object, turn it over and push it

away in an effort to control it” - Schunk, 2004

– The 4 year old who is full of “whys” - he is trying to understand the world around him.

– My son playing computer games - he is trying to control the world.

Intrinsic MotivationVariety of Researcher’s Hypothesis

Why are individuals intrinsically motivated?– Control theory: All human beings are born with five basic needs: survival,

love, power, fun, and freedom. All human behavior is motivated by attempts to satisfy those needs. - Glasser, 1985

– Self determination: All individuals have a need for competence and self determination. – Deci, 1980

– Effectance Motivation: All individuals have a need to interact with their environment. – White, 1959

– Mastery motivation: Children gain mastery skills by observing social models. The skills are internalized and become self-rewarding. – Harter, 1978

– Humans, as they interact with their environment, note an incongruity between prior experiences and new experiences. Individuals are intrinsically motivated to reduce the incongruity. – Hunt 1963

Intrinsic MotivationInstructional Implications

Can intrinsic motivation be fostered in all students regardless of age? YES!!!

schoolwork should be meaningful & relevant to the student– students should be empowered by giving them choice in their assignments

extrinsic motivators can be used to teach a concept until that concept has been internalized

– intrinsic motivation is maintained only when students feel self-determined & the human strives to act on his own volition

set learning goals & provide feedback in a way that fosters self-efficacy

– use self reflection in an effort to promote self efficacy

Intrinsic MotivationInstructional Implications

Don’t diminish intrinsic motivation!

Intrinsic motivation is undermined when teachers structure an intrinsically interesting activity in a way that focuses on obtaining extrinsic rewards.

Extrinsic rewards are task oriented. Students work intrinsically when the reward comes from working on the task.

Expected, tangible rewards offered to students for simply doing a task diminishes intrinsic motivation. - Schunk, 2004

Motivation and Self regulation

Motivation is linked to self regulation– Individuals motivated to reach their goals engage in self

regulatory activities

motivation + self regulatory activities -> learning + attaining goals

Volition Mind =cognitionFeeling = emotionWilling = motivation (ones desire, want, purpose)

* Volition is the act of using the will

Motivation and Self regulationVolition Control Strategies (Schunk, pg 385)

Motivation Control

Set competencies Escalate goals by prioritizing their

value Make work fun and challenging Planning to achieve goal Self instruct Analyze failure and redirect for

second try

Emotional Control

Count to 10 in your head Control breathing Generate diversions Visualize success Recall strengths Create ways to eliminate negative

feelings

Motivation and Self regulationSelf Schemas

Self Schema: Cognitive manifestation of enduring goals, aspirations, motives,

fears & threats – concepts of ourselves in different situations

– mediates the link between situations & behavior

Organized knowledge structure with multiple links and multiple goals

Possible self - what one might become

Motivation and Self regulationHelp Seeking

Help seeking:

a complex activity that includes more than a verbal request for assistance

Students who are task oriented and have higher self efficacy are more apt to seek help to determine their correctness

Different motivational patterns will promote

different help seeking strategies

Pearls - what to remember…

General Strategies Help students find personal meaning and value in the material. Make students active participants in learning. Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more or less

"motivating."

Incorporate Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students Hold high but realistic expectations for your students. Help students set achievable goals for themselves Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course. Be enthusiastic about your subject.

Pearls - what to remember…

Structure the Course to Motivate Students Work from students' strengths and interests. Vary your teaching methods. Connect learning with student needs.

De-emphasize Grades Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades. Avoid using grades as threats. Focus on effort, not ability.

Pearls - what to remember…

Motivate Students by Responding to Their Work Give students feedback as quickly as possible. Reward success & effort. Be specific when giving negative feedback. Feedback needs to be credible and based on latest efforts and

achievements.

Create a “learning” environment Help students set learning goals. Don’t stress getting tasks “done”, rather stress learning happening

during the task. Use collaboration & social motivation to motivate.

References

Alker, Henry (1969). A comparison of the Atkinson-McClelland and Kogan-Wallach formulations. Journal of Personality.37 Issue 2 . 207

Brophy, Jere. ON MOTIVATING STUDENTS. Occasional Paper No. 101. East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University, October 1987. 73 pages. ED 276 724.

Glasser, William. The Quality School. New York: Harper & Row. 1990.

Graham, S.(2007) Motivation - instruction, self-regulated learning. Retrieved July 19,2007, from http://education.stateuniversity.com/

Howe, A. (1998). Adolescents’ Motivation, Behavior and Achievement in Science. Retrieved July 22, 2007 from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/Adolescent.cfm

Huitt, W. (2001). Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved July 22, 2007 from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html

Ormond, Jeanne Ellis. (2003). "Educational Psychology: Developing Learners" Fourth Edition. Merrill Prentice Hall.

Raffini, James. WINNERS WITHOUT LOSERS: STRUCTURES AND STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING STUDENT MOTIVATION TO LEARN. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993. 286 pages.

Sasser, A. (2006) Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Chapter 7 Supplemental Materials. Retrieved July 18, 2007 from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education

 

References

Schunk, Dale H. (2004 Learning theories An educational perspective. New Jersey:Pearson Education, Inc.

Slavin R.E. (2007) Slavin on-line glossary. Retrieved July 19,2007, from http://www.abacon.com/slavin/vocab.html

Spevak, P. A., Ph.D. & Karinch. (2000). "Empowering Underachievers" First Edition. New Horizon Press.

Stipek, Deborah. MOTIVATION TO LEARN: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988. 178 pages.

Sternberg, Robert J. (1990) Pathways to psychology. Harcourt College Publishers.

Wigfield, A. Tonks, S. & Eccles, J.S. (2004). Expectancy-value theory in cross-cultural perspective. Retrieved July 19 2007, from education.umd.edu/EDHD/.../Wigfield/Wigfield__Tonks__Eccles__2004_.pdf

Wikpedia 2007 Photo David McClelland 21:40, 18 March 2006 . . MSchnitzler2000 . . 167×215 (19,825 bytes) (the American psychologist David McClelland "Copyright (c) 2005 by Cruise Scientific.